21.1 Introduction When the input to an electrical machine is electrical energy, (seen as applying a voltage to the electrical terminals of the machine), and the output is mechanical energy, (seen as a rotating shaft), the machine is called an electric motor. Thus an electric motor converts electrical energy into mechanical energy. The principle of operation of a motor is explained in Section 8.4, page 96. When the input to an electrical machine is mechanical energy, (seen as, say, a diesel motor, coupled to the machine by a shafi), and the output is21.2 The action of a ‘commutator ‘lectrical energy, (seen as a voltage appearing atthe electrical terminals of the machine), the machine is called a gemerator. Thus, a generator ‘converts mechanical energy to clectrical energy. ‘The principle of operation of a generator is explained in Section 92, page 101. In an electric motor, conductors rotate in a uniform magnetic eld. A single loop conductor mounted between permanent magnets is shown in Figure 21.1. A voltage is applied at points A and B in Figure 21.1(a), Figure 21.1 ‘A force, F, acts on the loop die 10 the interaction of the magnetic field of the permanent magnets and the magnetic fld created By the ‘current owing in the loop. This force is proportional tothe flax density, 2B, be current Nowing, 1, und the effecve length of the conductor, ie, P= BU. The force is made up of two parts, one acting vertically ‘downvrards due to dhe curent Nowng from € 10 D and the other acting vertically upwards due to the current flowing from Eo F (rom Fleming's Ieft hand rule) I he loop is free to rate, then when it has rotated through 180", the conductors ae as shown in Figure 21.1(b) For rotation tovcontinue inthe same dirctin, it ix necessary forthe curent ow to be as shown in Figure 21.1(0), ic. from D 10 C snd from F to E. ‘This apparent reversal in the direction of current flow is achieved by a process called commutation. Wit reference o Figure 21 2(0), when a direc voltage is applied at A and B, then as the single-loop conductor routes, curent Now will always be avay ffom the commutator forthe part ofthe conductor adjacent to the N-pole and towards the commutator for the par of the conductor adjacent wo the S-pole. Thus the forces act 10 {ve continuous rotation im an anc-elockwise diction, The arrangement Shown in Figure 2.2(a) is called « “oro-segment’ commutator and the voltage i applied to the rotating segments by stationary brashes. (usually carbon blocs), which slide on the commutator materia, (sully cope), ‘when rotation takes place. In practice, there are many conductors on the rotating part of a ‘de. machine and these are attached to many commutator Segments 4. schematic diagram of mul-segment commutator is shown in Figure 21.20)Figure 21.2 21.3. Dec. machine construction fi = Commuter = ; smutitoop conductor Poor commutation results in sparking at the trailing edge of the brushes, ‘This can be improved by using imterpoles (situated between each pair of ‘main poles), high resistance brushes, or using brushes spanning several ‘commutator segments. ‘The basic parts of any dc. machine are shown in Figure 21.3, and comprise: () a stationary part called the stator having, (a steel ring called the yoke, to which are atached Gi) the magnetic poles, around which are the Gl) field windings, i.e, many turns of a conductor wound round the pole core; current passing through his conductor creates an electromagnet, (rather than the permanent magnets shown in Figures 21.1 and 21.2), (b) 4 rowing pant called the armature mounted in beatings howsed in the stator and havit Gv) a laminated eylinder of ion of steel called the eore, on which teeth are cut (© house the (#) armature winding, i.e, a single or multiloop conductor system and (vi) the commutator, (see Section 21.2), Armature windings can be divided into two groups, depending on how the wires are joined to the commutator. These are called wave Windings and lap windings, (2) In wave windings there ate (wo paths in parallel irespective of the rnumber of poles, each path supplying half the total current output ‘Wave wound generators produce high voltage, low current outputs, (b) In ap windings there are as many paths in parallel as the machine hhas poles. The total current ouput divides equally between ther, Lap wound generators produce high current, low voltage output.Fod war ranvature (@) Shuntwound maching Fe wing rare (©) Senos wound mactine igure 214 21.8 Emf. generated in ‘an armature winding When the field winding of a de. machine is connected in parallel with the armatare, os shown in Figure 21 4(2), the machine is said to be sant ‘wound. Ifthe field winding ts connected in series with the armatore, 28 shown in Figure 21.4(b), then the machine is said to be series wound, A compound wound machine his a combination of series and shunt ‘Depending on whether the electrical machine is series wound, shunt ‘wound or compound wound, it haves differently when a load i applied, “The behaviour of a dc. machine under various conditions is shown by means of graphs, called characteristic curves or just characteristics, TRe ‘characteristics shown in the following sections arc theoretical, since they neglect the effects of armature reaction, ‘Armature reaction is the effect thatthe magnetic feld produced by the ammatore current has om the magnetic field produced by the field system, In a generator, armature reaction results in a reduced ouput voltage, and {in a motor, armature reaction results in increased speed, ‘A way of overcoming the effect of armature reaction isto fit compen- sating windings, located in slots inthe pole face, Let Z = number of armature conductors, © = useful Hux per pole, in webers p= number of pairs of poles and n= armature speed in rev/s ‘The emf. generated by the armature is equal 10 the em generated by ‘one of the parallel pus. Each conductor passes 2p poles per revolution and thus culs 2p webers of magnetic Mux per revolution. Hence Bux cut ‘by one conductor per second = 2pcbn Wh and so the average emf. E generated per conductor is given by: E=2p@n volts (since 1 volt = 1 Weber per second) ‘Let ¢ = number of perallel paths through the winding herween postive and negative brushes catiora woe wg ¢= 2 for a lop winding sn ns i apn Teal emi been bats (reg tambon i pa = 2pone,2 vay a generated em.t, E = Since Z, p and ¢ are constant for a given machine, then E ox ©n, However 2ri is the angular velocity « in radians per second, hence the generated e.m. is proportional to © and w, i, ‘generaied em, Ex Ow (12) Problem 1, An 8:pole, wave-connected armature has 600 conduc- tors and is driven at 625 rev/min, If the flux per pole is 20 mWb, determine the generated e.m f. Beith ow Herts nine = ps oe rev/s, © = 20 x 10-9 WD 2ponz 2(4)(20 x 10° Generated ems, = 2PONZ Problem 2. A 4-pole generator has a lap-wound armature with 50 slots with 16 conductors per slot. The useful flux per pole is 30 mWb. Determine the speed at which the machine must be driven to generate an emf. of 240 V, E = 240 V, c = 2p (for a lap winding), 2 = 50 x 16 = 800, = 30x 107 Wo. Generated exms & = 2202 teat nz E 240 ne apeeh "= 37 Tx TO NO) = 10 rev/s or 600 rev/min Rearranging gi Problem 3, An 8-pole, lap-wound armature has 1200 conductors and a flux per pole of 0.03 Wb. Determine the em4. generated When running at S00 rev/min.Problem 4. Determine the generated emf. in problem 3 if the armature is wave-wound. fsa IO eco ereenenn ponZ = (4OnZ) om, eas =m ys Problem 5, A dc. shunt-wound generator running at constant speed gencrates a voltage of 150 V at a certain value of field ‘current. Determine the change in the gencrated voltage when the field eurrent is reduced by 20%, assuming the flux is proportional to the field current. ‘The goncrated e.m.f. E of a generator is proportional to 0, ic. is propor fional to n, where & is the flux and 1 is the speed of roiation, It follows that £ = kn, where kis a constant ‘At speed my and Aux j, Ey = £0, At speed na and flux 2, Ba = kana ‘Thus, by division: Ey _ kim _ Sim Ey Kom, ~ Om ‘The initial conditions are E, = 150 V, @ = ©, and n =m, When the ‘ux is reduced by 20%, the new value of flux is 80/100 or O38 of the initial value, Le, ; = 0.80). Since the generator is running at constant speed, nz =n) Ey _ um EH” Om that is, £ = 150 x08 = 120V “Thus, a reduction of 20% in the value of the flux reduces the generated ‘voltage to 120 V at constant speed. ‘ThusProblem 6. A d.c, generator running at 30 revis generates an ‘em. of 200 V. Determine the percentage increase in the fx per pole required to generate 250 V at 20 revi. From equation (21,2), generated ems, £ ow and since w = 2xn, Exon. Let By = 200 V, nj = 30 revs and flux per pole a this speed be «by Let Ez = 250 V, nj = 20 revs and flux per pole at tis speed be Om Since E ox On then = = See Rom 200 _ 0) 250 ~ @x20) £$1(30)(250) from whieh, tee ae 7 NTS Hence the increase in flux per pole needs to be 87.5% Furiher problems on generated e.m.f. may be found in Section 21.17, prob- Tems 1 t0 5, page 381. 216 Dac. generators Dc. genertors are clasiied according to the method of thee fel exci- tation. These groupings are: () Separately-excited generators, where the field winding is ‘connected to a source of supply other than the armature of its own machine. Gi) Selfexeited generators, where the feld winding receives its supply from the armature of its own machine, and which are subdivided into (a) shunt, (b) series, and (c) compound wound generators. 21.7 Types of d.c. (a) Separately-excited generator fSenerai and Ihe cl epruly-eciad poemr oki shown i Fie 215. Saiess eacd ke pei Ce wa fowc Te eral lage wl fal or perce et due to a volt me caused by current flowing through the armature resis- Sele seA Ol Lae ‘Tormnall mane Externe! votace accuse ° Figure 215 or [ generated emf, £=V 40k as) Problem 7. Determine the terminal voltage of a generatar which develops an em. of 200 V and has an armature current of 30 A fom load, Assume the armature resistance is 0.30 £2 With reference to Figure 21.5, terminal voltage, V = E~1,R, = 200 (30)(0.30) = 200-9 = 191 volts Problem 8. A genemtor is connected to 2 60 9 load and a current of 8 A flows. If the armature resistance is 1 $2 determine (a) the terminal voltage, and (b) the generated emf. (@) Terminal voluge, V = 1.R, = @)(60) = 480 volts (©) Generated emf, E=V41,R, from equation (21.3) = 480 + (@)(L) = 480-4 8 = 488 volts Problem 9. A. separately-excited generator develops a. no-load ‘emJf of 150 V at an armature speed of 20 rev/s and a ux per pole of 0.10 Wb. Determine the generated em. when (a) the speed increases to 25 revs and the pole flux remains unchanged, (b) the speed remains at 20 revis and the pole ux is decreased to 0.08 Wb, and (c) the speed increases to 24 revis and the pole ux is decreased 10 007 Wb. (@) From Section 21.5, generated em. E cx 0arte ‘tos. = Facer © enna ————— ‘sea Waa ® Figure 21.6, Hence 150. (0.10)(20) EB ~ @1005) 430)0.1925) which, £2 = CSUOIOES) 1975 v from whi, Ba = Gy = 1875 volts 150 _ (0.10)20) © Beane . s0y0.0820) from which ©, By = LATED — 120 volts @ 1291920 © E.~ wonasy ds0y0.0)24 from which, em. Ey = = 126 volts (110320) Characteristics ‘The two principal generator characteristics ae the generated voltage/ficld ccurent characteristics, called the apen-elreuit characterise and the termina) voltge/load current characteristic, called the load characteristic, Atypical separtely-excited generaor open-circuit characterise is shown in Figure 21.6(a) and apical load characteritl is shown in Figure 21.6(b) ‘A separately-excited generator is used only in special cases, such as ‘when a wide variation in terminal pd. is required, or when exact control of the flld curren is necessary. Its disadvantage lies in requiring a separate source of direct current, (b) Shunt-wound generator In a shunt wound generator the fleld winding is connected in parallel with the armature as shown in Figure 21.7. The field winding has « relatively high resistance and therefore the current carried is only a fraction of the ‘armature current, iri ene terminal voltage V = E~ 1uRo tis mt oa t= coon (22) and 1 = load currentProblem 10, A shunt generator supplies a 20 KW load at 200 V through cables of resistance, R= 100 m@. If the field winding resistance, Ry = 50 $2 and the armature resistance, Ry = 40 mQ, ‘determine (@) the terminal voltage, and (b) the em. generated in the armature. (8) The cirouit is as shown in Figure 21.8, Load current, Volt drop in the cables to the Toad = 1 = (100)(100 x 10-3) =10v Hence terminal voltage, V = 200 + 10 = 210 volts () Anmature current Ze = 2 +1 v _ 210 Field euneat Jy = go = Gy = 424 Hence Ie =Iy +1 = 4.2 + 100 = 104.2 A Generated emf. F=V41AR, = 2104 (104.2)(40 x 10-9) = 2104 4.168 = 214.17 volts Characteristics ‘The generated e.m4., E, is proportional to @a, (see Section 21.5), hence at constant speed, since «» = 2m, E cx &, Also the flux & is proportional| a =e q ‘Figure 21.9 ey ln Figure 21.10 Teminal volage v a Toad caren fi Figure 21.11 fo field curent Fy until magnetic saturation of the iron citeuit of the generator oceurt. Hence the open circuit characteristic is as shown in Figure 21.9) ‘As the load current on a generator having constant field current and running at constant speed increases, the value of armature current increases, hence the armature volt drop, J» Re increases. The generated voltage £ is larger than the terminal voltage V and the voltage equation, forthe armature cicuit is V = E ~f,Ry. Since E is constant, V decreases with increasing load. The load characteristic is as shown in Figure 21.9(b). Jn practice, the fallin voltage is about 10% berween no-load and fullload for many dc. shant-wound generators. ‘The shunt-wound generator is the type most used in practice, but the oad current must be limited to a value that is well below the miaximum value. This then avoids excessive variation ofthe terminal voltage. Typical applications are with batery charging and motor car generators (©) Serles-wound generator JIn the series-sound generator the fleld winding is connected in series with the armature as show in Figure 21.10, Characteristic ‘The load characteristic is the terminal voltagetcurent characteristic, The generated ems. E, is proportional to a» and at constant speed «(= 2nn) is a constant: Thus & is proportional to @, For values of current below magnetic saturation ofthe yoke, poles ai gups and armature core, the flux & is proportional to the current, hence £ 0: I, For values of ‘current above those required for magnetic saturation, the generated e.m is approximately constant, The values of field resistance and armature resistance in a series wound machine are small, hence the terminal volage V is very nearly equal to E. A typical load characteristic for a series generator is shown in Figure 21.11 In a series-wound generator, the field winding is in series with the armature and itis not possible co have 1 value of field current when the terminals are open circuited, thus it is not possible to obtain an open- circuit characteristic. ‘Series-wound generators are rarely used in practise, but can be used as "booster" on dc. transmission Lines (@) Compound-wound generator Jn the compound-wound generator two methods of connection are used, both having a mixture of shunt and series windings, designed to combine the advantages of each, Figure 21,12(a) shows what is termed a Tong- ‘shunt compound generator, and Figure 21.12(b) shows a shorteshunteee i roid 4 jweaing @ seme wm) b frais “ indeg ® Figure 21.12 ‘compound generator. The later is the most generally used form of de enerator, Problem 11, A short-shunt compound generator supplies 80 A at 200 V. IF the field resistance, Ry = 40 92, the series resistance, Rs. = 0.02 2 and the armature resistance, Re = 0.04 9, determine the em. generwed, ‘The circuit i shown in Figure 21.13, Ae=000 1-904 4 Figure 21.13 ‘ol drop in series winding = 1Rs, = (80)(0.02) = 1.6 V Pad, across the Meld winding = p.d. across amarure Vy = 2004 1.6 =201.6V praca, = Y= 2S wa i Armature current, Jy = 1-41 Generated em, B= Vi+ Jaks = 201.6 + 85.04)0.04) = 201.6 4 3.4015 = 205 volts Characteristics Jn cumulative-compound machines the magnetic flux produced by ‘the “series and shimt ‘fields ore aditive, Included in this group te over-compounded, level-compounded ond under-compounded ‘machines —the degree of compounding obtained depending on the umber of tams of wite on the series winding.21.8 Dac. machine losses ‘A large number of series winding turns results in an over-compounded ‘characteristic, as shown in Figure 21.14, in which the fullload terminal voltage exceeds the no-load voltage. A level-compound machine gives a full-load terminal voltage which is equal tothe no-load voltage, as shown in Figure 21.14, ‘An undercompounded machine gives a fulload terminal voltage ‘hich is less than the no-load voltage, as shown in Figure 21.14. However ‘even this later characteristic is a litle beter than that for a shunt generator alone, Lona curent Figure 21.14 Compound-wound generators are used in eleetic are welding, with lighting set and with marine equipment. Further problems on the dee. generator may be found in Section 21.17, problems 6 to 11, page 382. ‘As stated in Section 21.1, a generators a machine for converting mechan- ‘cal energy into electrical energy and a motor is a michine for converting ‘leciical energy into mechanical energy. When such conversions take place, certain losses occur which are dissipated in the Form of heat “The principal losses of machines are: Copper toss, due to FR heat losses in the armature and field windings. i) Tron (or core) loss due to hysteresis and eddy-current loses inthe ‘armature. This loss can be reduced by constructing the armature of| silicon steel laminations having a high resistivity and low hysteresis Joss. At constant speed, the ion Joss is assumed constant (ii) Friction and windage losses, due to bearing and brush contact friction and losses due to air resistance against moving. parts (called windage), At constant speed, these losses are assumed 10 ‘be constant.21.9 Efficiency of a dc. ‘generator (Gv) Bruxh contact loss between the brushes and commutator. Ths los Js approximately proportional tothe load current. ‘The total losses of 2 machine can be quite significant and operating eft ciencies of between 80% and 90% are commen, “The efficiency of an electrical machine isthe ratio of the output power t ‘the input power and is usualy expressed as a percentage. The Greek lete "a? (eta) is used to signify efficiency and since the units are power/ powe then efficiency has no units. Thus If the total resistance of the ammture circuit (ineluding brush contac ‘resistance) is Ry, then the total loss in the armature elreuit is 12Ry Tf the terminal voltage is V and che current in the shunt circuit is I, ‘then the lass in the shunt cireuit is fy V Ifthe sum ofthe iron, fiction and Wwinduge lostes is C then the tota loxses is given by: HERG GV $C Re + LV iin fot, the ‘copper loss’) ‘fhe ouput curet is , then the output power is VE “Total ingut power = VIER +1,¥ + €. Hence output we cin — Tar = (racer se) * at “The efcieney of » generator ix x maximim when the louis sch tha Re = V4 +0 ‘ue, when the variable lots = the constant loss Problem 12. A 10 KW shunt generator having an armature circuit resistance of 0.75 9 and a field resistance of 125 Q, generates a terminal voltage of 250 V at full load. Determine the efficiency of the generator at full load, assuming the iron, friction and windage losses amount to 600 W ‘The circuit is shown in Figure 21.1521.10 D.c. motors ‘Output power = 10000 W = VF 10000 _ 10000 from which load eurent | = “T°? = SES = 40 A ¥ _ 250 Field cument, ty = G = Tog = 2A Armature current, 1, = J+ =2+40= 42 A VIFER+TV +E, Bercy, 9 = ( 7 x 100% 10c00 * \ T0000 + 270-75) + (2/250) + 600, 10000 "Tas 5) 100% % 100% = 80.50% A further problem on the efficiency of a de. generator may be found in Section 21.17, problem 12, page 382. ‘The construction of a de, motor is the same as a d.c. generator. The only difference is that in a generator the generated e.m.f. is greater than the terminal voltage, whereas in a motor the generuted e.m.f, is less than the terminal voltage. D.c, motors are often used in power stations to drive emergency stand bby pump systems which come into operation to protect essential equipment and plant should the normal a.c. supplies or pumps fal Back ems, When a dee, motor rotates, an e.mf. is induced in the armature conductors. By Lenz's law this induced e.m.f. E opposes the supply voltage V and is called a back em-f, and the supply voltage, V is given by: Problem 13, A dec, motor operates from a 240 V supply. The armature resistance is 0.2 2. Determine the back em. when the armature current is $0 A. Fora motor, V = E+ 1.Ry hence back ems,, B= V —IaRy ‘= 240 — ($0)(0.2) = 240 — 10 = 230 voltsProblem 14, ‘The armature of a dic. machine has a resistance of 0.25 @ and is connected to 300 V supply. Calculate the em. generated when it fs running: (a) as a generator giving 100 A, and (yas a motor taking 80 A. (@ Asa gencrator, generated ¢ m4, E=V+I,R,q from equation (21.3), = 300+ (100)(0.25) = 300+ 25 = 325 volts (©) Asa motor, generated ems. (or back eam, E=V—IeRe, from equation (21.5), 300 — (80)(0.25) = 280 volts Further problems on back em, may be found in Section 21.17, probe Terns 13 t0 15, page 383. 21.11 Torque of a dic. From equation (215), for adc. motor, the supply voltage V is given by machine VeEtLR Mulipying each term by cument J, gives: Vi = FL + ER, ‘The term Vi is the total electrical power supplied to the armature, the term I2R, is the loss due to armature resistance, and the term 1, is the mechanical power developed by the armature IFT is the torque, in newton metres, then the mechanical power devel- oped is given by Ta: watts (see ‘Science for Engineering’) Hence Ta) = 2nnT = El, fom which, Ele torque 7 = == newton metres e168) 2m From Section 21.5, equation (21.1), the em. E generated is given by 2pOnZ E= nce ta wn (20842(222) and tongue 7 = A 2am newton metres a7) iven machine, Z, € and pare fixed values Hence tongue, [7 = @Fe | 18) Problem 15. An &-pole d.c. motor has a wave-wound armature with 900 conductors. The useful flix per pole is 25 mWb. Deter- ‘mine the torque exerted when a current of 30 A flows in each OL, From equation (21.7), torque T = (4)(25 x 10-3}(900)30) = #@) = 429.7 Nm Problem 16, Determine the torque developed by a 350.V dc. ‘motor having an armature resistance of 0.$ and running at 15 rev/s, The armature current is 60 A V=380V, 2, =059,n = 1Stevs, 1, = WA Back e.mf, E = V —I, Ry = 380 — (60)(0.5) = 320 V From equation (21.6), torque 7 = £25 = SONG) ee Sag O87 Nm Problem 17._A six-pole lap-wound motor is connected to a 280 V 4c, supply. The armature has $00 conductors and a resistance of 19. The flux per pole is 20 mWb. Calculate (a) the speed and () the torque developed when the armature current is 40 A, V = 250 V, Z = S00, Re = 1 2, © = 20x 10 Wo, 1a = 40 A, ¢= 2p for a lap winding (@) Back em, B= V—1,R, = 280 — (40)(1) = 210 V2penz 2p@20 x 10-*)n(S00) 2p 210 Hence speed m = 5 16-5 (5n0) 21 PEE or (21 x 6) = 1260 revimin Fl, _ (210/140) (b) Torque 63.66 Nm 2am ~ 2x20) Problem 18 The shaft tongue of a diesel motor driving a 100 'V dc. shunt-wound generator is 25 Nm. The armature current of the generator is 16 A at this value of torque. Ifthe shunt field regulator is adjusted so that the flux is reduced by 15%, the torque increases to 35 Nm. Determine the armature eurrent at this new value of torque. From equation (21.8), the shaft torque T of a gencrator is proportional to ©1,, where @ is the flux and J, is the armature current, Thus, T = k®1,, where k is a constant ‘The torque at flux @, and armature current [4,16 Ty = kPa. Similarly, Ts = kOslo2 Pula Oa Fala 2 _ m1 xI6 B50, x Fa 16x35 35x25 ‘That is, the armature current at the new value of torque Is 26.35 A = 2635 Problem 19, A 100 V de. generator supplies a current of 15 A ‘when running at 1500 rev/min, If the torque on the shaft driving the generator is 12 Nm, determine (a) the efficiency of the generator and (b) the power loss in the generator {a) From Section 21.9, the efficiency of a ouput power Tnput power ‘generator = 100%‘The output power is the electrical output, ie. VF watts, The input power to a generator is the mechanical power inthe shaft diving, the generator, Le. Ta or Ten) wats, where T isthe torque in Nm tnd ms speed of rotation in rev’. Hence, for a generator efficiency, 9 = x 100% vi Tom ym O0K1S}(100) (nen (= ie efcieny = 79.6% (0) The input power = ouput power + losses Hence, Tm) = VI + loses We losen = Fenn) — VF 1500 = [aren (B%)| -ta0,a91 Le. power loss = 1885 ~ 1500 = 385 W Further problems on tosses, efficiency. and torque may be found in ‘Section 21.17, problems 16 10 21, page 383. 21.12 of dc. motor (a) Shunt and thelr characteristics found motor Inthe shunt wound motor the eld winding is in parallel withthe armature across the supply as shown in Figure 21.16. For the circuit shown in Figure 21.16, ft ieee Supply voltage, V = E+ 14Ry 88h] fiStv Ti OF generated emf, E = V— Lay Lie Supply curent, = f+ 1), from Kitchhoft's caren av Figure 21.16 Problem 20, A 240 V shunt motor takes a total current of 30 A. tthe field winding resistance Ry = 150 £2 and the armature resis lance R= 0.4 determine (a) the current in the armature, and (©) the back emsTorque * Figure 21.17 a Sa Reema; = Ya ais Supply current f= 1 +1 Hence armature current, 1, = I—I, = 301.6 = 284A (©) Bukems F=V—1R, = 240 — 284/04) = 228,64 volts (Charucteristies ‘The wo principal characteristics are che tonguelarmature current and speed/armature current relationships. From these, the tonyue/speed rela tonship can be derived. (The theoretical rorque/armarare curren chartcterstc ean be derived from the expression T cc @1,, (see Section 21.11). For a shunt ‘wound motor, tbe feld winding is connected in parallel with the armature cicuit and thus the applied voliage gives a constant field ‘current, ie. a shunt-wound motor is a constant lux machine, Since @ is constant, it follows that To f,, and the characteristic is as shown in Figure 21.17. (The armature circuit of ad. motor has resistance due to the armma- ‘te winding and brashes, R, ofims, and when armstare current 1, fs flowing through it, there is a voltage drop of 7,R, volts. In Figure 21,16 the armature resistance is shown as a separate resistor in the ermamire circuit to help understanding, Also, even though the ‘machine is a motor, because conductors are otaing in a magnetic field, a voliuge, E ox a, is generated by the armature conductor From equation (21.5) V = E+ 1,R, o B= V—1,R, However, ftom Section 21.5, £ cc @n, hence no E/®, ie E_V-bR speed of ration, n 0 oc M2 ais) Foc a shunt motor, V, @ and Ry are constants, hence ws armature ‘current 7, ineteases, FR, increases and V —i,R decreases, and the speed is proportional to a quantity which iS decreasing and is as shown in Figure 21.18. As the lood on the shaft of the motor Increases, 1, inereases and the speed drops slightly. In practice, the speed falls by about 10% between no-load and full-load on many dc. shua-wound motors, Due to this relatively samall drop in speed, the dc. shunt-wound motor is taken as basically being 2 ‘constant-speed machine and may be used for driving lathes, ines of Shall fans, conveyor bls, pumps, ompresor ding mecinesFigure 21.19 (Gi) Since torque is proportional to armature current, (see (i) above), the theoretical speed torque characteristic is as shown in Figure 21.19, Problem 21, A 200 V, de. shunt-wound motor has an armature fesatance of 0.4 © and at a certain load has an armature current of 30.A and runs at 1380 rev/min Ifthe load onthe shaft ofthe motor is increased so thatthe armature current increases to 45 A, deter= imine the speed of the motor, assuming the flux remains constant. ‘The relationship E 0% n applies to both generators and motors. For a moto, E=V—1.Ry (see equation 21.5) Hence E: = 200 — 30 x 0.4 = 188 V, 82 V. and Ey = 200-45 x 0.4 ‘The relaionsip, Fm $21 applies to both generators und motors. Since the fux is constant, ©; 225 x 182 Tee ‘Thus the speed of the motor when the armature current is 45 A is 21.78 x 60 revimin, i.e. 1307 revimin m= = 21,78 rev/s Problem 22. A 220V, de. shunt-wound motor runs at ‘800 rev/min and the armature current is 30 A. The armature circuit resistance is 04 ©. Determine (a) the maximum value of armature current if the lux is suddenly reduced by 10% and (b) che steady state value of the armature current at the new value of flux, ‘assuming the sheft torque of the motor remains constant, (@) For ade, shunt-wound motor, E'= V — Iyke, Hence intial gener- Med e mf, Ey = 220 — 30 x 0.4 = 208 V. The generated emf. is also such that £ on, so atthe instant the ux is reduced, the speed has not had time to change, and E = 208 x 90/100 = 187.2 V. Hence, the voltage drop duc to the armeture resistance is 220 — 137.2, Le,, 328 V. The instantaneous value of the current is 32,90.4, ie, 82 A. This increase in curent is about three times the initia value and causes an increase in torque, (To 14). The motor accelerates because of the larger torque value until steady ate conditions are reached. (0) Te ©F, and since the torgue is constant, © ilu, = @alaa. The Mux @ is reduced by 10%, henceFigure 21.20 fret Figure 21.21 pose] Figure 21.22 Caren? Caner) e 99, ‘Thus, ©, x 30-= 0.90) x La, i hey ste ve ame cr Je = 32 () Series-wound motor {nthe series wound motor the Held winding isi series with the arma across the supply as shown in Figure 21.20, For the series motor shosm in Figure 2120, Supply voluge V= E+ 1(Ra+ Ry) or generated em. B= V—1(R,+2;) Characteristies series motor, the armature current flows in the field winding and, to the supply current, 7. (The torquefcurrent characteristic I is shown in Section 21.11 that tonque T oc 4. Since the arm ture and field currents are the same current, 1. ina series machin then T oc 7 over a limited range, before magnetic saturation oft ‘magnetic circuit of the motor is reached, ((e, the linear portion the B-H curve for the yoke, poles, ait gap, brushes and. arm ture in series). Thus ® oc and TocI?, After magnetic satu tion, © almost becomes a constant and 7 oJ. Thus the theoretic tonyueleurrent characteristic is as shown in Figure 21.21. (i) The speedieurrent characteristic kis shown im equation (21.9) that oc (V — 14R}/®. Ina si motor, f, = and below dhe magnetic sauaton level, © oc. Th mac(V “I8)/1 where Ris the combined resistnce ofthe sex field and armature circuit. Since 7 is small compared wi V, dh an approximate relationship for the speed is n cc V/P ex 1/1 sn V is constant. Henes the theoretical speedicurent characteristic 4s shown in Figure 21.22. The high speed a small values of cure indicate that this type of motor must not be run on very light loa tnd invariably, such motors are permanently coupled to their load (i) The theoredcal speed/torque characteristic may be desived fro ) and (i) above by obtaining the torque and speed for vario values of current and plotting the co-ordinates om the speed/orq characteristics. A typical speed/torque characteristic #8 shown Figure 21.23A de, series motor takes a large current on starting and the saad characterisie shown in Figure 21.21 shows thatthe series-wound ™ motor has a large torque when the curent is large. Hence these ‘motors ae used for traction such as trains, milk delivery vehicles, ce), driving fans and for cranes und hoists, where a large intial torque is required, a Tom T Problem 23, _A series motor has an armature resistance of 0.2 9 ‘and a series fled resistance of 0.3 ©. It is connected wo a 240 V ‘Figure 21.23 ‘supply and at a particular load runs at 24 rev/s when drawing 15 A. ‘rom the supply. (@) Determine the generated e.m fat this load. () Calculate the speed of the motor when the load is changed such that the current is increased to 30 A. Assume that this causes a doubling ofthe flux. (a) With reference to Figure 21.20, generated em E, is given by Ey a V (Rs +R) = 240 — (15}(0.2 + 0.3) = 240 - 7.5 = 232.5 volts (&) When the current is increased to 30.A, the generated eam. is siven by: Fy V— HR +R) = 240 ~ (3030.2 + 0.3) = 240 — 15 = 225 vols Now emt Bon i om at initial load, ‘series waste te E* Gans Lye 225 __ a0 ie, FS oe OC ince Os = 201 a, ms ~ Bex) 24)(225) Hence sped of motor, a = SNE 11.6 reve te As the curent hasbeen increased fom 15 A to 30 A, the speed has Sates decreased from 24 revsto 11.6 revi. hs speedcurent characteristic ana is similar to Figure 21.22 i Ye J fo edn (© Compound-wound motor ‘There are two types of compound Wound motor: c (Cumulative compound, in which he series winding isso connected Figure 21.24 thatthe field due to ic afssts that due tothe shunt windingLAS The eflitency of a (i) Dilferential compound, in which the series winding isso connected ‘hat the field due to it opposes that due to the shunt winding Figure 21.24(a) shows a long-shunt compound motor and Figure 21.24(b) a shortshunt compound motor. Characteristies ‘A compound-wound motor has both a series and a shunt field winding, (Le. one winding in series and one in paralle) with the armature), and is ‘usally wound 1 have a characteristic similar in shape to a series wound motor (see Figures 21.21-21.23). A limited amount of shunt winding is present 10 restrict the no-load speed to a safe value. However, by varying the number of tms on the series and shant windings and the directions of the magnetic fields produced by these windings (assisting ‘oF opposing), families of characteristics may be obtsined to euit almost all applications. Generally, compound-vound motors are used for heavy duties, pariculary in applications where sudden heavy load may occ ‘sch as for driving plunger pumps, prestes, geared lit, conveyors, hoists and 50 on "Typical compound motor torque and speed characteristics are shown in Figure 21.25. It wns stated in Section 21.9, that the effcieney of a dc, machine is siven by: ourput power eft "04. = Sopot power Aso, the total losses = /2R. + 1) V + C (fora shunt motor) where Cis the sum of the iron, friction and windage losses. For & motor, the input power = VI and the ouput power = VI — losses = VI-ER,-1,V—C VE Tom =v -€ vo | ets v= (=H Jw | xin ‘The efficiency of 2 motor is @ maximum when the load is such that: ER, =1V +eProblem 24, A 320 V shunt motor takes a total current of 80 A and runs at 1000 rev/min. If the iron, friction and windage losses amount to 1.5 kW, the shunt field resistance is 40 9 and the arma- ture resistance is 0.2 ©, determine the overall efficiency of the ‘motor. ‘The circuit is shown in Figure 21.26. began & Figure 21.26 Armature current 1, penn = (Bt = 0m (320)(80) — (72) (0.2) — (8)(320) — 1500 ‘B20 /(80) ) x 100%, “{ ae (reo Problem 25. A 250 V series motor draws a current of 40 A. The armature resistance is 0.15 © and the field resistance is 0.05 2. Determine the maximum efficiency of the motor. ‘The circuit is as shown in Figure 21.27y= 005 4 — v=250¥ A015 Figure 21.27 From equation (21.10), efficieney, ga (VIR TRe=1eP CY 00 VE However for a scries motor, /y = 0 and the /2R, loss needs to be PR +R) Vi- PR, + RIC to cag (PBA L) For maximum efficiency 7(R, + Ry) = C VI = 20a + Ry) fiber ) 10% __ ( (250140) — 2040 700.15 + 0.05) a (250)(40) (= 640 ) 10% 10000 ( 9360 10000, x 100% ) 100% = 95.6% Problem 26, A 200V de. motor develops a shaft torque of 15 Nm at 1200 revimin, If the efficiency is 80%, determine the ‘current supplied to the motor. ‘ourput power “pat power ‘The output power of a motor is the power available to do work at its shaft and is given by Tw or T(2rn) watts, where 7 is the torque in Nm and n. ‘The efficiency of a motor = x 100%21.14 Dec. motor starter is the speed of rotation in revs. The input power is the electrical power in wats supplied to the motor, ie. VI watts Tex) Thus for « mois, efficiency, = “=? x 100% (45)2)(1200/60) ie, 20 = (| (oo “Thus the current supplied, 1 = SXCRCVUO = 1g 4 (2o0y80) Problem 27, Ade, sees motor drives a load at 30 rev/s and takes ‘current of 10 A when the supply voltage is 400 V. If the total resistance of the motor is 2 @ and the iron, fiction and windage losses amount to 300 W, determine the efficiency of the motor. ficiency, (HEE =) som 1032 2) — 300) FOOKIO) (2 ) i = (27229) come = (22) x10 =a Further problems on de. motors may be found in Section 22.17, problems 22 10 30, page 384. If a de. motor whose armature is stationary is switched directly to its supply voltage, itis likely that the fuses protecting the motor will burn ‘ut, This is because the armature resistance is small, frequently being less than one ob. Thus, addtional resistance must be added to the armature uit atthe instant of closing the switch to start the motor. ‘As the speed of the motor increases, the armature conductors are cutting flux and a generated voltage, acting in opposition to the applied voltage, produced, which limits the low of armature current. Thus the value of the additional armature resistance can then be reduced. ‘When at normal running speed, the generated emf. is such that 10 additional resistance is required in the armature circuit. To achieve this varying resistance in the armature circuit on staring, a d.c. motor starter fs used, as shown in Figure 21.28,21.15 Speed control of dic. motors Figure 21.28 ‘The starting handle is moved slowly ina clockwise direction to start the ‘motor. For a shunt-wound motor, the field winding is connected to stud or to L. via a sliding contact of the staring handle, to give maximum field current, hence maximum flux, hence maximum torque on starting, since T x @1. ‘A similar arrangement without the field connection is used for series motors, Shunt-wound motors ‘The speed ofa shunt-wound d.c. motor. nis proportional to (V~Z.R,)/® (Gee equation (21.9)). The speed is varied either by varying the value of flux, ®, or by varying the value of R,. The former is achieved by 18 4 variable resistor in series with the field winding, us shown in Figure 21.2%) and such a resistor is called the shunt field regulator. As the value of resistance of the shunt field regulator is increased, the value of the feld current, y, is decreased. ‘This results ina decrease in the value of flux, & and hence an increase inthe speed, since n oc 1/®, Thus only speeds above that given without a shunt field regulator can be obtained by this method. Speeds below those piven by (V—1,R.)/@ are obtained by increasing the resistance in the amature circuit, 28 shown in Figure 21.29(b), where og Vo talRa +R) " cy ‘Since resistor R is in series with the armature, it caries the full arma- ture current and results in a large power loss in large motors where a ‘considerable speed reduction is required for long periods. These methods of speed control are demonstrated in the following worked problem,Problem 28. A 500 V shunt motor runs at its normal speed of 10 rev/s when the armature current is 120 A, The armature resis tance is 0.2 9. (2) Determine the speed when the current is 60 A and a resistance of 0 @ is connected in series with the armature, the shunt field remaining constant. (©) Determine the speed when the current is 60 A and the shunt field is reduced to 80% of its normal value by increasing resistance in the feld circuit (a) With reference to Figure 21.29(b), buck eum at 120 A, £1 = V— Jas = $00 — (120)0.2) = 500 = 24 = 476 volts When Jy = 60 A, Ex = 500 ~ (60)(0.2 +0.5) = 500 (0307) 1 50042 = 48 vos om Now Ey 8am £15 9110) ag “e338 Baa) Oe __ Hoyas fom which speed m= LOD 962 ene (b) Buck exmf, when Jy = 60 A, E> = 500 — (60)(0.2) Now # oe fom which, peed ny = CONEY = 12.82 reve Serles-wound motors “The speed control of series-wound motors is achieved using either (a) field resistance, ot (b) armature resistance techniques. (a) The speed of « de. seres-wound motor is given by: ran)Figure 2130 ‘where k isa constant, V isthe terminal voluge, R is dhe combined resistance of the armature and series field and & is the fx. ‘Thus, a reduction in flux results in an increase in speed. This is achieved by putting a variable resistance in parallel with the Seld- ‘winding and reducing the field cureat, and hence ux, for a given value of supply current. A circuit diagram of this arrangement is shown in Figure 21.30(a) A variable resistor connected in parallel ‘with the series-wound field to contol speed is called a diverter. Speeds above those given with no diverter are obtained by this ‘method, Problem 29 below demonstrates this method. (b) Speeds below normal are obtained by connecting a variable resistor in series with the feld winding und urmawre cireuit, as shown in Figure 21.30(b). This effectively increases the value of ® in the equation noe(GA) ‘and thus reduces the speed. Since the additional resistor cares the {ull supply curren, a large power loss is associated with large motors in which a considerable speed reduction is required for long periods ‘This method is demonstrated in problem 30. Problem 29, On fullload 300 V series motor takes 90 A and rns at 15 revis, The armature resistance is 0.1 © and the series ‘winding resistance i 50 m®2. Determine the speed when developing fall load torque but with a 0.2 © diverer in parallel withthe field ‘winding. (Assume thatthe Bux is proportional tothe field current) ‘At 300 V, ems, Fy = ¥—IR SV AHR +R, = 300 — (000.1 40.05) 300 — (90)(0.15) = 300 — 13,5 = 286.5 volts ‘With the 0.2 © diverter im parallel with Rag (soe Figure 21.30(@), 0.20.05) _ @.2)(0.05) OR+ 005 mtu the equivalent resistance, R= By caret vn, come Gn Baw 2.206) = (5502 55) ow ‘Torque, T oc 1, and for full load torque, 1p = Las‘Since flux is proportional to field current ©; oc Jq1 and 0 0.8142 then (90)(90) = (142)(0.8!et) Hence emf. By = V —Jaa(Ra +R) = 300 — (100.62)(0.1 + 0.04) = 300 — (100.62)(0.14) = 300 — 14,087 = 285.9 volts Ay Om dam Now ems, £ & n from which, Om,” O8lam (286.5) _ _(90)(15) "285.9. ~ TB\UO0.622 (285. 9)(90)15) and new speed, na = Gers ayron aay = 1674 Fev ‘Thus the speed of the moior has increased from 15 rev/s (ie, 900 rev/min) to 16.74 rev’s (ie 1004 revimin) by inserting a 0.2 9 diverter resistance in parallel with the series winding. Problem 30, A series motor nuns at 800 rev/min when the voliage is 400 V and the current is 25 A. The armature resistance is 0.4 ‘and the series field resistance is 0.2 £2. Determine the resistance to bbe connceted in series to reduce the speed 10 600 rev/min with the ‘same current. With reference to Figure 21.30(b), at 800 rev/min, ams, Ey = V = 1(Ra + Ree 400 = (25)(0.4 + 0.2) 400 — (25)00.6) = 400— 15 = 385 volts ‘At 600 rev/min, since the eurent is unchanged, the flux is unchanged. Ths or ead 2 am 335 _ 900 MH S.8 from which, £; = 28X00 58.75 vors B00) ‘and Ey = V ~1Ry + Rg +B)21.16 Motor cooling Hence 288.75 = 400 — 25(0.4 40.2 +R) Rearranging gives: 0.6 + R = as = 445 from which, extra series resistance, R = 4.45 — 0.6 ie, R=3859 ‘Thus the addition of a series resistance of 3.85 © has reduced the speed from 800 rev/min to 600 rev/min Further problems on the speed control of d.c. motors may be found in Section 21.17, problems 31 to 33, page 384. ‘Motors are often classified according to the type of enclosure used, the type depending on the conditions under which the motor is used and the degree of ventilation required. ‘The most common type of protection is the screen-protected type, where ventilation is achieved by fitting a fan internally, with the openings at the end of the motor fitted with wire mesh, A drip-proof type is similar to the screen-protected type but has a cover over the screen to prevent drips of water entering the machine, A flame-proof type is usually cooled by the conduction of heat through the motor casing. With a pipe-ventilated type, air is piped into the motor from a dust-free area, and an internally fitted fan ensures the circulation of this cool air.