Republic of the Philippines

Cagayan State University

www.csu.edu.ph

COLLEGE of HOSPITALITY MANAGEMENT

FUNDAMENTAL OF FOOD SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

Unit 1: BASIC CONCEPTS IN FOOD SCIENCE AND PRESERVATION (18 hours)

Introduction:

Food science is a knowledge area that not only focuses on our nutritional needs, but
solves many food related challenges. Preservation of food has been a cornerstone of
self-sufficiency and survival. Early on, folks would have times of plenty and times of
scarcity. The need to stretch the times of abundance into the times of shortage was
the catalyst for early man discovering and perfecting methods of preserving food. As
years progressed and technology developed, these methods adapted to the modern
days. The method shifted from an art into a highly interdisciplinary science. Food
preservation requires the steps taken to preserve as long as possible the foods with the
desired properties.

In this unit, let’s take a look at the development of food science through the years and
discuss what the future holds.

Learning Outcomes:

At the end of this unit, I, as a student, should be able to:

1. Identify the different roles of food scientist in providing the needs of the food industry
2. Describe how each food component affects food quality and characteristics;
3. Apply scientific ways in preventing food spoilage.
4. Use food additives correctly.
5. Practice proper handling and storage of raw ingredients from post-harvest, post
slaughter, and pre-processing operations.
6. Realize the importance of beneficial microorganisms and apply ways of preventing their
multiplication.
7. Apply the basic concepts of Food Preservation and Food Processing.

Topic 1: Brief History of Food Science and Technology

Learning Objectives:
At the end of the topic, I, as a student, should be able to:
1. Trace the development of food science;
2. Relate the importance of food science as a discipline by revisiting its origins and
development;
3. Compare food science before and today; and
3. List the different roles of food scientists in providing the needs of the food industry.

Let’s Learn

Food Science is the application of the basic sciences and engineering to study the
fundamental physical, chemical, and biochemical nature of foods and the pr inciples
of food processing. Food technology is the use of the information generated by food
science in the selection, preservation, processing, packaging, and distribution to
produce safe, nutritious and wholesome food.

Tracing the Roots

From the Beginning

The history of food science began when humans transitioned from nomads to farmers.
This led to practices such as growing fruit, cattle domestication, and agriculture, which
helped our ancestors survive through difficult times.

The growth of the human population and advancement in civilization led to the first
processed foods due to a need for a longer shelf life. People needed to be able to
store food when it was less abundant. It also helped to make food safer. Early forms of
processed food, such as bread and wine, were favorable because they lasted longer.

As food production expanded, food safety was key to preventing widespread illness
among populations. With the advent of technology, we have relatively safe food
supply today, but historically only royalty had access to high quality food.

Nicolas Appert’s food preservation method was undoubtedly the invention that marked
a turning point in the science of food, allowing for its further growth and industrialization.
Appert is known as the father of canning, since he developed the first canning methods
that successfully preserved foods such as soups, vegetables, juices, and dairy products.

Food Science Today

Food Science and research in the field as we know them today were marked with the
birth of university programs focused on this area. Subjects such as engineering,
chemistry, physics, and biology are all integrated into the food science major and
support the cultivation of food scientists.

The founding of the Institute of Food Technologist (IFT) in 1939 has been very important
in fostering the growth and development of the field of food science. The organization
brings together scientists from more than 100 different countries with varying disciplines.
It promotes the field of food science through communication, outreach, and
networking events. The institute created a dynamic forum where individual countries
can collaborate, learn, and grow, transforming scientific knowledge into innovative
solutions for the benefit of the people around the world.

Science and Industry

Food science is crucial to the success of the food industry, helping to develop
thousands of products that make life better for today’s consumer. Many companies
consider research in this field a profitable investment. Through food science, consumers
are able to experience varied food products from all over the world anytime of the
year.

A Hopeful Future
Incredibly, the moon and space have already been conquered by food science
several decades ago when scientists had to figure out how to keep astronaut food
safe. Going forward, we should aim to better inform the consumer about the products
and processes we create, develop environmentally friendly processes, and continue to
create functional products.

Food science is vast and limitless. We must all learn from the past so we can look
toward a brighter future as there is much more to discover in the field of food science!

Food Science Timeline

Visit the link https://prezi.com/tsbinhlyrvr_/food-science-timeline/?fallback=1 and trace

the development of food science.

Topic 2: Branches of Food Science and the Importance of the Food Industry

Learning Objectives

At the end of the topic, you should be able to:

1. Identify important fields in the study of food science.
2. Identify the objectives and characteristics of Food Industry;
3. List the risks of the food industry; and
4. Enumerate some benefits of the food industry

Let’s Learn

The science of food or food science is a discipline which studies chemical, biological,
physical and other processes that have an influence on food’s safety, flavor,
appearance, etc. But it is also interested in other food-related practices and activities
including design, packaging, new product development, optimization of food
manufacturing processes and other similar issues.

The main goal of food science is to ensure that food products on store shelves are safe,
tasty and nutritious. But in the recent years, food scientists have also started to pay
more attention to informing and educating the public about the importance of proper
food handling, storage and processing. The aim is to reduce the incidence of food-
borne illnesses and help consumers prepare tasty meals that are packed with vitamins,
minerals and other essential nutrients.

Disciplines Used by Food Science

Food science is a broad discipline which contains within it many specializations. In
order to achieve its goals, food science relies on a variety of disciplines and sub-
disciplines including:

1. Food chemistry. To study the effects of various factors on food and its safety, food
scientists must be very knowledgeable in chemistry. It enables them to determine which
packaging materials are the safest, how long particular food products are safe to eat,
how to extend their shelf life, what is the effect of particular processing methods on
food taste and nutritional value, etc. Food Chemistry covers the basic composition,
structure, and properties of foods and the chemistry of changes occurring during
processing and utilization.

2. Food microbiology. Like its name suggests, this discipline is primarily focused on
microorganisms that are responsible for food spoilage and in particular, microorganisms
that can pose a threat to human health. However, scientists who specialize in this
discipline also study microorganisms that have a positive effect on human health such
as probiotics for instance and those that are essential for food production. One of the
best examples is the use of mold spores in the production of cheese. Food Microbiology
is the study of the microbial ecology related to foods, the effect of environment on
food spoilage and food manufacture, the physical, chemical, and biological
destruction of microorganisms in foods, the microbiological examination of food stuffs,
and public health and sanitation microbiology

3. Food engineering. This is a very broad discipline which encompasses everything from
food production to things such as processing and packaging. In addition to developing
methods and techniques to make food safer, tastier and more nutritious, food
engineers also play an important role in fields such as optimization of production
processes with an aim to reduce the costs of production on the one hand and increase
the sales on the other. Food Engineering involves study of engineering concepts and
unit operations used in food processing. Engineering principles should include material
and energy balances, thermodynamics, fluid flow, and heat and mass transfer.

4. Food Analysis deals with the principles, methods, and techniques necessary for
quantitative physical and chemical analyses of food products and ingredients. The
analyses should be related to the standards and regulations for food processing

5. Food Processing covers general characteristics of raw food materials; principles of

food preservation, processing factors which influence quality, packaging, water and
waste management, and good manufacturing practices and sanitation procedures. •

6. Other Disciplines that are vital for the science of food also include food technology,
quality control, product development, sensory analysis and food preservation, to
mention just a few.

Characteristics of Food Industry

A simple definition of food processing is the conversion of raw materials or ingredients

into a consumer food product. A more complete definition of commercial food
processing is defined as that branch of manufacturing that starts with raw materials and
transform them into intermediate foodstuff or edible product through the application of
labor, machinery, energy and scientific knowledge.

The food industry is the largest industry in the world, which are the complex, collective
of so many businesses that contribute the supply of the food energy for world
population. The food processing industry employs in excess of 1.5 million or more than
employees in the entire manufacturing sector.

Recent statistics indicates that food processing is among the industries with the largest
magnitude of “value added” when compared to other industries associated with
manufacturing. The major categories under food products include meat products,
dairy products, canned and preserved fruits and vegetables, grain mill products,
bakery products, sugar and confectionery products, fats and oils, beverages and
miscellaneous food preparations.

The foundation of the modern industry was built up with the introduction of machinery
and technology of new methods from Germany. Different type of food processing
have been practiced since ancient period in which people were familiar of the
processes such as slaughtering, fermenting, sun drying, preserving with salt and various
types of cooking such as roasting, smoking, steaming and oven baking.

Salt preservation was especially common for food that constituted warrior and sailor’s
diets, up until the introduction of canning methods. Nowadays, manufacturing
technology of food, process control, packaging environmental facilities have become
more advanced because of the advancement of food science, general introduction
of quality hygienics, applied microbiology, mechanical engineering, chemical
engineering, electronic engineering and high-polymer technology.

Objectives of Food Industry

The major aim of the food industry are:
1. Extend shelf life. To extend the period during which a food remains wholesome by
preservation techniques which inhibit microbiological or biochemical changes and thus
allow time for distribution, sales and home storage.

2. Eating Quality. To increase variety in the diet by providing a range of attractive

colors, varied flavors, aromas and textures in food.

3. Nutritional Quality. To provide added nutrients the body needs.

4. Income Generate. Production of processed food provides additional income for the
family or the manufacturing company.
Risks of Food Industry
Although a nutritious and adequate food supply is vital to human survival, it can also
pose a health risk from food borne illnesses. Safety measures and risk indicators are
regulated by many different government agencies which regulate food safety from
production, distribution, handling.
Food safety is a worldwide issue affecting hundreds of millions of people who suffer from
diseases caused by contaminated food. The World Health Organization calls it “one of
the most widespread health problems and an important cause of reduced economic
productivity.”

What brings about risks in the food processing industry are as follows:

1. Thermal Effect on Food

During thermal processing, some undesirable changes take place in food such as loss
of vitamins, proteins, amino acids, polyunsaturated fats etc. This causes the nutritional
quality of foods.

2. Entry of Toxic Substances in Food

Another global food risk is radioactivity in the food system. These radioactive isotopes
remain in food even after they are processed. Please visit
https://www.health.harvard.edu/cancer/eating-highly-processed-foods-may-raise-
cancer-risk for the detailed discussion of the health risks of processed foods.

3. Presence of toxic substances in the raw materials- plants and animals

Natural food components namely mycotoxin, enterotoxin, alkaloids, veterinary drugs
etc., may contaminate the food.

4. Microbiological Risks
One great risk in the food industry is microbial contamination. The presence of harmful
bacteria, yeasts, molds and fungi may cause serious illnesses to humans.

5. Food Additives and Preservatives

Food additives and preservatives are intentionally added to food to prolong shelf life
and to add flavor, however there are some people who are allergic to these and may
cause harm to the person.

6. Improper Handling and Poor Sanitation

When foods are improperly handled and stored, coupled by poor hygiene and
sanitation of the food handler, food may be contaminated.
 Republic of the Philippines
Cagayan State University
www.csu.edu.ph

COLLEGE of HOSPITALITY MANAGEMENT

FUNDAMENTAL OF FOOD SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

Topic 2. Food Components Affecting Food Quality

https://www.slideserve.com/aideen/organic-vs-inorganic-compounds https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/vitamin-b1-thiamine-structural-chemical-formula-
1429892906

The chemistry of food and its components is crucial in food processing. Let us see how
the following food composition impacts our products and the end users.

Learning objectives:

At the end of the topic, I, as a student, should be able to :

1. Summarize the effects of food components to processing; and
2. Apply the science of food in the preparation of selected processed food
products.

Let’s Learn:
. 1. Water
The lower the moisture content, the longer the shelf life of food. This is the general
principle we know of water.

Water is one of the most important factors controlling the rate of deterioration of food,
by either microbial or nonmicrobial effects. Throughout history man has controlled the
water activity of food through drying, addition of salt or sugar and freezing such that
the food becomes stable to microbial and chemical deterioration. Food manufacturers
today have the same goal of making a stable and safe product. This means that the
products must be wholesome and not endanger the health of the consumer with
microorganisms or their toxins.

Water activity (aw) is used for the preservation of food, stabilization of the food supply,
and developing different types of shelf‐stable foods. Reduction of water activity in
foods prevents the growth of vegetative microbial cells, germination of spores, and
toxin production by molds and bacteria. A decrease in water activity increases the lag
phase of microorganisms and decreases the growth rate. The water activity can also
be reduced by using three basic methods, namely dehydration, crystallization, and
addition of solutes. Inadequate hygienic conditions during drying, transport, and
storage can cause contamination by molds, which can result in the formation of
mycotoxins.
 2. Carbohydrates

In the food industry, both fast-releasing and slow-releasing carbohydrates are utilized to
give foods a wide spectrum of functional attributes, including increased sweetness,
viscosity, bulk, coating ability, solubility, consistency, texture, body, and browning
capacity. The differences in chemical structure between the different carbohydrates
confer their varied functional uses in foods. Starches, gums, and pectins are used as
thickening agents in making jam, cakes, cookies, noodles, canned products, imitation
cheeses, and a variety of other foods. Molecular gastronomists use slow-releasing
carbohydrates, such as alginate, to give shape and texture to their fascinating food
creations. Adding fiber to foods increases bulk. Simple sugars are used not only for
adding sweetness, but also to add texture, consistency, and browning. In ice cream,
the combination of sucrose and corn syrup imparts sweetness as well as a glossy
appearance and smooth texture. Added sugars include white, brown, and raw sugar,
corn syrup, HFCS, malt and maple syrups, liquid fructose, honey, molasses, agave
nectar, and crystal dextrose.

Foods rich in carbohydrates are best for fermentation.

What Happens to Carbohydrates on Processing

1. Maillard reactions

Non-enzymatic browning reactions (Maillard reactions) occur between reducing sugars

(carbohydrate) and amino groups (proteins) in foods at processing and in storage.
These reactions are temperature dependent and most extensive at intermediate water
activities. They are important nutritionally as they may diminish the bioavailability of
amino acids, especially lysine, thus diminishing the protein nutritional value. The
carbohydrate content and availability is influenced only marginally.

When a non-reducing disaccharide such as sucrose is replaced by, for example, high
fructose corn syrup containing glucose and fructose, Maillard reactions occur much
more rapidly and extensively. This has to be kept in mind in selecting processing
procedures and storage conditions.

2. Starch - heat-induced effects

a. Gelatinization

You are familiar with lugaw or porridge, and for sure, you have tried cooking this recipe.
During heating, water is first absorbed in the amorphous space of starch, which leads to
a swelling of the rice. Water then enters via amorphous regions into the tightly bound
areas of the amylopectin component of the starch. Heat causes such regions to
become diffuse, the amylose chains begin to dissolve, to separate into
an amorphous form and the number and size of crystalline regions decreases.
Penetration of water thus increases the randomness in the starch granule structure, and
causes swelling; eventually amylose molecules leach into the surrounding water and
the granule structure disintegrates. What you now produce is a thick lugaw. The
temperature range during which the crystalline structure of the starch granule is lost is
dependent on the water content, and on the type of starch, that is, the greater the
amylopectin, the more gelatinous the porridge. The gelatinization dramatically
increases the availability of starch for digestion by amylolytic enzymes.

Usually, the starch granules are not completely dissolved during food processing, and a
food can be regarded as a dispersion in which starch granules and/or granular
remnants constitute the dispersed phase. The degree of gelatinization achieved by
most commonly used food processes, however, is sufficient to permit the starch to be
rapidly digested. Consequently, even food processes which result in a low degree of
gelatinization (e.g. steaming and flaking of cereals), produces a postprandial blood
glucose and insulin increment similar to that with completely gelatinized foods.

Gelatinization improves the availability of starch for amylase hydrolysis. So gelatinization

of starch is used constantly in cooking to make the starch digestible or to thicken/bind
water in roux, sauce, or soup.

b. Retrogradation

Let us see what happens when the lugaw is cooled.

The gelatinized starch, when cooled for a long enough period, say for hours or days, will
thicken or gel and rearrange itself again to a more crystalline structure; this process is
called retrogradation. There is a a progressive re-association of the starch molecules
upon aging . The retrogradation of the amylopectin component is a long-term
phenomena occurring gradually upon storage of starchy foods. Constituents or food
additives such as proteins, lipids, carbohydrates, and salts play a significant role in
inhibiting the retrogradation of starchy foods.

c. Par-boiling

During par-boiling of rice, the kernels are subjected to a pre-treatment involving

heating and drying. This process reduces the stickiness of the rice, possibly by allowing
leached amylose to retrograde and/or form inclusion complexes with polar lipids on the
kernel surface. Parboiling also affects the final cooking properties of the rice.

Parboiling improves nutritional value and results to different pasting properties that can
make unique rice ingredients.

d. Starch - texturization

In pasta products, gluten forms a viscoelastic network that surrounds the starch
granules, which restricts swelling and leaching during boiling. Pasta extrusion is known to
result in products where the starch is slowly digested and absorbed. The slow-release
features of starch in pasta probably relates to the continuous glutinous phase. This not
only restricts swelling, but possibly also results in a more gradual release of the starch
substrate for enzymatic digestion. Pasta is now generally acknowledged as a low
glycemic index food suitable in the diabetic diet. However, it should be noted that
canning of pasta importantly increases the enzymic availability of starch, and hence
the glycemic response.

e. Dextrinization

Dextrinization is the process involving the browning of starch foods when subjected to
dry heat. It is defined as the breakdown of starch into dextrins and it is a non-enzymatic
browning and chemical change which is easily digested as partial breakdown is
complete. Toasting flour when making Polvoron and toasting of bread are examples of
dextrinization. The dextrinized product decreases the gelatinization property of the
carbohydrate.

The Role of Sugar in the Food Industry

The word “sugar” brings to mind the white crystals that make our lives sweeter.
However, sugars are not only used as sweeteners but have important technological
functions in foods, providing texture, bulk, color and acting as preservative.

Sugars are naturally present in fruits and vegetables (sucrose, glucose and fructose),
honey (fructose and glucose), as well as in milk and dairy products (lactose and
galactose) and to a lesser extent in cereals (maltose). The main sugar used in our
kitchens is sucrose (table sugar), which is composed of the two sugars, glucose and
fructose. Sucrose is extracted with water from sugar cane and sugar beet, where it is
present in large quantities. It comes as white and brown sugar. White sugar is available
in different types of granulated sugar. Brown sugar retains some of the molasses, which
imparts characteristic flavours and colours.

Technological applications:

1. Sweetener

White and brown crystalline sugars are used as sweeteners in home cooking and the
food industry. Powdered sugars are used as icing sugar in baking and confectionery.
Sugar syrups are used in beverages or as a base for fruit sauces, toppings and flavored
syrups. Sugars are also used to counter acidic and bitter tastes in tomato sauces,
mayonnaise or in medical syrups.

2. Texture, volume and moisture

Sugars play a major role in defining the bulk and texture of foods. For example, sugars
provide volume to cakes and biscuits. The combination of sugar with a gelling agent
(e.g. pectin) is responsible for the jelly texture of jams. In baked products sugar
increases the starch gelatinization temperature, trapping air bubbles and delivering a
light texture to cakes. Sugars also provide the base for yeast fermentation (e.g. in rising
bread). Sugar is a humectant (binds water), which is important in food preservation and
also affects texture. Sugars also reduce the freezing point, important for producing
softer ice creams, and increase the boiling point, which is important in manufacture of
sweets.
 3. Colour

Sugars are responsible for the development of the brown color of many cooked foods,
through two processes: the Maillard reaction and caramelization. The golden-brown
crust of baked products, such as biscuits and toasted bread, is due to the Maillard
reaction, occurring under heat between sugars (predominantly glucose and fructose)
and amino acids (proteins). In caramelization, sugars (mainly sucrose, glucose and
fructose) are broken down under heat, producing new molecules which provide color
and flavor, e.g. in products like caramel sauce and caramelized fruits and sweets.

4. Food preservation

Sugars are also important in food preservation. Marmalades, syrupy fruit desserts,
candied fruits and other delicacies were born out of the historical need to preserve
fresh produce. The high sugar content prevents microbial growth and spoilage by
increasing the osmotic pressure, which limits microbial growth and makes these foods
last longer.

Sugars are also at the heart of alcoholic fermentation, i.e. the conversion of sugars to
ethanol (alcohol) by yeasts, which is used to make alcoholic beverages. Sugars
contained in grapes, grains, honey and fruits are used in the production of wine, beer
and whisky, mead and ciders respectively.

In light of the high prevalence of obesity and overweight, public health efforts are
aimed at reducing the number of calories people consume, including reducing
the energy density (calories per gram) of processed foods by decreasing total fats and
carbohydrates, including sugar. Food and beverage companies are responding to
public health policies by reformulating food and drinks and reducing their energy
content where technically possible. Thus, sugar replacements or substitutes are in
place.

3. Lipids

Lipids are a group of organic compounds that contain carbon, hydrogen and oxygen.

Lipid oxidation is a major cause of deterioration in the quality of food and food
products.

Oxidation affects many interactions among food constituents, leading to both

desirable and undesirable products. Food lipids are the foods components that are
most susceptible to oxidation, therefore oxidation reactions are one of the major
sources of deterioration that occurs during manufacturing, storage, distribution and
final preparation of foods. Lipid oxidation products are omnipresent in foods, although
much variation exists in their kind and levels present. Although levels of these
compounds are generally low, the problem of lipid oxidation severely compromises the
quality of some food products and limits the shelf-life of others. Oxidative changes can
cause rancidity such as off flavours, loss of colour, altered nutrient value, and may
produce toxic compounds, which can be detrimental to the health of consumers.
Antioxidants and chelating agents are the most helpful inhibitors of lipid oxidation.
Hydrogenation
Hydrogenated fats (also called trans-fatty acids) are manufactured fats created during
a process called hydrogenation whereby hydrogen units are added to polyunsaturated
fatty acids to prevent them from becoming rancid and to keep them solid at room
temperature.

Examples of foods that contain high levels of hydrogenated fats are stick margarine,
fast foods, commercially baked goods (donuts, cookies, crackers), processed foods,
and fried foods.

Many industries hydrogenate the fats to prevent deterioration. The use

of hydrogenated fats helps to prolong the shelf-life of the food and maintain flavour
stability, however, it converts the “good fats” into a “bad fat” which may be particularly
dangerous for the heart and may pose a risk of developing certain cancers.

Frying Fat Deterioration

During deep fat frying, many complex changes take place that result in deterioration of
the oil. As the food enters the hot oil, oxygen is introduced into the oil, which leads to
oxidation. Oxidation products include hydroperoxides, aldehydes, ketones, acids,
hydrocarbons and many polymeric compounds. As the food absorbs frying fat, the
food lipids as well as color pigments are solubilized and released into the frying fat.
Moisture is released from the frying food, which results in hydrolysis of triglycerides to
form free fatty acids, diglycerides, monoglycerides and glycerol. The volatile
degradation products are released from the oil with the steam as smoke. Heating the
oil to high frying temperatures leads to formation of polymers as the reaction products
condense. As these reactions take place, the sensory and nutritional qualities of the fat
change, and the oil can no longer be used to produce high quality foods. At this time
the frying fat must be replaced with fresh fat.

Moisture in foods that are fried in fat can cause the release of free fatty acids from the
triglycerides. Concentrations of at least 2% free fatty acids from nonlauric acid oils have
no adverse effect on the odor or flavor of fried foods. If the free fatty acid content of
oils that are high in lauric acid, such as in coconut oil, reach a level of 0.5%, a soapy
flavor will develop in the oil. This is what we need to prevent to enjoy the good taste of
the products. This is observed when you stock, chicharon baboy for example, for a long
time. The product not only loses its crunchiness but produces a soapy taste.

4. Proteins and Enzymes

In addition to having many vital functions within the body, proteins perform different
roles in our foods by adding certain functional qualities. Protein provides food with
structure and texture and enables water retention. For example, proteins foam when
agitated. Yogurt is another good example of proteins providing texture. Milk proteins
called caseins coagulate, increasing yogurt’s thickness. Cooked proteins add some
color to foods as the amino group binds with carbohydrates and produces a brown
pigment. Eggs are between 10 and 15 percent protein by weight. Most cake recipes
use eggs because the egg proteins help bind all the other ingredients together into a
uniform cake batter. The proteins aggregate into a network during mixing and baking
that gives cake structure.
Changes induced by food processing

When a cake is baked, the protein ingredients are denatured. Denaturation refers to
the physical changes that take place in a protein exposed to abnormal conditions in
the environment. Denaturing agents include heat, acid, high salt concentrations,
alcohol, and mechanical agitation. Because proteins’ function is dependent on their
shape, denatured proteins are no longer functional. During cooking the applied heat
causes proteins to vibrate. The unraveled protein strands then stick together, forming an
aggregate (or network).

The properties of proteins can therefore be expected to be altered as a result of food

processing operations such as thermal or high pressure processing, freezing and frozen
storage, dehydration, concentration, mixing, homogenization, extrusion, membrane
processes such as ultrafiltration, etc. Such changes are not necessarily undesirable, and
processing may be controlled to modify intentionally the structure and functionality of
food proteins.

Putrefaction of Food.

Putrefaction is anaerobic breakdown of proteins, with the production of foul-smelling

compounds such as hydrogen sulfide and amines. When a food gets putrid, its eating
qualities are destroyed.

The protein-containing foods are subject to putrefactive fermentation where the

nitrogenous material is decomposed producing objectionable character to foods.
Certain classes of foods, as for example, the edible seeds of plants is subject to this type
of change. The substances rich in nitrogen and sulphur, that is, the proteins, with the aid
of putrefactive bacteria give rise to basic or alkaline end-products, while the foods
essentially carbohydrate in character give rise to acids. In general, the final cleavage
products are mixtures of such simple substances as ammonia, carbon dioxide,
sulphuretted hydrogen and mercaptans with amines and still more complex products
of putrefaction. Organic acids, of weak types, may also be produced in small amounts
and frequently these are at once neutralized by the basic or alkaline products which
are likewise formed. All of this affect food quality.
Enzymes in Food Processing

Enzymes are produced by all living cells and act as catalysts for specific chemical
reactions. Some of the important microbial enzymes used in the food processing
industry are lipases, amylases, proteases, rennet, pectinases, invertases, cellulases, and
glucose oxidase.

The use of enzymes or microorganisms in food preparations is an age-old process. With

the advancement of technology, novel enzymes with wide range of applications and
specificity have been developed and new application areas are still being explored.
Microorganisms such as bacteria, yeast and fungi and their enzymes are widely used in
several food preparations for improving the taste and texture and they offer huge
economic benefits to industries.

Enzymes are proteins, which catalyze and reduce the energy threshold requirements for
chemical reactions. They present in the raw material can, along with processing, affect
the functional and nutritional properties of the final product. They are used for
developing new food ingredients and products, recovery of the by-products as well as
improving food quality through improved nutrient availability, flavor and texture.
Intrinsically present enzymes can be detrimental to food quality through enzymatic
browning by such enzymes as polyphenolases and rancidity due to the action of
lipoxygenases and lipases. Food spoilage, through enzyme produced by spoilage
microorganisms, are also of concern as the shelf life of the food is affected. Controlling
enzymatic activity is critical during food processing as enzymes have both beneficial
and detrimental effects.

They are the unique natural processing aids in the food and beverage industry. To
know more about specific enzymes and their applications,visit
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5956270/table/t1/?report=obje
ctonly.

5. Food Additives (preservatives, colorants, flavor enhancers, binders, etc)

Food additives are substances added to food to preserve flavor or enhance its taste,
appearance, or other qualities. Some additives have been used for centuries; for
example, preserving food by pickling (with vinegar), salting, as with bacon,
preserving sweets or using sulfur dioxide as with wines. With the advent of processed
foods in the second half of the twentieth century, many more additives have been
introduced, of both natural and artificial origin. Food additives also include substances
that may be introduced to food indirectly (called "indirect additives") in the
manufacturing process, through packaging, or during storage or transport.

Examples of additives are:

Acidulants. Acidulants give sour or acid taste. Common acidulants

include vinegar, citric acid, tartaric acid, malic acid, fumaric acid, and lactic acid.
Anticaking agents. Anticaking agents keep powders such as milk powder from caking
or sticking.
Antioxidants. Antioxidants such as vitamin C are preservatives by inhibiting the
degradation of food by oxygen.
Bulking agents. Bulking agents such as starch are additives that increase the bulk of a
food without affecting its taste.
Food coloring. Colorings are added to food to replace colors lost during preparation or
to make food look more attractive
Emulsifiers. Emulsifiers allow water and oils to remain mixed together in an emulsion, as
in mayonnaise, ice cream, and homogenized milk.
Flavors and Flavor Enhancers. Flavors are additives that give food a particular taste or
smell, and may be derived from natural ingredients or created artificially. Flavor
enhancers enhance a food's existing flavors. A popular example is monosodium
glutamate. Some flavor enhancers have their own flavors that are independent of the
food.
Preservatives. Preservatives prevent or inhibit spoilage of food due
to fungi, bacteria and other microorganisms.
Stabilizers. Stabilizers, thickeners and gelling agents, like agar or pectin (used in jam for
example) give foods a firmer texture. While they are not true emulsifiers, they help to
stabilize emulsions.
Sweeteners. Sweeteners are added to foods for flavoring. Sweeteners other
than sugar are added to keep the food energy (calories) low, or because they have
beneficial effects regarding diabetes mellitus, tooth decay, or diarrhea.
Thickeners. Thickening agents are substances which, when added to the mixture,
increase its viscosity without substantially modifying its other properties.

Topic 3. Overview of Post-Harvest and Post slaughter changes in selected foods.

Learning Objectives:

At the end of the topic, I, as a student, should be able to:

1. Characterize the post-harvest changes in fruits and vegetables;
2. Characterize the post-slaughter changes in meats; and
 3. Apply practical post-harvest and post slaughter principles during handling, storage and
processing of foods.

Let’s Learn:
Post-Harvest Changes in Fruits and Vegetables

Postharvest activities include harvesting, handling, storage, processing, packaging,

transportation and marketing. In fruits and vegetables, the synthesis of organic
compounds stops after the harvest. They undergo various physiological changes during
storage. These include, among others:
1. Bulbs, roots, tubers and seeds become dormant.
2. Fleshy tissues undergo ripening after maturation.
3. Senescence occurs quite rapidly with an accompanying loss of palatability.
4. Certain biochemical activities also occur in fruits and vegetables.
These are:

A. Respiration Rate. Respiration rate varies with stage of maturity and ripening.
For climacteric fruits, respiration rate accelerates after harvesting; there is
increase in RR prior to senescence. Climacteric fruits are
peaches, peas, mangoes
For Non-Climacteric fruits, respiration rate does not accelerate after
harvesting; they are best when ripened before harvesting.
Citrus fruits and grapes are examples.

Changes in the cell walls of fruits and vegetables after harvest

1. Pectic substance in cell wall and middle lamella starts degrading due to
increased levels of two enzymes: pectinesteraces and
polygalacturonases.
2. Pectic acid (lost gel forming property) is found in over ripe, very soft fruits
and vegetables.
3. On the other hand, some sugars are released from the complex
polysaccharides which results in over sweetening of ripened fruits.
4. Enzymes like lipase, invertase, chlorophyllase, pectic enzymes and
peroxidase are observed to increase.

Changes occur during ripening

1. Change in Color (green to yellow or orange red). T
2. There is a breakdown of chlorophyll
3. Softening of the flesh; protopectin is converted into pectin.
4. There is a decrease in acidity; increase in sugars, volatile substances and
essential oils. When harvested, a banana contains 20% starch and only 1%
sugar but after ripening the proportions are reversed.
5. Decrease in astringent property making a pleasant flavour.
6. Banana releases ethylene gas to help itself ripen. After harvesting, some fruits
fail to ripen especially bananas. So they are exposed to the ripening inducers
such as smoke, ethylene gas and calcium carbide. Calcium carbide pellets
are used to hasten ripening of mangoes.
 Changes on Storage

Storage is a very important part after harvesting as it can increase the product’s
shelf life and slow down the post harvest changes in fruits and vegetables. Only a
few fruits can be stored for an extended period of time in cold or cellular
storages like apples. Each fruit has its own optimum temperature for storage and
also proper air circulation ensures the successful storage of fresh fruits.
Commercial storage of fruits is satisfied with low temperatures close to 0 degree
Celsius and 85% relative humidity. Fresh fruits absorb and emit odors. Strong
flavor fruits can be stored in tight containers. Most vegetables have a very short
storage life because of their rapid respiration.

Fresh green vegetables are kept fresh and crisp in covered containers or plastic
bags in the refrigerator. Storing in too much moisture can spoil and decay
vegetables. Seeds such as peas can remain fresh longer if left in the pods.
Tubers and bulbs can be stored in a cool place without refrigeration. To extend
the storage life of perishable and semi-perishable food products, MAP(Modified
atmospheric packaging) is introduced. One more method for storing is to adjust
the permeability of the packaging to match the respiration of the
fruits/vegetables so the gases inside are optimally maintained. This reduces the
rate of respiration, inhibits the synthesis and retards microbial growth.

There are various factors that can affect storage life. These include
1. Loss of water: It affects the appearance, texture, flavour and weight.
2. Respiration and metabolism: Vegetables having low respiring commodities have
a long shelf life compared to high respiring commodities. What does respiratory
rate of vegetables mean? The rate describes the amount of carbon dioxide
produced per kg of produce in 1 hour. Vegetables vary in their respiration rates.
a. Very low respiring: Potato, Onion Low respiring: Carrot, Celery, cabbage
b. Moderately respiring: Cauliflower, lady’s finger
c. High respiring: Broccoli, pod-pea, sweet corn

B. Microbial spoilage: Vegetables are susceptible to the action of a variety of

microorganisms, thereby leading to substantial decay losses during post harvest
handling.

Post Slaughter Changes in Meats

Immediately after slaughter, changes occur in the muscle of an animal. These changes,
like the changes in milk and eggs, can be retarded by method of handling and
storage. They are brought about by enzymes and microorganisms, and
by chemical and physical means which alter the structure and chemical composition
of the meat.
Muscle in the living animal is (1) pliant, soft, gel-like, yet somewhat viscous. After
slaughter the muscles pass from this state into a stiff or rigid one (2) known as rigor
mortis, or muscle rigor. After some time the muscles again become pliant. This stage (3)
is known as the passing of rigor. With longer storage enzymes and chemical means
bring about (4) more extensive changes which produce ripened meat. With bacterial
action and still more extensive changes (5) incipient putrefaction occurs. The passage
from one stage to another is gradual with no definite dividing zone and is accelerated
at higher temperatures and retarded at lower ones.
Meat may be cooked during any of these stages and heat denaturation causes
characteristic changes which are part of the post-mortem changes.
Meat cooked before the onset of rigor is said to be tender. But rigor develops quickly so
that this period is short.

Topic 4. Role of Microorganisms in Food Preservation

Learning Objectives
At the end of the topic, I, as a student, should be able to:
1. Identify important roles of specific microorganisms in the production of specific
food products.
2. Prepare one (1) fermented food product.

Let’s Learn:

Microorganisms play an important role in food industry. They are used in the production
of various food products, and are also responsible for food spoilage thereby causing
intoxication and diseases.

Microbial contamination of food products takes place usually from the field to the
processing plant, or during processing, storage, transport and distribution or before
consumption. The microorganisms that cause food spoilage and also find the maximum
exploitation in production of food and food products are mainly bacteria, molds and
yeasts.

Bacteria
Bacteria are the largest group of unicellular microorganisms. Strains of
Streptococcus, Lactobacillus Bifidobacterium, Erwinia, etc. are used in the production
of fermented food and dairy products. Streptococcus thermophilus and Lactobacillus
bulgaricus are used to produce yogurt.

Molds
Molds are multicellular filamentous fungi whose growth on foods is usually readily
recognized by their fuzzy or cottony appearance. They are mainly responsible for food
spoilage at room temperature 25- 30 C and low pH, and have minimum moisture
requirement. Molds can rapidly grow on grains and corns when these products are
stored under moist conditions. Molds require free oxygen for growth and hence grow
on the surface of contaminated food.
A species of Bothrytiscinerea, is used in rotting of grape for production of wine. Lactic
fermentations using molds results in a unique Finnish fermented milk called viili.

Yeasts:
Yeasts have the ability to ferment sugars to ethanol and carbon-dioxide and hence
they are extensively used in food industry. The most commonly used yeast, the baker’s
yeast is grown industrially. Saccharomyces carlsbergensis is most commonly used in
fermentation of most beers. The other yeast strains of importance are Brettanomyces,
Schizosaccharomyces, Candida, Cryptococcus, Debaryomyces, Zygosaccharomyces,
Hanseniaspora, and Saccharomyces.

FOOD PRESERVATION AND PROCESSING USING MICROORGANISMS

So much emphasis is placed on the role of micro-organisms in food spoilage that the
importance of their use in food preservation is often overlooked. Yet a number of large
industries rely on fermentation under controlled conditions to preserve food products or
to alter their character, and such methods are among the oldest employed by man for
the preservation of food.

Wine and Beer

The first use man made of micro-organisms was in the conversion of the juice of grapes
and other fruits to wine. This natural process prolonged the shelf life and at the same
time added value to fruits. Yeasts are naturally present on the stems and skins of grapes
and on most other fruits as well. When the berries are crushed, the yeasts multiply
rapidly in the juice, forming carbon dioxide and alcohol from the sugar. If the proper
control is exercised over the fermentation, almost all other micro-organisms can be
prevented from growing in the material. Most scum or surface-growing forms can be
eliminated by sealing the product from the air and allowing the carbon dioxide formed
by the yeast fermentation to sweep all of the oxygen out of the container. In making
champagne, the carbon dioxide is retained in the liquid by keeping the container
stoppered; a pressure of as much as 120 pounds per square inch is developed. In order
to insure a good clean fermentation, most wineries inoculate the juice with a pure
culture of wine yeast, which gets a head start on the other micro-organisms and
prevents an undesirable type of fermentation.

Beer is made by a yeast fermentation of malted cereal grain extracts. The sugars are
converted to carbon dioxide and alcohol as in the wine fermentation, but the
percentage of alcohol produced in beer is very much lower.

Vinegar
The first step in any vinegar process is the production of alcohol as in making wine or
beer. Cider vinegar is produced from fermented cider, while white or distilled vinegar
may be made from the alcohol distilled from fermented mashes, molasses, or other
saccharine materials. After fermentation, the alcohol is converted to acetic acid by an
oxidation process carried on by acetic acid bacteria. Millions of gallons of vinegar are
produced each year by this use of micro-organisms.

Breads
Leavened bread has been an article of diet for centuries. A culture of yeast is allowed
to grow in a dough made of flour and water. As it grows the yeast produces carbon
dioxide, which causes the dough to rise or become light. In addition, flavors are
produced in the bread by the yeast or certain types of bacteria. In certain breads the
growth of lactic acid bacteria is encouraged and characteristic flavors are obtained.
When the bread is baked the alcohol produced by the fermentation is driven off and
the micro-organisms are destroyed. Under abnormal conditions bread may become
ropy, moldy, or highly pigmented by the growth of micro-organisms. The yeast used in
bread making, or bakers' yeast, is not the same as those types used in making wine or
beer. It is manufactured on a large scale, and a high yield of yeast is obtained by a
process that suppresses the formation of alcohol. Yeasts of this general type are the
only micro-organisms that man eats as such., and they are consumed for their vitamin
and mineral content.

Fermented Foods
The ability of certain bacteria to form lactic acid from sugars is utilized in the
preparation of so-called ''fermented foods.'' These include pickles, sauerkraut, olives,
and animal feeds on the order of silage. In these processes the sugars are converted
into lactic acid. The preservation is of a twofold nature, since (1) the increased acidity
exerts a selective action that inhibits the spoilage micro-organisms, and (2) most of the
food for bacteria has been used up in the process of fermentation, so that there is no
further material to encourage large microbial populations. Since these lactic acid
bacteria are tolerant of salt, and since salt exerts a curing action, it is employed in
almost all fermented foods. Cucumbers are fermented in brines strong enough to
discourage most spoilage micro-organisms, the salt and acid being soaked out before
the product is used as food.

Milk and Dairy Products

Micro-organisms are used extensively in the manufacture of cheese, butter, and
fermented milk products. Various types of microorganisms and various procedures are
employed to produce different products and flavors. Bacteria are employed to sour
milk for cheese making, and the growth of other bacteria is encouraged in pressed
cheese to produce ripening. This is brought about by bacterial digestion of the curd,
resulting in the development of certain flavors. Types of cheese such as Camembert,
Brie, and Roquefort are produced by the action of molds, and specific flavors are
produced by their growth. Sour-cream butter is made by churning cream that has been
ripened by bacterial action with a resultant production of lactic acid. The fat globules
are more easily coalesced during the churning, and they take up certain desirable
flavors that were produced by the bacteria during the fermentation process.
Undesirable micro-organisms may produce bitter arid off flavors in the cream unless
proper handling methods are employed, such as pasteurization, cooling, and the use of
starters. Micro-organisms, like lactobacilli, are used in the production of various sour-milk
drinks.

Let’s Summarize:

1. Food Science is the application of the basic sciences and engineering to study
the fundamental physical, chemical, and biochemical nature of foods and the
principles of food processing.
2. Preservation of food has been a cornerstone of self-sufficiency and survival from
almost the beginning. Early on, folks would have times of plenty and times of
scarcity. The need to stretch the times of abundance into the times of shortage
 was the catalyst for early man discovering and perfecting methods of preserving
food.
3. The chemistry of food and its components is crucial in food processing. Food
components that affect food processing and product quality are water, the
carbohydrates, proteins and enzymes, fats and lipids and food additives.
4. Postharvest activities include harvesting, handling, storage, processing,
packaging, transportation and marketing. In fruits and vegetables, the synthesis
of organic compounds stops after the harvest. They undergo various
physiological changes during storage.
5. Certain microorganisms are useful in food processing. These include bacteria,
yeasts, molds and fungi.
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