15 Philosophy and Other Disciplines

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PHILOSOPHY AND OTHER DISCIPLINES

BY:

SIKIRU AKINPELU ADEWALE ESQ1

INTRODUCTION:Philosophy is indispensible as a tool for understanding other disciplines. Many

important questions about a discipline, such as the nature of its concepts and its relation to other

disciplines, do not belong to that discipline, are not usually pursued in it, and are philosophical in

nature.Philosophy is both related to most disciplines and yet different from them.Philosophy’s

techniques apply to problems in any field of study or human endeavour. Philosophy enhances one’s

ability to perceive the relationships among the various fields of study.2 As the systemic study of

ideas and issues, philosophy may examine concepts and views drawn from sciences, arts, religion,

law, politics or any other realm.Although philosophy and other disciplines share some of the same

goals, as could be see later in this paper, philosophy alone aims to see how other disciplines are

connected and to understand what makes the connection possible.

PHILOSOPHY AS A PARENT TO OTHER DISCIPLINES: Historically philosophy was the

term used for many forms of inquiry we today call mathematics, cosmology, geometry, history,

politics, ethics, etc. Philosophy encompassed any body of knowledge.3 In this sense, philosophy is

related to religion, mathematics, politics, natural sciences and education. The growth of modern

research universities led academic philosophy and other disciplines to professionalize and

specialize.4 Philosophy is the mother of all disciplines.Philosophy came into being through man’s

desire for knowledge for its own sake. That was why Bertrand Russell declared that philosophy and

1
LECTURER, FACULTY OF LAW, ADELEKE UNIVERSITY, EDE, OSUN STATE, NIGERIA
2
What is philosophy? Colonia State University, Northridge
3
“Philosophy” (htt//www. etymoline.com /index.php? allowed_in_frame=0search=philosophy). www.Etymonline.com. Online
Etymological Dictionary. Retrieved 19 March 2016. “The English word “Philosophy” is first attested to cc. 1300, meaning
“Knowledge, body of knowledge”.
4
Shapin Steven (I January, 1998). The Scientific Revolution (htts://looks.Google.com/books?Id= 6Blr19MTXAMC)(1 st
ed.).University of Chicago press. ISBN 978-0-226-75021-7
1
science were not separated at the evolution: they were born together as one discipline. Many

scientific discoveries were made by ‘Greek Philosopher Scientists’ such as Thales5, Anaximander6,

and Anaximenes7. At the beginning, all disciplines were one: philosophy. For instance, it was

difficult to differentiate philosophical writings from the scientific writings in Plato’s and Aristotle’s

writings.

In classical study, philosophy was traditionally divided into three principal parts: Natural

Philosophy, Moral Philosophy (ethics) and Metaphysical Philosophy (logic). Natural Philosophy

has split into the various natural sciences, especially astronomy, physics, chemistry, biology and

cosmology. Moral Philosophy has given birth to the social sciences; and Metaphysical Philosophy

has given birthto logic and mathematics. In the 18th century, philosophy gave birth to the science.

Science was the first child of philosophy. Science first started as Natural Philosophy and became

natural science.Natural science later split into Biology, Chemistry, Physics, etc by the effort of

Democritus, Pythagoras, Lucretius, Epicurus, etc. In the 19th century, philosophy gave birth to

social sciences by virtue of Malthus, Karl Marx, Ricardo, AugusteCombeetc. The social cientists

were divided into two groups: one canvassed for social science as a single discipline while the other

groupsupported different disciplines of social science. The first single social science discipline was

Economics; followed by Political Science, Anthropology, Sociology and Psychology

respectively.Up till today, philosophy is still giving birth to more disciplines –the latest being

Linguistic Theory and Logic.

Since the 20th century many of those who study philosophy contribute to the fields of law,

journalism, politics, religion, sciences, business and various arts and entertainment activities. Cutis

White argued that philosophical tools are essential to humanities, sciences and social

sciences.There are people trained in philosophy in nearlyall the fields. They have gone not only

into such professionals as medicine and law but also into computer science, management,

5
He discovered the Eclipse of 585 BC
6
He discovered the evolution of mankind
7
He discovered the cause of rainbow
2
publishing, sales, and other fields. The widespread comprehensive nature of philosophy reflects

today in the fact that the highest academic degree in any discipline so far is PhD8: any person who

receives a ‘PhD’ in any discipline is technically receiving doctorate in philosophy. This means that

all disciplines-law, medicine, science, etc- all end with PhD.

PHILOSOPHY AND EMPIRICAL SCIENCES: Philosophy of nature sciences is usually

divided into physics, biology, chemistry, etc. Philosophy of sciences clarifies both the quest for

scientific knowledge and the result yielded by that quest. It does this by exploring the logic of

scientific evidence, the nature of scientific laws, explanations, and theories, and the possible

connections among the various branches of science.The term ‘science’ evolved in English in the

19th century. Earlier, someone we called a scientist would be called a natural philosopher. In fact,

Darwin thought of himself as a nature historian. The sciences may be thought of as being based on

a philosophy of nature and inquiry, an account of observations and hypotheses, confirmation and

falsification, reason and reliability. The history of science was, from the beginning in Ancient

Greece, virtually inseparable from philosophy. Today sciences are often thought of as providing an

increasing body of evidence and theories that are vital for philosophy reflection.For example, is

biological evolution (and chemistry and physics) able to account for ethic and religion?

More ever, the value of science is frequently a topic for philosophical inquiry. In the history of

science, one may see the influence and study of human life, animal consciousness, space and time

that have important implications for our values and the means of life.

Philosophy as a discipline can be called a science. However, it is not a science in the sense of

experimental sciences; rather it is a science in the sense of knowledge of thing achieved by

investigation of the causes of the things. Having mere knowledge of things does to make one a

scientist; a scientist must know the causes of what he knows. A man of experience is a man who

knows that when certain things are combined in a certain way, the combination will work in a

8
PhD stands for doctor philosophiae in Latin, ie Doctor of Philosophy
3
specific way. A man of science knows more that this: he knows the ‘why’ of thing, ie why the

combined things work in the specific way. Thus, Aristotle said that a man of experience cannot

teach well, but a scientist can teach very well.9

Aristotle referred to philosophy as being the first science and the last science. It was the first

science on the ground that philosophy was premised by every science (i.e. every other science leads

to philosophy); and it was the last science on the grounds that one must have had knowledge of

other sciences before one can understand philosophy very well. He declared that all science had

shares in philosophy while every other science deals with specific division of being or

reality.Philosophy is universal in the sense that philosophy deals with organization of many

fundamental principles that originate from the sciences. What cannot be solved by the specific

science are the problems or concerns of philosophy.10

From the time of ancient Greek philosopher, Aristotle, to the 19th century, natural philosophy

encompassed astronomy, medicine, and physics. For example, Newton’s 1687 Mathematical

Principles ofNatural Philosophy later became classified as a book of physics.Chalmers and a few

others see progress in philosophy as similar to that in science.11Thales (c.624-546 BCE) and

Pythagoras (c.570-495 BCE) practiced ‘Love of Wisdom’(philosophia) and they were referred to as

‘Physiologon(i.e. students of physics, or nature).12

Philosophy has both influenced and been influenced by sciences. The physical sciences provide

accepted information about the world at any given time. Philosophers have arranged this body of

information into a meaningful pattern and interpreted it while describing what reality might be

like.Western philosophers provided basic metaphysical theories for the scientist to fit their data

into; and as the data changed, their metaphysical theories have to change too.For example, the

scientific revolution of the 17th century was brought about by combined efforts of scientists –

9
Ngamen-Kouassi, C. GST 203: Introduction to Philosophy and Logic NOUN, Lagos 2007
10
Ibid
11
Video x Audio: Why isn’t there more progress in philosophy? :-Metadata” (http://www.sms.com.ac.uk/media/1484/58) Retrieved
25 April 2016
12
Hegel, Georg Wilhelm Fredric; Parowan, Robert F (1 January 2006). Lectures on the History of Philosophy: Greek philosophy.
Clarendon press. P.33 ISBN 978-0-19-927906-7(https://books.google.com/books? Id =VvghYDArwC
4
Johannes Kepler,Galileo and Newton- and philosophers – Descartes, Spinoza, and Leibniz. In the

late 18thand early 19th centuries, philosophers in England and France decided that the sciences

should be completely divorced from the traditional metaphysical theories, and that the sciences

should describe and codify scientific observations and experiences. As a result, the sciences were

independent of the philosophy; and the philosophy of science was developed to examine methods

of sciences, the types of scientific evidence and development of the sciences.13A special case of

philosophy’s problems of definability plays an important role in the empirical sciences under the

title “Identification problem”.14 Philosophers clarified the concept of a model as it is used in the

empirical sciences.There are two types of theorists employing philosophy:

i. Philosophers of Science: They rely mostly on first-order formulations.The first-order

formulations can yield theoretical insight because it is mastered by philosophers.

ii. Methodologists: They want to use the full power of set theory and of the mathematics based

on it (e.g. Patrick Suppes, a US philosopher and behavioural scientist).

Many empirical sciences use mathematical tools borrowed from probability theory and statistics

and some other philosophical theories. A modest beginning in the study of the empirical sciences’

foundations has been made in modern inductive logic. Philosophy of science explores the

foundations, methods, history, implications and purpose of science. Many of its sub-divisions

correspond to specific branches of science, e.g. Philosophy of biology deals specifically with the

metaphysical, epistemological and ethical uses in the biomedical and life sciences. The philosophy

of mathematics studies the philosophical assumptions, foundations and implications of

mathematics.Philosophy and science share some same goals: along with scientists, philosophers

want to uncover the nature of reality.

Difference between Philosophy and science can be explained as follows:The subject matter of

philosophy and that of sciences are different: the subject matter of sciences is explanation of natural

phenomena whereas that of philosophy is a justification of the natural phenomena.Purposes of the


13
Mikamar Publishing. Philosophy’s Relation to Other Disciplines
14
Identification problem is the difficulty in indentifying variables when changes are actually taking place
5
sciences are prediction and control of the natural phenomena; whereas the purpose of philosophy

‘is why’ of the natural phenomena. The philosopher’s purpose begins where that of the scientists

ends. That is why it is always difficult for a scientist to answer philosophical question: Does God

exist? Is the mind subject to matter or is it possessed of independent power? What is the nature of

ultimate reality as contrasted to the apparent reality of ordinary experience? What is truth? What

is good? What is beauty? How can be beautiful be distinguished from the ugly? One cannot find an

answer to any of these questions in the science laboratories.The sciences have six step procedures:

observation, inductive generalization, hypothesis, verification; proof or disproof and knowledge.

Philosophy on the other hand, has its methods which include natural reason, speculative, analytic,

prescriptive and historical.

PHILOSOPHY AND MATHEMATICS: Logic is very important in mathematics. Almost from

the beginning of both mathematics and philosophy in ancient Greece, relations were seen between

them. The philosophers were strongly impressed by degree of certainty and rigour that existed in

mathematics compared to any other subject. Pythagoras of Samos, the philosopher-mathematician,

said that mathematics must be the key to understanding reality.15Plato fell that mathematics

provided the forms out of which everything was made. Aristotle, on the contras, asserted that

mathematics was about ideal object rather than real ones; and that mathematics could be certain

without telling us anything about reality.In modern times, Descartes and Baruch Spinoza used

mathematics as their model and inspiration for formulating new methods to discover the truth about

reality. Gottfried Wilhelm von Leibniz, who, in addition with Isaac Newton, discovered Calculus,

formulated a theory about constructing an ideal mathematics language in which to state, and

mathematically solve all philosophical problems. However, these views have not got unanimous

assent.

15
Philosophy’s Relation to Other Disciplines
6
Set theory is a branch of mathematics or a branch of symbolic logic. Axiom is a concept used in

mathematics and philosophy. In principle, all of mathematics can be formulated in a theorem-rich

system of axioms16 of set theory17.However, what the axioms can achieve is not obvious in all the

circumstances. An example is Category Theory18 which is a recent development in Abstract

Algebra19. The axioms of set theory may be presumed to hold in virtue of the meanings of the

terms set, member of and so on. Here it could be said that pure mathematics falls, in loose sense,

within the scope of philosophy (most especially logic) in wide sense. However, philosophy has no

ways of analyzing the meanings of the terms set with a view to telling what assumptions (ie axioms

of set theory) should be adopted.The definitions of basic mathematical concepts (eg ‘number’) were

proposed in logical terms by philosophers such as GottlobFrege(1884) and Bertrand Russel (1903)

and their successors. It is not clear that more recent insights in philosophy have helped very much

in the search for the assumptions of set theory.Considering the foregoing, it could be concluded that

the relationship of mathematics to logic on the level of axiomatic set theory remains ambiguous.

However, the concept, axiom, has subtle differences in definition when used in the context of

philosophy and mathematics. In philosophy, an axiom is a statement that is so evident or well

established, and it is accepted without controversy or question20, in other words, an axiom, in

philosophy, is simply a premise or starting point for reasoning21. However, an axiom, in

mathematics, is used in two related but distinguishable senses: Logical axioms and non-logical

axioms. Logical axioms are statements that are taken to be true within the system of logic they

define, often shown in symbolic form. Non logical axioms are actually substantive assertions about

the domain of a specific mathematical theory.Specific logical results are applicable in several parts

16
‘Axioms’ is similar to theories, assumptions. An axiom or postulate is a statement that is taken to be, to save a premise or stating
point for further reasoning and arguments
17
The branch of mathematics which deals with the formal properties of sets as units without regard to the nature of their individual
constituents) and the expression of the foundation from which virtually all of mathematics can be derived
18
Category Theory formalizes mathematical structure and its concepts in terms of a labeled directed graph called a category, whose
nodes are called objects, and whose labeled directed edges are called arrows.
19
In algebra, which is a broad division of mathematics, abstract algebra (occasionally called modern algebra) is the study of
algebraic structures which include groups, rings, fields, modules, vector spaces, lattices and algebras.
20
Oxford English Dictionary Online, accessed 2012-04-28 (f.Aristotle, Posterior Analytics 1.2.72a18-b4
21
Oxford English Dictionary Online, accessed 28-04-2012
7
of mathematics, eg algebra; and techniques used by logicians have been borrowed from

mathematics.The present-day philosophy of logic is an heir to traditional philosophy of

mathematics.

We have philosophy of mathematics as the branch of philosophy that is concerned with philosophy

that is concerned with two major questions: one concerning the meanings of ordinary mathematical

sentences and the other concerning the issue of whether abstract objects exist. In other words, the

philosophy of mathematics studies the assumptions, foundations, and implications of methodology

of mathematics in people’s lives.

PHILOSOPHY AND COMPUTER:Philosophy, most especially logic, is very important to

computer science and computer engineering. Computer Science cannot be dissociated from

philosophy. Branches of philosophy, most especially logic, are relevant to and are constantly

employed in Computer Science. The Recursive Function Theory22, in effect, is the study of the

idealized automata23. Whether this theory belongs to philosophy or to computer is a matter of

indifference.Proposition logic is the logic of certain simple types of switching circuits (in Computer

Science). There are close relationship between automata theory and the logical and algebraic study

of formal languages.On the borderline of logic and computer science, mechanical theorem proving

is an interesting topic. The topic is a clear-cut instance of the problems of artificial intelligence,

especial1ly of the problems of realizing various heuristic mode of thinking24 on

computers.Recursion occurs when a thing is defined in term of itself or its type. Recursion is used

in a variety of disciplines ranging from linguistics, mathematics, computer science and philosophy.

The most common application of recursion is in computer science where a function being defined

is applied within its own definition.

22
The recursive functions which form a class of compatible functions take their name from the process of ‘recurrence’ or
‘recursion’ which consists in defining the value of a function by using other values of the same function
23
From where computers are formulated
24
A heuristic mode of thinking is any approach to problem salving, learning or discovery that employs a practical method not
guaranteed to be optional or perfect, but sufficient for the immediate goals
8
PHILOSOPHY AND RELIGION: Philosophy and religion are two autonomous disciplines. The

two has interesting relationship and the two are quite different. However the two meet at a point,

though the meeting point is achieved through different viewpoints. Thus, at its peak, philosophy

becomes the science of God. That is why a branch of philosophy is theodicy. One can thus say that

philosophy and religion have the same material object, i.e. God. However, the difference is the way

in which they achieve the object.Philosophy regards God as the First Efficient Cause of being. God

is the remote cause of that which is.However, philosophy depends solely on human reason to

achieve the ultimate object. Philosophy perceives God.Religion, on the other hand, begins from

divine revelation. God manifests and communicates about himself and gives his decrees through

revelation. Religion achieves God as God himself declares to mankind. Knowledge of God

according to religion is beyond natural capacity of human reasoning; and that the only way to

appreciate knowledge of God is through the faith informing human reasoning. The emphasis is on

faith and the authority of God who reveals to mankind.

The history of the relation between philosophy and religion is a long and mixed affair, clarifying

and providing justification for religion and separating religion from scientific developments.In the

history of Western Philosophy, Medieval Philosophy (ie 5thto 6th Centuries) was the period

following the fall of the Western Roman Empire and was dominated by the rise of Christianity and

hence reflected Judeo-Christian theological concerns.Problems,such as existence and nature of god,

the nature of faith and reason, the problem of evil, were discussed in that period. Some key

medieval philosophers- St Augustine, Thomas Aquinas, Roger Bacon, etc-used philosophy as an

aid to theology. They sought to align their philosophy with the interpretation of sacred scripture.25

Jewish philosophy and Christian philosophy are religion-philosophical traditions that developed

both in the Middle East and in Europe, which both share certain early Judea texts (e.g. Tanakh) and

monotheistic beliefs.Jewish thinkers such as the Geonimof the Talmudic Academies in Babylonia

25
http://philosophy.wikipedia.com/. Retrieved 5 January, 2018
9
and Maimonides engaged with Greek and Islamic philosophy. Pre-Islamic Iranian philosophy

began with the work of Zoroaster, one of the first promoters of monotheism and of dualism

between good and evil.

After the Muslim conquests, early Islamic philosophy developed the Greek philosophical traditions

in new innovative directions. The Islamic Golden Age influenced European intellectual

developments. The two main currents of early Islamic thought were Kalamwhich focused on

Islamic theology and Falsafawhich was based on Aristotelianism and Neoplatonism.The work of

Aristotle was very influential among the falsafa such as al-kindi(9th century), Avicenna (980-June

1037) and Averroes (12th century). Others such as Al-Ghazaliwere highly critical of the methods of

the Aristotelian falsafa. Islamic philosophy also developed a scientific method, experimental

medicine, a theory of optics and a legal philosophy. IbnKhaldun was an influential thinker in

philosophy of history. In Iran, several schools of Islamic philosophy continued to flourish after

theGolden Age and included Sufiphilosophy, among others. The 9th and 20th century Arab World

had Nahda (awakening or renaissance) Movement which influenced contemporaryIslamic

Philosophy.26

Philosophy of religion deals with questions that involve religion and religious ideas from a

philosophically neutral perspective (as opposed to theology which begins from religious beliefs).27

Traditionally, religions questions were not seen as a separate field from philosophy proper, the idea

of a separate field only arise in the 19th century.28Issues include the existence of God, the

relationship between reason and faith, questions of religious epistemology, the relationship between

religion and science, how to interpret religious experiences, questions about the possibility of an

afterlife, the problem of religions language and the existence of souls and responses to religious

pluralism and diversity.


26
Ibid
27
Encyclopedia Botanical: Theology; Relationship of theology to the history of religions and philosophy; Relationship to

philosophy: http://www.botanical.com/EBchecked/topic/590855/theology/14945/Relationship-to-philosophy

28
Wainwright, W.J, The Oxford Handbook of philosophy of Religion.https://books.google.com/books?id=Gbu Cf9TIDg
COKdg=oxford+handbook+philosophy+ religion
10
In ancient Greece, Anaxagoras, Socrates and some other philosophers criticized aspects of Greek

religion. Some philosophers gave theoretical approaches on the existence and nature of God or the

gods, while some denied existence of the gods.When Christianity came into Greece, attempts were

made to develop a philosophical understanding of the new religion. By the beginning of the 5th

century, Saint Augustine was able to make synthesis of the principles of Christianity with the

elements of Platonic philosophy. In the Middle Ages, some philosophy theologians who were Jews,

Christians and Muslims explained their specific religions in according with rational philosophical

views. However, in contradiction, groups of antirational theologians upheld that religion, a matter

of faith and belief, had nothing to do with rationality, reasons and argument.29

After the Reformation, the traditional philosophical arguments of the theologians were condemned

by Spinoza, Emmanuel Kant, David Hume and a few other philosophers. According to the

philosophers, all the arguments proving the existence of God and the immortality of the soul were

fallacies. Philosophers stated that religious people were non-rational; that they were religious as a

result of economics, psychological or cultural reasons. The philosophers such as Kierkegaard, using

latest scientific and historical researches, criticized religious people.After the World War II, some

theologians who were interested in philosophy attempted to discover what religious principles

could be rational and intellectual.

Philosophy of religion treats topics such as the concept of God, including special attributes such as

being all-knowing, being all-powerful, and being wholly good; the relation between faith and

reason; the nature of religious language; the relation of religion and morality; and the question of

how God who is wholly good could allow the existence of evil. There is a branch of philosophy

called Natural Theology or Theodicy. Natural theology is the study of God from reasoning as

opposed to from revelation. In other words, natural theology is philosophical theology which is

distinctive from sacred theology. Natural theology is as a result of development of philosophy:

Philosophy has realized that God, a Supreme Cause,is the only explanation of things which exist

29
Mikamar Publishing: Philosophy’s Relation to Other Disciplines
11
when existence is not part of their nature: that is the climax of philosophy, and it is contrary to the

opinion that philosophers are atheist. Gottfried Leibniz, a German philosopher coined the term

‘theodicy’ in an attempt to justify God’s existence in the light of the imperfection of the world.

Theodicy is an attempt to answer the question of why a good God permits the manifestation of evil.

Theodicy address the evidential problem of evil by attempting to make the existence of an all

knowing, all-powerful and all-good God consistent with the evil or suffering in the world.30Pope

John Paul II was a public religions figure who had a degree in philosophy.

The main difference between philosophy and religion is reasoning on one hand and faith on the

other. However, the difference does not put them ‘ashunder’: there is harmony of the unity between

them. In other words the truth achieved through reasoning is not contradictory to the truth achieved

through faith. If faith is contrary to reasoning, then one would be true and the other would be

fallacious. However, reasoning, though limited as a result of man’s imperfections, is in a harmony

with faith.

Another difference between philosophy and religion is their purposes. A philosopher is critical and

a religious person is dogmatic.For religion, the responsibility of reason is to interpret and defend

the fundamentals of religion whereas, in philosophy, reasoning is to do investigations from neutral

position. In philosophy, all assumptions, theories, principles are subject to rational criticism,

whereas in religion all the fundamentals and the assumptions should be taken or believed

dogmatically. In religion, knowledge is to achieve final happiness or paradise whereas in

philosophy, knowledge is for its own sake. A philosopher, rather than being a magician, employs

critical reasoning, neutrality and desire for knowledge to achieve his purposes. A religious person

employs faith, belief, revelation and even magic to achieve his purposes.

PHILOSOPHY AND LAW:The value of philosophy to the lawyer cannot be over emphasized.

Philosophy will help him to reason clearly, to express himself precisely and to put his thoughts

30
Philip A. Pecorino, An Introduction to Philosophy: An Online Textbook (2000)
12
across to his audience firmly. Philosophy will teach him how to detect bad argument and identify

the flaws in it. Philosophy makes a lawyer to notice difference between truth and validity.It is not

enough for a lawyer to master the facts of his case and the applicable legal authorizes. It is also

important for him to present his argument in a logical manner. This is where philosophy comes in

to assist him to achieve his professional responsibilities.

In legal writing, it is not enough for an argument to “make sense” or “get the point across”. A legal

argument must exhibit what, in philosophy is referred to as ‘pristine logic’. In order to exhibit

pristine logic, a legal argument should adhere to the form of the logic syllogism.A syllogism

consists of a major premise, a minor premise and a conclusion. A major premise usually states a

general principle or rule of law. In legal arguments, this is generally called a statement of law. A

minor premise states a particular fact about the case at hand. In legal arguments, this is usually

called a statement of fact.A conclusion connects the particular statement in the minor premise with

the general one in the major premise, and tells us how the general rule applies to the facts at hand.

In legal arguments, this process is called applying the law to the fact. Learning how to spot and

avoid logical fallacies can enormously strengthen a lawyer’s legal writing and advocacy by helping

him adhere to the pristine logic of correct syllogistic reasoning.Legal reasoning is the particular

method of arguing used when applying legal rules to particular facts among legal persons. Good

legal reasoning requires clear understanding of the legal rules, a good appreciation of the particular

facts, and both deductive and inductive logic skills.

In the practiceof law, one assumes the existence of persons in society who are capable of rational

dispute over responsibility and the importance of comparing the cogency of different models of

governance. Rather than assuming such a ‘common sense’ perspective, if one wants to question

whether any of our perceptions and beliefs about reality are reliable, this would not be a question

for lawyers, but a question that would be addressed in a branch of philosophy which is called

epistemology (i.e. the theory of knowledge).In Legal theory, heuristics31 are used when case-by-
31
Heuristic is any approach to problem solving that employs a practical method not guaranteed to be optimal or perfect, but sufficient
for the immediate goals. Heuristic device is used when an entity X exists to enable understanding of, or knowledge concerning ,
13
case analysis32would be impractical; in so far as ‘practicality’ is define by the interest of a

governing body.

Examination of ‘LawiersLogike’33 has uncovered a variety of arguments belonging to the various

branches and sub-branches of philosophy.Of the great variety of kinds of argumentation used in

law,some are persuasive rather than strictly logical, and others exemplify different procedures in

philosophy.Wesley Newcomb Hohfeld, a pre-World War I US legal scholar,developed a theory

called the fundamental legal conceptions. The theory is closely related to the philosophical

principle of Deontic Logic34. Value Theory (or axiology) is a branch of philosophy that addresses,

among other topics, justice, and it includes philosophy of law. Philosophy of law (called

jurisprudence) explores the varying theories explaining the nature and the interpretation of laws.U

S Supreme Court Justice,Stephen Brayer, was among public legal luminaries who had degrees in

philosophy.Philosophy of law explores such topics as what law is, what kinds of laws there are,

how law is or should be related to morality, and what sorts of principles should govern punishment

and criminal justice in general.

PHILOSOPHY AND SOCIAL SCIENCES:If there exists any discipline in the field of social

sciences that does not have its root in philosophy, it is as good as a trash can.Political philosophy is

the study of government and the relationship of individuals (or families and clans) to communities

including the state. It includes questions about justice, law, property and the rights and obligations

of the citizen.Indian philosophy covered political philosophy as seen in the Arthashastrac.4th

century BCE.Feminist philosophy explores questions surrounding gender, sexuality and the body

including the nature of feminism itself as a social and philosophical movement.The political and

economic philosophies of Confucius, Sun Tze, Chanakya, IbnKhaldun, IbnRushd, IbnTaymiyyah,

some other entity Y


32
The case method is a teaching approach that uses decision-forcing case to put students in the role of people who were faced with
difficult decisions at some point in the past
33
That was what the subject, Law, was called in 1588
34
Deontic logicis the field of philosophical logic that is concerned with obligation, permission and related concepts
14
Machiavelli, Leibniz, Hobbes, Locke, Rousseau, Adam Smith, John Stuart Mill, Karl Marx,

Tolstoy, Gandhi and Martin Luther King, Jr have been used to shape and justify governments and

their actions. Clauseuntz’s political philosophy of war has had a profound effect on statecraft,

international politics and military strategy in the 20th Century, especially around World War II.

US Vice president candidate, Carly Fiorina, was among public political figures who had degrees in

Philosophy.

Philosophical studies often focus on the meaning of an idea and on its basis, coherence and

relations to other ideas. Consider, for an example, democracy: What is it? What justifies it as a

system of government? Can a democracy political liberty?Political philosophy concerns the

justification – and limits – of government control of individuals; the meaning of equality before the

law; the basis of economic freedom; and many other problems concerning government, it also

examines the nature and possible arguments for various competing forms of political organization,

such as laissez faire capitalism, welfare democracy, anarchism, communism and fascism.

PHILOSOPHY AND PSYCHOLOGY:Logic is very important to psychology.Psychology does

not have its root in philosophy. However, psychology has been influenced by philosophy.In

psychology, philosophy is employed mostly as a tool of various models using mathematical ideas,

automata ideas or information theory.The laws of thought which is studied in Philosophy can serve

as a conceptual framework for psychological theorizing. In the mid-20th Century, Jean Piaget, a

Swiss psychologist, made a large scale attempt to characterize the developmental stages of a child’s

thought by reference to the philosophical structures that he can master from the laws of thought

concept.Psychology says what is, and philosophy deals with what ought to be. If we go by what

man is by science(evolution), which says that man is as good as an animal, hence taking idea of

survival of the fittest as sacrosanct. But if we have built a peaceful society for ourselves,unlike

animals, it is because of our reasoning faculty to determine what ought to be for the peaceful world.

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Therefore, we have built a society for ourselves with understanding of these two disciplines –

psychology and philosophy.

PHILOSOPHY AND EDUCATION:Philosophy is in close relationship with education in the

sense that philosophy seeks to impart knowledge through an acceptable manner to the people,

which is similar to the aim of education. Philosophy employs critical attitude to develop human

knowledge and to establish principles of rational beliefs in human being beings. Philosophy opens

the mined of education practitioners (teachers, educators etc) to allow neutrality and subject their

beliefs and knowledge to further critical examination.Philosophy of education analyzes the

definition and content of education, as well as goals and challenge facing educators. Progressive

education as championed by Dewey had a profound impact on 20th century US educational

practices. Descendants of this movement include efforts in philosophy for children, which are part

of philosophy of education.The logicality and consistency of any clam in education is subjected to

theories, statements and judgment of philosophy with a view to justification of the claim. Teachers

are well developed by philosophy through the use of criticism, neutrality and investigation in order

to deal with educational problems. Therefore, philosophy and education are complimentary and

mutually re-constructive with a view to the child maturation, moral and intellectual development.In

other words, both philosophy and education work together for achievement of benefit the recipients

maximally.

PHILOSOPHY AND ARTS:Aesthetics, a principal branch of philosophy, is the critical reflection

on art, culture and nature35. It addresses the nature of art, beauty, taste, enjoyment etc. It is

sometimes called judgment of sentiment and taste. Its major divisions are art theory, literary theory,

film theory and music theory. An example from art theory is to discern the set of principles

35
Review (http://www.arlisna.org/artdoc/vol18/iss2/01.pdf) by Tom Riedel (Regis University)
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underlying the work of a particular artist or artistic movement such as the Cubist aesthetic36. The

philosophy of film analyzes films and film makers for their philosophical content and explored film

(images, cinema etc) as a medium for philosophical reflection and expression.

Distinct African philosophicalideas include Ujamaa37, the Bantu idea of ‘Force’38, Negritude39, pan-

Africanism40 and Ubuntu41.There was the development of the philosophical literature of the African

diaspora which includes black existentialism by African-Americans.Modern African Philosophers

have been influenced by Marxism, African-American literature, Critical theory, Critical race

theory, neocolonialism, post-colonialism and feminism.Philosophers share some goals with artists

along with historians: the philosophers want to understand where we have come from; along with

artists, philosophers want to stimulate novel questions about human experience.

However, history of philosophy42 is related to but not the same as the philosophy of history, which

is the theoretical aspect of history, dealing with questions such as the nature of historical evidence

and the possibility of objectivity in history. Hegel’s Lectures on the Philosophy of History

influenced many philosophers to interpret truth in light of history, a view popularity referred to as

Historicism.Public artists who have degrees in Philosophy include comedians Steve Martin and

Ricky Gervais, filmmaker Terrence Malik.

PHILOSOPHY AND LINGUISTICS:The revival of interest in Semantics, among theoretical

linguists in the late 1960s, awakened their interest in interrelations of Philosophy and linguistic
36
“aesthetic –definition of aesthetic in English from the Oxford dictionary”:
http://oxforddictionaries.com/definition/english/aesthetic. Cubist aesthetic is a book written by Guillaume Apollinaire between 1905
and 1912, published in 1913 illustrated with black and white photographs of works of renowned artists
37
Ujamaa (‘familyhood’ in Swahili) was the concept that formed the basis of Julius Nyerere’s social and economic development
policies in Tanzania afterit gained independencefrom Britain in 1961
38
Bantu Philosophy is a 1945 book written by PlacideTempels which argues that the people of Sub-Saharan Africa have a
distinctive philosophy, and attempts to describe the underpinnings of that philosophy. In his book, Tempels argues that the African
philosophical categories can e identified through the categories inherent to language. The primary metaphysical category in the
thought of Bantu-speaking societies is Force. That is, reality is dynamic, and being is force.
39
Negritude is a framework of critique and literature developed mainly by francophone writers and politicians of the African
diaspora during the 1930s. Negritude disavowed colonialismand argued for the importance of a Pan-African racial identity among
people of African descent worldwide.
40
Pan-Africanism is a worldwide intellectual movement that aims to encourage and strengthen bonds of solidarity between all
people of African descent.
41
Ubuntu (Zulu word) is a term meaning ‘humanity’. It is often translated as ‘humanity towards others’, but is often used un a more
philosophical sense to mean “the belief in a universal bond of sharing that connects all humanity”.
42
Study of a specific period, individual or school
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theory. It was discovered that certain grammatical problems are closely related to logicians’

concepts and theories. George Lakoff, a US linguist, claimed that there was a near-identity of

linguistics and natural logic. Jerrold J. Katz, a US grammarian-philosopher, and others made

attempt to give a linguistic characterization of some fundamental logic concepts such as analyticity.

Several philosophers and linguists suggested that deep structure, a concept in linguistics, is to be

identified with logical form. Montague, using his intentional logic, drew a sketch of a “universal

grammar”. There is the extensive usage of recursive function theory of philosophy in formal

grammars and the formal models of language users.

Philosophy of language has close ties to both epistemology and metaphysics. It treats questions

about language: the nature of meaning, the relations between words and things, the various theories

of language learning and the distinction between literal and figurative uses of language.

CONCLUSION:

Philosophy is the only discipline that investigates everything. It is the only discipline that

challenges everything, even itself. This is the difference between philosophy and other disciplines.

The other disciplines came to form their own discipline over time as they emerged as distinctive

forms of inquiry with their own philosophical theories.Philosophy today may be practised in a way

that links and is in cooperation with other disciplines.

EXERCISE

1. Mention 4 methods of philosophy: ………………………………; …………………..;

…………………………..; and ………………………

2. A man can be called a scientist only …………………………………………

3. ……………………………….. has knowledge of ‘why’ of things.

4. Aristotle said it is only …………………………. who can teach, ………………………

cannot teach.
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5. Philosophy and theology are two ……………………………………….

6. Literally speaking, theology means ……………………………. but at its summit,

…………………… becomes ………………….

7. Philosophy perceives God merely as ……………………………………..

8. ……….. is the oldest child of philosophy.

9. Philosophy and science were …………. together.

10. Philosophy is regarded as ………………. discipline.

11. The highest degree awarded in the arts and science is …………………………………..

12. ……………………………. later split into Chemistry, Biology, Physics, etc.

SUGGESTED READING

Adenrele, S.O. 2009. CTH 043: Philosophy of Religion NOUN, Lagos

Adenrele, S.O.2008. CTH 233: Philosophy of Religion NOUN, Lagos

Augustine Essien. 2009. CTH 131: Introduction to Philosophy NOUN, Lagos

Joh-Terry, C. 1994.For the Love of Wisdom.Alba House,New York

Mikamar, Philosophy’s Relation to other

Disciplines:http://www.mikamar.Philosophy.relations.to.other.discipline.html Retrieved 5th

January 2018

Ngamen-Kouassi, C. 2007.GST 203: Introduction to Philosophy and Logic. NOUN, Lagos

Osuji Dr. 2006. EDU 214: Philosophy of Education NOUN, Lagos

Philosophy of Logic – Logic and other Disciplines/Britannica.com. Retrieved 5th January 2018

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