Unit 2: Cell Structure and Function

Lesson 2.2
Structures and Functions of Animal Cells
Contents
Introduction 1

Learning Objectives 2

Warm Up 2

Learn about It! 3

Hierarchy of Biological Organization 3
Types of Animal Tissues 6
Epithelial Tissues 7
Connective Tissues 10
Muscular Tissues 14
Nervous Tissues 16

Key Points 19

Check Your Understanding 20

Challenge Yourself 22

Bibliography 23
Unit 2: Cell Structure and Function

Lesson 2.2

Structures and Functions of Animal

Cells

Introduction
The shape of an airplane is similar to the general form of a bird. The shape of a boat resembles
that of a fish. These are some examples of similarities between the forms of living and nonliving
things. The structures present in living organisms are usually used as a basis for designing
objects. For example, the wings of an airplane are curved on top and flatter on the bottom or
underside as in a bird’s wings. This form decreases the pressure on top of the wings and
increases the pressure at the bottom. The increase in pressure pushes the airplane or the bird
upward and helps in flight. The structure of an airplane is related to its function. Similarly, the
structures and functions of the components that make up our body and other organisms are also
related to each other.

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Unit 2: Cell Structure and Function

Learning Objectives DepEd Competency

In this lesson, you should be able to do the
following: Classify diff erent cell types
● Describe the hierarchy of the biological (plant/animal tissues) and specify
organization. the function(s) of each
● Diff erentiate animal cell types based on
their structures and functions. (STEM_BIO11/12-Ia-c-4).

Warm Up

Sort It Out 15 minutes

Organizing objects, such as those found cluttered in a work table, can be performed by first
selecting a certain set of criteria to describe them. Thereafter, they can be grouped accordingly.
In this activity, you have to show your skills in classifying objects based on various criteria.

Materials
● colored paper cups (colors of the rainbow)
● paper clips
● popsicle sticks with numerical values

Procedure
1. Divide the class into four groups.
2. Designate three diff erent stations for each group. Let the students assign members to
each station. The number of members that will be assigned to each station may depend
on the class size.
3. Each participating team shall shuffle the given objects per station before the start of the
activity.
4. Sort the given materials based on the given task or instruction per station. These are as
follows.

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Unit 2: Cell Structure and Function

● Station 1: Sort the cups based on the colors of the rainbow.

● Station 2: Sort the paper clips based on color and size. Combine paper clips of
the same color. Thereafter, paper clips of the same color will be sorted based on
their size.
● Station 3: Sort the popsicle sticks based on the sum of the written numerical
values from the lowest to the highest sum.
5. The group who will finish all three stations in the shortest time will be the winner.

Guide Questions
1. What do you think is the best strategy to finish the three stations in the shortest possible
time?
2. Did you encounter difficulties during the activity? What are these?
3. In biology, why is it important to classify things based on a certain set of criteria?

Learn about It!

All organisms are made up of at least one cell. In complex multicellular organisms like animals,
cells come in diff erent structures and functions—they diff er in terms of shapes and sizes, and they
also have specialized functions.

Why is the cell considered as the basic unit of life?

Hierarchy of Biological Organization

Biology is a vast field of study. To understand life from the molecular level up to the global scale of
the entire living planet, biologists divide the enormous range into diff erent levels of biological
organization. The hierarchy of biological organization is shown in Fig. 2.2.1. The description and
examples of each biological organization is shown in Table 2.2.1.

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Unit 2: Cell Structure and Function

Fig. 2.2.1. The hierarchy of biological organization includes the assemblage of life from the
smallest biomolecules to the interacting ecosystems of the biosphere.

Table 2.2.1. Diff erent levels of biological organization

Level of
Description Examples
Biological
Organization

Four types of biomolecules or

molecules associated with life:
atoms and molecules that make up
Chemical
the basic unit of life ● carbohydrates
● proteins
● lipids or fats
● nucleic acids

distinct and specialized subcellular mitochondria, nucleus, Golgi

Organelle structures that apparatus, endoplasmic

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Unit 2: Cell Structure and Function

contribute to the cell’s reticulum

maintenance and reproduction;
membrane-bound structures in
eukaryotic cells

the smallest, basic, functional unit

of life formed when diff erent atoms skin cells, blood cells, muscle
Cell
and molecules combine and cells or fibers, neurons
function together

groups of cells that work Four types of animal tissue:

Tissue together to perform a ● epithelial tissue
specialized function
● connective tissue
● muscle tissue
● nervous tissue

groups of tissues that work

Organ together to perform a skin, heart, leg muscle, brain
specialized function

groups of organs that work integumentary system,

Organ system together to perform a certain circulatory system, muscular
process in the body system, nervous system

formed by diff erent organ systems

that create complex interactions humans, grasses, dogs, cats,
Organism with one another to maintain mushroom
balance or homeostasis, and
sustain life

organisms that belong to the humans living in the same house,

Population same species and live in the koalas living in an area of the
same area forest

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Unit 2: Cell Structure and Function

humans, cats, and dogs living in

diff erent populations living in the same house; koalas,
Community
the same area kangaroos, and various tree
species in an area of the forest

humans, cats, dogs, and grasses

includes all the communities getting resources from nonliving
Ecosystem interacting with one another and things like soil, water, and sunlight
with their environment

includes all the diff erent kinds of the entire surface of Earth
Biosphere ecosystem where life thrives

Based on the levels of biological organization, why

are sponges considered the simplest forms of
animals?

Types of Animal Tissues

Tissues are groups of cells that are similar in structure and function. In animals, as shown in
Fig. 2.2.2, there are four main types of tissue—epithelial, connective, muscle, and nervous tissues.
Fig. 2.2.2. The four types of tissues in animals vary significantly in structure and function.

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Unit 2: Cell Structure and Function
Epithelial Tissues
Epithelial tissue or epithelium is a type of animal tissue that forms the inner and outer lining of
organs, the covering in surfaces, and the primary glandular tissue of the body. In terms of
structure, epithelial cells are closely packed to form continuous sheets. This kind of structure
allows epithelium to form linings and impart protection to bodily structures. The presence of cell
junctions like desmosomes and tight junctions, as shown in Fig. 2.2.3, permits the cells of
epithelial tissue to absorb and filter diff erent substances. One side of an epithelial cell is
unattached and is exposed to the body’s exterior or to the cavity of an internal organ. This
exposed part is called the apical surface. Some apical surfaces are smooth, but some have
surface modifications, such as cilia or microvilli. Another important structure in epithelial tissues is
the basement membrane. It is a structureless material secreted by cells in the lower surface of
the epithelium. The basement membrane serves to adhere to the epithelium to the loose
connective tissue underneath it.

Fig. 2.2.3. The diff erent types of cell-cell junctions characterize various epithelial tissues.

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Unit 2: Cell Structure and Function
Epithelial tissues are avascular, which means that they do not have a blood supply of their own.
They acquire nutrients and release waste materials through diff usion from the capillaries in the
underlying connective tissue. Another distinct characteristic of epithelium is its ability to regenerate
easily.

Epithelial tissues are classified based on cell arrangement or number of layers (i.e., simple and
stratified epithelial tissues), and based on cell shapes (squamous, cuboidal, and columnar). They
are given two names based on these two bases for classification. Table
2.2.2 below describes in detail the types of epithelial tissues in animals.

Table 2.2.2. Diff erent types of epithelial tissues

Epithelial Number of Shape of Examples Functions

Tissues Layers Cells

air sacs or site of diff usion or

one flat, alveoli, capillary exchange of
scale-like walls substances;
secretion

glands and their

ducts, ovaries, absorption and
one cube-shaped
and lining of secretion
kidney tubules

elongated or walls of the absorption and

column- gastro- secretion; contains
one shaped intestinal tract goblet cells that
and body secrete mucus
cavities

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Unit 2: Cell Structure and Function

absorption and
secretion;
usually ciliated
(with hair-like
elongated or projections called
one the lining of the
column- cilia); cells have
respiratory tract
shaped unequal length and
position of nucleus
forming a false
(hence, pseudo-)
layering of cells

the epidermis, protection against

more than flat, lining of mouth, abrasion or
one scale-like esophagus, and constant exposure
vagina to friction

sweat glands,
more than salivary glands, protection and
cube-shaped
one and mammary secretion
glands

elongated or male urethra

more than protection and
column- and ducts of
one secretion
shaped some glands

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Unit 2: Cell Structure and Function

The trachea is lined with a pseudostratified ciliated

columnar epithelium. How does this structure
prevent unwanted particles like food from entering
the lungs?

Connective Tissues
Connective tissue is the most abundant tissue in the body that connects body parts. Unlike the
avascularized epithelial tissues, most connective tissues are vascularized (with constant blood
supply from blood vessels) except tendons and ligaments. If epithelial tissues have a basement
membrane, connective tissues have an extracellular matrix as shown in Fig.
2.2.4. These are varying amounts of substances found outside the cells. It is made up of ground
substance and fibers. The ground substance is mostly made up of water, adhesion proteins, and
large polysaccharides or complex sugars. The amount of polysaccharide determines the
consistency of the matrix. Also, the amount and type of fiber vary depending on the type of
connective tissue.
Fig. 2.2.4. The basic components of connective tissues vary according to their type (left,
extracellular matrix; right, fibers and fibroblast).

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Unit 2: Cell Structure and Function
Fibers in connective can be elastin, collagen, or reticular fiber, as shown in Fig. 2.2.4. Elastin is a
rubberlike protein which has the capacity to stretch and recoil. Reticular fibers are usually
oriented randomly, forming mesh-like structures such as in the spleen. Collagen, the strongest
and the thickest among the three fibers, has a strength comparable to steel. Connective tissues
have diff erent functions depending on their structural components. This tissue type supports,
connects, and protects other body tissues. It also serves as a water reservoir because of its
ability to absorb large amounts of water. T able 2.2.3 describes in detail the composition,
functions, and examples of each type of connective tissue.

Table 2.2.3. The diff erent types of connective tissues and their examples

Connective tissues Description Examples Functions

● layers of a very
hard matrix with
calcium salts and
Bone or osseous collagen fibers protection
tissue ● consists of bone skull and ribs
and support
cells (osteocytes
and osteoclasts)
found in cavities
called lacunae

● hyaline cartilage
(hyalin, glass) with
● more flexible
matrix than bone glass-like rubbery protection
Cartilage ● cartilage cells
matrix and collagen and support
called
chondrocytes fibers found in the
skeleton of fetus,
larynx, and joints
● fibrocartilage, the
highly compressible
cartilage found in

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Unit 2: Cell Structure and Function

vertebral disks
● elastic cartilage
found in the outer
ear

● tendon, a strong
● Matrix is rope-like structure
predominantly that connects
made up of skeletal muscles to
collagen fibers bones
Dense connective or
dense fibrous tissue
and has lesser ● A ligament is more support
cells. flexible (with more
● This is a elastic fibers) than
fibroblast or a tendon and it
connects bones at
fiber-forming cell.
joints.

● areolar tissue
(areola, small open

● Matrix contains space), a soft tissue

more cells and that cushions the protection,
lesser fibers than
Loose connective organ it wraps, holds insulation,
dense connective
tissue storage, and
tissue so it is internal organs in support
softer.
place and holds water
and salts for the
surrounding tissues
that need it
● Adipose tissue or
fat tissue is mainly
made up of fat cells
or adipocytes
containing oils that

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Unit 2: Cell Structure and Function

insulate the body parts

and serve as an energy
reservoir.
● Reticular
connective tissue is
composed of reticular
cells and interwoven
reticular fibers that
form a stroma or the
supporting structure for
lymphocytes in
lymphoid organs.

● plasma, a liquid
matrix
● Cellular ● blood, the vascular
components tissue that circulates in transport of
consist of blood the body substances,
Blood cells. ● Blood cells may be immune
● with fibers that red blood cells, white response, and
are only visible blood cells, and blood clotting
during clotting platelets.
because they are
made of soluble
proteins

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Unit 2: Cell Structure and Function

The diff erent connective tissues vary with the composition of their extracellular matrices and the
types of cells they consist of.

Muscular Tissues
Muscular tissue, or simply muscle (as shown in Fig. 2.2.5), is made up of specialized cells that
can shorten or contract to produce movements. Muscle tissues consist of long and extensive
muscle fibers. There are three types of muscle tissues that diff er in structure and function.

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Unit 2: Cell Structure and Function

Fig. 2.2.5. The types of muscle tissues diff er in their general structure but more or less
perform the same function, i.e., to elicit movement.

● Skeletal muscle is a muscle tissue attached to the skeleton or bones. These

muscles can be controlled consciously or voluntarily. Skeletal muscle cells are
long, cylindrical, striated (with visible stripes), and multinucleated (with more
than one nucleus). When they contract, they pull the bone and the skin to cause
movement.
● Smooth muscle or visceral muscle is a type of muscle tissue commonly found
in the walls of hollow organs such as intestines, stomach, bladder, blood vessels,
and uterus. It involuntarily contracts slower than the other two types of muscle
tissue. Smooth muscles are nonstriated, uninucleated, and spindle-shaped
(have pointed ends) cells.
● Cardiac muscle is a muscle tissue found in the heart. Unlike a skeletal muscle, it
is uninucleated (one nucleus) and it moves involuntarily (cannot be controlled
consciously). However, it has striations like skeletal muscle. Cardiac muscle cells
are branching together and fit tightly together at junctions called intercalated
disks. These disks contain gap junctions that facilitate the rapid conduction of
electrical impulses across the heart.

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Unit 2: Cell Structure and Function
Nervous Tissues
Nervous tissue makes up the central nervous system and peripheral nervous system. It is
composed of neurons and neuroglia or supporting cells. Each neuron serves as the basic
structural unit of the nervous system. The two basic characteristics of neurons are irritability
and conductivity. Irritability allows them to be sensitive and responsive to the various stimuli,
while conductivity allows for the transmission of the reception and conduction of electrochemical
signals from one part of the body to another. A neuron is made up of the cell body or soma,
dendrite, and axon as shown in Fig. 2.2.6. The dendrite is the receiver of electrochemical
signals from external stimuli or from adjacent neurons. It transmits incoming signals towards the
cell body. The cell body or soma contains the nucleus and specialized organelles that
produce molecules needed by the neuron. Electrochemical signals will be transmitted away
from the cell body through the axon. The axon is surrounded by an insulating layer called the
myelin sheath that allows impulses to transmit quickly and efficiently along the neuron. The
periodic gaps between myelin sheaths on an axon are called Nodes of Ranvier. Between two
neurons, or a neuron and a muscle or gland, there is a neural junction or synapse where the
transmission of electrochemical signals occurs.

Fig. 2.2.6. Neuron, the basic unit of the nervous system, consists of structures that can
conduct electrochemical signals as a form of information.

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Unit 2: Cell Structure and Function
There are three types of neurons based on function. These are sensory neuron interneuron, and
motor neuron, the structural variations of which are shown in Fig. 2.2.7. Sensory neurons are
usually unipolar or pseudounipolar with an axon that branches into two extensions. The first one
is connected to the dendrite that receives sensory input, and the other one transmits the
information to the central nervous system. Interneurons are bipolar or multipolar neurons with
one axon and multiple dendrites. It connects the sensory neuron to the motor neuron. Motor
neurons are multipolar neurons that carry electrochemical signals from the CNS to the muscles
or glands.

Fig. 2.2.7. Neurons may be classified based on their number of cellular processes.

Aside from neurons, nervous tissues also contain neuroglia or supporting cells. They do not
conduct nerve impulses, but rather support, protect, or insulate neurons. There are six types of
neuroglia or glial cells—four of them are in the central nervous system (CNS) and two in the
peripheral nervous system (PNS). The CNS consists of the brain and the spinal cord, whereas
the PNS consists of the nerves that are distributed throughout the body. The glial cells, as shown
in Fig. 2.2.8., include the astrocytes, microglial cells, ependymal cells, and oligodendrocytes in
CNS. Fig. 2.2.9. shows the satellite cells and Schwann cells in the PNS.

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Unit 2: Cell Structure and Function

Fig. 2.2.8. Neuroglia or glial cells in the central nervous system

Astrocytes are star-shaped cells that support and control the chemical environment around the
neurons. It is the most abundant glial cell in the CNS. Microglial cells are ovoid cells in the CNS
that can transform into a phagocytic macrophage to clean neuronal debris and wastes.
Ependymal cells are ciliated cells that line the central cavities of the brain and the spinal cord
and form a fairly permeable membrane between the cavities with cerebrospinal fluid and the
tissues of CNS. Oligodendrocytes are responsible for the production of the myelin sheath.

In the PNS, satellite cells surround the cell body of a neuron, and Schwann cells surround all
the nerve fibers and produce myelin sheath similar to the oligodendrocytes.

Fig. 2.2.9. Neuroglia or glial cells in the peripheral nervous system

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Unit 2: Cell Structure and Function

Remember
The structure and form of the tissues in animals are always related
to their functions.

Epithelial tissues are made up of tightly packed cells because they

cover and protect bodily structures. Connective tissues are
characterized by the presence of ground substances and fibers that
support, bind, and protect organs. Muscular tissues are made up of
highly specialized cells that contract to cause movement. Lastly,
nervous tissues mainly contain networks of nerve cells that possess
irritability and conductivity to allow the transmission and
reception of electrochemical impulses.

Key Points
_____________________________________________________________________________
______________
● There are diff erent levels of biological organization, and these include the following
(lowest to highest): chemical, organelle, cell, tissue, organ, organ system,
organism, population, community, ecosystem, and biosphere.
● Animals have four types of tissue: epithelial tissue, connective tissue, muscle
tissue, and nervous tissue. They all diff er significantly in structures and functions.
● Epithelial tissue is composed of tightly packed cells that cover, line, and protect the
body part. It can be classified based on cell arrangement (simple, stratified,
pseudostratified) and cell shape (squamous, cuboidal, columnar).
● Connective tissue is made up of cells and an extracellular matrix that connects,
protects, and supports body parts. Bone, cartilage, dense connective tissue, loose
connective tissue, and blood are the types of connective tissue.
● Muscular tissue is composed of highly specialized muscle cells that contract to
produce movement. It has three types: skeletal, cardiac, and smooth muscles.
● Nervous tissue is made up of neurons that receive and conduct electrochemical
signals and supporting cells (glial cells) that support, protect, and insulate neurons.

_____________________________________________________________________________
______________

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Unit 2: Cell Structure and Function

Check Your Understanding

A. Identify the level of biological organization described in the items below.

1. a group of organs that coordinate to perform a specific function

2. butterflies of the same species living in the same area
3. atoms and molecules interacting with one another
4. plants and animals interacting with their environment
5. a group of cells that performs a specialized function in the body

B. Identify the type of animal tissue described in the items below.

1. with extracellular matrix made up of ground substance and fibers

2. classified based on cell shape and arrangement
3. composed of cells that conduct electrochemical signals
4. can be uninucleated or multinucleated, and striated or non-striated
5. attached to a basement membrane

C. Write the letter that corresponds to the best answer.

1. Which of the following tissue types is found in the linings of blood vessels?
A. epithelial tissue
B. connective tissue
C. muscle tissue
D. nervous tissue

2. Which of the following is a characteristic of connective tissues?

A. apical surface
B. basement membrane
C. ground substance
D. supporting cell

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Unit 2: Cell Structure and Function
3. What type of animal tissue is involved when food moves from the esophagus to the
stomach?
A. epithelial tissue
B. cardiac muscle
C. skeletal muscle
D. smooth muscle

4. Which of the following is a function of nervous tissues?

A. connects diff erent tissues and organs in the body
B. protects the surfaces of the body
C. responds to stimulus from the environment
D. stores substances like water and ions

5. Which of the following best describes the function of goblet cells in the columnar
epithelium of the respiratory tract?
A. It forms networks of fibers that cushions the lungs.
B. It produces mucus to protect the linings of organs.
C. It facilitates the outward movement of debris that may enter the lungs.
D. It transmits impulses that control breathing.

D. Answer the following questions in 2–3 sentences.

1. Describe the importance of the layering cells to the normal functioning of stratified
squamous epithelial tissues.
2. Compare and contrast areolar tissue and ligament in terms of structure and function.
3. Describe the muscle tissue of the small intestine based on its structure and function.
4. Compare and contrast bone and cartilage in terms of structure and function.
5. Discuss the importance of nervous tissue in the human body.

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Unit 2: Cell Structure and Function

Challenge Yourself

A. Answer the following questions.

1. Explain why the epidermis of the skin can exfoliate and regrow easily.
2. Polar bears have a thick adipose tissue layer. What is the importance of this tissue in the
survival of polar bears during the winter season?

B. Answer the following questions.

3. What specific type of epithelium is best suitable for the function of capillaries? Why did you
say so?
4. Several connective tissue types function for support and protection. What specific type of
connective tissue is best suited to support and protect growing delicate organs like the
brain of a fetus? Why did you say so?

5. Construct a table to diff erentiate the three types of muscle

tissue based on the location, number of the nucleus,
striations, and movement.

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Unit 2: Cell Structure and Function

Bibliography
Campbell, Neil A. 2009. Biology (8th Edition). French Forest: Pearson Benjamin Cummings.

Campbell, Neil A., Michael L. Cain, Peter V. Minorsky, Jane B. Reece, Lisa A. Urry, and Steven
Alexander Wasserman. Biology: a Global Approach. Harlow, Essex, England: Pearson
Education Limited, 2018.

Mader, Sylvia S. 2011. Concepts of Biology. New York: McGraw-Hill.

Madigan, Michael T., Kelly S. Bender, Daniel H. Buckley, W. Matthew. Sattley, and David A.
Stahl. Brock Biology of Microorganisms. Harlow, United Kingdom: Pearson Education
Limited, 2017.

Marieb, Elaine Nicpon. Human Anatomy & Physiology. New York: Pearson Education, 2004.

2.2. Structures and Functions of Animal Cells 23