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The Cambridge Companion to Operetta

Those whose thoughts of musical theatre are dominated by the

Broadway musical will find this book a revelation. From the 1850s
to the early 1930s, when urban theatres sought to mount glamorous
musical entertainment, it was to operetta that they turned. It was a
form of musical theatre that crossed national borders with ease and
was adored by audiences around the world. This collection of essays
by an array of international scholars examines the key figures in
operetta in many different countries. It offers a critical and
historical study of the widespread production of operetta and of the
enthusiasm with which it was welcomed. Furthermore, it challenges
nationalistic views of music and approaches operetta as a
compositional genre. This Cambridge Companion contributes to a
widening appreciation of the music of operetta and a deepening
knowledge of the cultural importance of operetta around the world.

a n a s t a s i a b e l i n a is Senior Research Fellow at the University

of Leeds. She is author and editor of A Musician Divided (2013), Die
tägliche Mühe ein Mensch zu sein (2013), Wagner in Russia, Poland
and the Czech Lands (2013, co-edited edition) and The Business of
Opera (2015, co-edited with Derek B. Scott). Between 2014 and
2019 she researched the reception of German operetta in Warsaw as
part of an ERC-funded project. She is currently working on the BBC
and AHRC project Forgotten Female Composers for which she is
researching the life and work of Augusta Holmès.

d e r ek b . sc o t t is Professor of Critical Musicology at the

University of Leeds. His books include Sounds of the Metropolis
(2008) and Musical Style and Social Meaning (2010). His musical
compositions include two symphonies for brass band and an
operetta, Wilberforce. He has also worked professionally as a singer,
actor and pianist in radio, TV, concert hall and theatre. In 2014, he
was awarded an Advanced Grant by the European Research
Council to fund a five-year project researching the twentieth-
century reception of operettas from the German stage on Broadway
and in the West End.

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The Cambridge Companion to

OPERETTA
..........................

EDITED BY

Anastasia Belina
University of Leeds
Derek B. Scott
University of Leeds

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Names: Belina, Anastasia. | Scott, Derek B.
Title: The Cambridge companion to operetta / edited by Anastasia Belina, Derek B. Scott.
Description: Cambridge, United Kingdom ; New York, NY : Cambridge University Press,
2019. | Includes bibliographical references and index.
Identifiers: LCCN 2019018392 | ISBN 9781107182165 (alk. paper)
Subjects: LCSH: Operetta.
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Contents

List of Illustrations page xi

List of Tables xii
List of Music Examples xiii
Notes on Contributors xiv
Chronology, 1855–1950 xix

Introduction
Anastasia Belina and Derek B. Scott 1

Part I Early Centres of Operetta 15

1 French Operetta: Offenbach and Company
John Kenrick 17
2 Viennese Golden-Age Operetta: Drinking, Dancing and Social
Criticism in a Multi-Ethnic Empire
Lisa Feurzeig 32
3 London and Gilbert and Sullivan
Bruno Bower 47
4 Hungarians and Hungarianisms in Operetta and Folk
Plays in the Late-Habsburg and Post-Habsburg Era
Lynn M. Hooker 61
5 Operetta in the Czech National Revival: The Provisional
Theatre Years
Jan Smaczny 76

Part II The Global Expansion of Operetta 87

6 Going Global: The International Spread of Viennese Silver-Age
Operetta
Stefan Frey 89
7 Spain and Zarzuela
Christopher Webber 103
8 Camping along the American Operetta Divide (on the Road
to the Musical Play)
Raymond Knapp 120
9 Operetta in Russia and the USSR
Anastasia Belina 135
10 Operetta in the Nordic Countries (1850–1970)
Pentti Paavolainen 149

[ix]

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x Contents

11 Operetta in Greece
Avra Xepapadakou 167

Part III Operetta since 1900 187

12 The Operetta Factory: Production Systems of
Silver-Age Vienna
Micaela K. Baranello 189
13 Berlin Operetta
Tobias Becker 205
14 Operetta in Italy
Valeria De Lucca 220
15 Operetta in Warsaw
Anastasia Belina 232
16 British Operetta after Gilbert and Sullivan
Derek B. Scott 246
17 Operetta During the Nazi Regime
Matthias Kauffmann 261
18 Operetta Films
Derek B. Scott 272
19 Australian Director Barrie Kosky on the Subversiveness of a
Predominantly Jewish Genre: An Interview by Ulrich Lenz
Barrie Kosky and Ulrich Lenz 286

Select Bibliography 295

Index 305

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Illustrations

8.1 Emma Trentini disguised as a Gipsy boy in

‘Italian Street Song’ page 129
9.1 Entrance to the Theatre Bouffe, 1909 138
11.1 The duet ‘My star-born love’ from the operetta Count
Sparrow by Pavlos Carrer as published in To Asty,
18 December 1888 172
11.2 A scene from the Greek version (entitled Gingolette) of the
Viennese operetta Libellentanz by Franz Lehár printed on
the cover of the musical score 175
11.3 The Godson by Theofrastos Sakellaridis. Cover page
of the printed programme for the production of the Greek
National Opera, 1995–6 177
11.4 The cover of the musical score of the Greek operetta
The Woman of the Streets by Nikos Hadjiapostolou 181
11.5 The operetta protagonist Melpomeni Kolyva, c.1910 183
15.1 Teatr Nowości 234
15.2 Nowości prices 236
15.3 Lucyna Messal and Józef Redo 242
18.1 Film cast of Die Csárdásfürstin 276

[xi]

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Tables

3.1 Gilbert and Sullivan collaborations page 50

5.1 The most frequently performed operettas in the
Provisional Theatre, Prague 79
12.1 Major Viennese operetta newspaper critics 199

[xii]

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Music Examples

0.1 ‘Fable’ from Le financier et le savetier, lyrics

by H. Crémieux, music by J. Offenbach page 5
7.1 La revoltosa, ‘¿Por qué no me miras? ¿Por qué?’ 111
7.2 La revoltosa, ‘¡Ay, Felipe de mi alma!’ 111
7.3 El asombro de Damasco, ‘Soy Alimón. Soy el Cadí’ 116
16.1 ‘Lippen schweigen’ from Die lustige Witwe 251
16.2 ‘Love Will Find a Way’ from The Maid of the Mountains 251

[xiii]

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Notes on Contributors

Micaela K. Baranello is Assistant Professor of Music at the University of Arkansas.

Her book in progress, The Operetta Empire, examines operetta in Vienna from
1900 to 1930. Her publications include ‘Die lustige Witwe and the Creation of the
Silver Age of Viennese Operetta’ (Cambridge Opera Journal) and articles in the
Journal of the American Musicological Society, Opera Quarterly and Puccini and
His World, as well as a number of features and reviews in The New York Times.
She has received the Mellon/ACLS Fellowship and a Fulbright study grant in
Austria.
Tobias Becker is a research fellow at the German Historical Institute London where
he is working on the ‘nostalgia wave’ during the 1970s. Before joining the GHIL
he worked on popular musical theatre. Publications include Inszenierte Moderne.
Populäres Theater in Berlin and London, 1880–1930 (2014) and Popular Musical
Theatre in London and Berlin, 1890–1939 (edited with Len Platt and David
Linton, 2014).
Anastasia Belina is a senior research fellow at the School of Music, University of
Leeds, where she worked with Derek B. Scott on an ERC-funded project, German
Operetta in London and New York in 1907–37: Cultural Transfer and
Transformation. She is author and editor of A Musician Divided: André
Tchaikowsky in His Own Words (2013), Die tägliche Mühe ein Mensch zu sein
(2013), Wagner in Russia, Poland and the Czech Lands: Musical, Literary, and
Cultural Perspectives (2013, co-edited edition) and The Business of Opera (2015,
co-edited with Derek B. Scott). She is also an opera director and librettist, has
appeared on BBC3 and presented a documentary film Rebel of the Keys (2015).
Bruno Bower studied at Oriel College, Oxford; Birmingham Conservatoire and
King’s College London. He completed his PhD at the Royal College of Music
in 2016 with a thesis on critical readings of the programme notes written by
George Grove for the Crystal Palace Saturday Concerts between 1865 and 1879,
illuminating the ideas and ideology surrounding music in Victorian Britain. His
doctoral work was supported by a Lucy Ann Jones and a Douglas and Hilda
Simmonds Award, as well as by an AHRC Doctoral Studentship. He now teaches
music history and analysis modules for various colleges at Cambridge University,
and music appreciation evening classes in the Centre for Languages, Culture and
Communication at Imperial College London. He became a devotee of Gilbert
and Sullivan through regular performances as an oboist in the orchestra for
numerous productions of the Savoy Operas.
Valeria De Lucca is Associate Professor of Music at the University of Southampton.
She is interested in opera and musical theatre, with particular emphasis on
questions of gender and patronage, singers and systems of production in early
modern Europe, and on the reception and adaptation of foreign operetta in Italy
[xiv]

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xv Notes on Contributors

at the end of the nineteenth century. She has published articles and chapters in
The Journal of Musicology, Renaissance Studies, Early Music, The Journal of
Seventeenth-Century Music and The Oxford Handbook of Opera (ed. by Helen
Greenwald). Her forthcoming publications include the monograph The Politics
of Princely Entertainment: Music and Spectacle in the Lives of Lorenzo Onofrio
and Maria Mancini Colonna (1659–1689) (Oxford University Press) and the
collection of essays Sound, Space and the Performance of Identity in Early Modern
Rome (co-edited with Christine Jeanneret; Routledge).
Lisa Feurzeig is Professor of Music at Grand Valley State University in Michigan.
Her research is centred on text–music relations in vocal music, especially
German art song, the Viennese popular theatre and Wagner’s operas. In her
book, Schubert’s Lieder and the Philosophy of Early German Romanticism, she
argues that Schubert created musical equivalents for complex abstract ideas in
settings of Schlegel and Novalis. Her critical edition with John Sienicki,
Quodlibets of the Viennese Theater, explores practices of musical quotation and
reference. Her first operetta-focussed project is a study of political meanings in
the 2004 Vienna Volksoper production of Kálmán’s Herzogin von Chicago. She is
an organizer of concerts and symposia in Hermann, Missouri, tracing aspects of
German-American musical culture. As a performing singer, she has emphasized
early music, lieder and music since 1900.
Stefan Frey is a writer, broadcaster, lecturer, dramaturg and director. As an assistant
director at the Deutsche Schauspielhaus Hamburg, LTT Tübingen and
Thüringer Landestheater Rudolstadt, he directed several productions. From
2004 to 2006 he was the head of the Studio Theatre of the Institute for Theatre
Studies at Munich University; since then, he has been lecturer there and at the
University of Vienna. Frey is the author of numerous articles on operetta in
academic and non-academic publications, radio features and books such as
Franz Lehár oder das schlechte Gewissen der leichten Musik (Tübingen 1995),
Was sagt ihr zu diesem Erfolg. Franz Lehár und die Unterhaltungsmusik des 20.
Jahrhunderts (Frankfurt a. M. / Leipzig 1999), Emmerich Kálmán: Unter Tränen
lachen (Berlin 2003; English translation: Culver City 2014) and Leo Fall.
Spöttischer Rebell der Operette (Vienna 2010).
Lynn M. Hooker is Associate Professor of Music History at Purdue University’s
Rueff School of Visual and Performing Arts with a courtesy appointment in the
Department of History. Her book Redefining Hungarian Music from Liszt to
Bartók was published in 2013 by Oxford University Press. She has published on
music and modernism, nationalism, race and popular and folk culture in (among
other places) Musical Quarterly, Anthropology of East Europe Review, Twentieth-
Century Music, Ethnomusicology and European Meetings in Ethnomusicology.
After beginning her scholarly career working on the history of music and culture
through historical documents, she began in 2000 doing systematic fieldwork in
both Europe and North America in Hungarian folk and popular music scenes,
focussing on the role of Romani performers. She is currently drafting a book on
the transformation of the ‘Gipsy music’ industry in twentieth-century Hungary,
based on oral history interviews and archival research.

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xvi Notes on Contributors

Matthias Kauffmann is a lecturer at the Ludwig-Maximilians-University Munich.

His PhD thesis, funded with a scholarship of the Studienstiftung des deutschen
Volkes, focussed on popular musical theatre in the Third Reich. In collaboration
with Jens Malte Fischer, he has curated an exhibition of Gustav Mahler (Theatre
Museum, Munich, 2010/11) and has also worked as an assistant director with
Thalia-Theatre (Hamburg), Frankfurt Opera and the Bavarian State Opera. In
2015 he began working as a dramaturg for musical theatre at Stadttheater
Gießen.
John Kenrick, an internationally recognized authority on the history of musical
theatre, combines a passion for entertainment history with the practical know-
how earned working on stage productions at every level from amateur to
Broadway. He served as personal assistant to six Tony-winning producers,
working on such Broadway productions as the Pulitzer Prize-winning Rent. He
created the educational website Musicals101.com and has taught courses on
musical theatre history at New York University’s Steinhardt School,
Marymount College, Philadelphia’s University of the Arts and The New School
University. He is the author of Musical Theatre: A History, The Complete Idiot’s
Guide to Amateur Theatricals and contributed a history of Broadway to the
Carolina Academic Press textbook Theatre Law. He has appeared on PBS,
A&E’s Biography, BBC TV and radio, National Public Radio and in numerous
DVD documentaries.
Raymond Knapp, Distinguished Professor of Musicology and Humanities at UCLA,
has authored five books and co-edited two others, including Symphonic
Metamorphoses: Subjectivity and Alienation in Mahler’s Re-Cycled Songs
(2003), The American Musical and the Formation of National Identity (2005;
winner of the George Jean Nathan Award for Dramatic Criticism), The American
Musical and the Performance of Personal Identity (2006) and The Oxford
Handbook of the American Musical (2011, with Mitchell Morris and Stacy
Wolf). His published essays address a wide range of additional interests, includ-
ing Beethoven, Wagner, Brahms, Tchaikovsky, Mahler, nationalism, musical
allusion, music and identity, camp and film music. His recent book, Making
Light (2018), considers Haydn and American popular music in the context of
German idealism.
Barrie Kosky is a director in the field of opera and theatre. As a director he is
working in international houses such as Bayerische Staatsoper in Munich, The
Bayreuth Festival, Glyndebourne Festival Opera, The Salzburg Festival, Teatro
Real Madrid, Oper Frankfurt, The Royal Opera House, Covent Garden, the
English National Opera London, Opernhaus Zürich and the Opernhaus
Amsterdam, as well as at houses such as Deutsches Theater Berlin and
Schauspiel Frankfurt. He was the Artistic Director of the Adelaide Festival in
1996, Artistic Co-Director of Schauspielhaus Wien from 2001 to 2005, and since
2012 he has managed Komische Oper Berlin as General Manager and Artistic
Director.
Ulrich Lenz studied musicology, drama and art history in Munich, Berlin and Milan.
During his stay in Italy, as correspondent for the newspaper Die Welt, he

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reported regularly on cultural events in northern Italy. He began his theatre

career in the season 1997–8 as an assistant dramaturg at the State Opera,
Stuttgart. In succeeding years, he worked as an opera dramaturg at theatres in
Linz and Mannheim. In 2006 he became chief dramaturg of the Staatsoper,
Hanover, and, since 2012, he has been chief dramaturg in Barrie Kosky’s leading
team at the Komische Oper, Berlin.
Pentti Paavolainen is an independent scholar who worked previously for many
years as a research professor at the Theatre Academy in Helsinki. His recent work
consists of a three-volume biography of the theatre and opera manager, founder
of the Finnish Theatre company, Kaarlo Bergbom (research funded by the
Finnish Academy and private foundations). From 2004 to 2006, he was
President of the Society of Theatre Research in Finland, and he has also served
two terms in office as President of the Nordic Society for Theatre Research
(1995–9). His contributions to edited collections have been numerous, and his
articles have been published in the journals Nordic Theatre Studies and Synteesi
(Synthesis). His history of theatre in Finland is accessible on the Uniarts.fi pages.
Derek B. Scott is Professor of Critical Musicology at the University of Leeds. He
researches into music, culture and ideology and, among other books, is the
author of The Singing Bourgeois (1989, R/2001), From the Erotic to the
Demonic: On Critical Musicology (2003), Sounds of the Metropolis: The 19th-
Century Popular Music Revolution in London, New York, Paris, and Vienna
(2008) and German Operetta on Broadway and in the West End, 1900–1940
(Cambridge University Press, 2019). He has edited or co-edited numerous books,
including The Ashgate Research Companion to Popular Musicology (2009) and
Confronting the National in the Musical Past (2018). He has written numerous
articles in which he has been at the forefront in identifying changes of critical
perspective in the socio-cultural study of music.
Jan Smaczny is well known as an authority on many aspects of Czech music. As an
academic he has taught at the universities of Oxford, Birmingham and Queen’s
Belfast, where he is Emeritus Professor of Music. His publications include a book
on Dvořák’s B Minor cello concerto (Cambridge University Press, 1999) and
edited collections of essays on Irish Music (Music in Nineteenth-Century Ireland,
Four Courts Press, 2007) and Bach’s B minor-Mass (Exploring Bach’s B minor
Mass, Cambridge University Press, 2013). Much of his work has been based on
archival research into the operatic repertoire of the Prague Provisional and
Czech National Theatres. Of particular relevance to the present project is his
book, The Daily Repertoire of the Prague Provisional Theatre (Prague, 1994) an
extensively annotated catalogue of operas and operettas performed in the theatre
and ‘Grand Opera in the Czech Lands’ (in David Charlton ed., The Cambridge
Companion to Grand Opera, Cambridge University Press, 2003).
Christopher Webber is an actor, stage director and writer, and a leading authority
on Spanish Zarzuela. His book The Zarzuela Companion (Scarecrow Press, 2002,
with foreword by Plácido Domingo) is the standard English-language reference
work on the genre. A major contributor to the Oxford Companion to Music
(Oxford University Press, 2002), he wrote and edited many entries on Iberian

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xviii Notes on Contributors

and Ibero-American genres, composers and countries. As Editor in Chief since

1997 of the internet portal zarzuela.net, he has published many articles and
reviews on Spanish lyric theatre, and he is a regular, wide-ranging contributor
to Opera magazine. Webber has lectured and published on zarzuela for interna-
tional symposia at the Universities of Sheffield (UK), Tübingen (Germany),
Oviedo and Valencia (Spain) and has directed and performed zarzuela in
London’s West End, as well as adapting two zarzuelas for Santa Fé Opera. He
also serves on the theatre and music panels of the Dictionary of National
Biography.
Avra Xepapadakou is a lecturer at the Department of Philology, Division of Theatre
and Music Studies, University of Crete, where she teaches history of theatre and
opera. Her research interests focus on nineteenth-century theatre, music and
cultural life. She has published articles and papers on topics such as the relations
between Italian and Ionian opera, the question of westernization/orientalism in
modern Greek theatre and art music, the foreign opera troupes touring in
nineteenth-century south-eastern Europe and the Orient and the invasion of
operetta on the modern Greek stage. The subject of her recent book is the Ionian
opera composer Pavlos (Paolo) Carrer (Athens, 2013). She is the project leader of
the research project ‘Archivio’, concerning the theatre archive of Romeo
Castellucci and the Socìetas Raffaello Sanzio. In the spring of 2015 (February–
May) she conducted research at the California State University, Sacramento, and
recently she was granted a research visitorship from the Balzan Musicology 2012
Programme Towards a Global History of Music (2015–16).

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Chronology, 1855–1950

Sources include the Zeittafel in Bernard Grun, Kulturgeschichte der Operette

(Munich: Langen Müller Verlag, 1961), 552–63; the chronology in Ewen,
European Light Opera, 263–7; Bernard Grun, The Timetables of History: A
Horizontal Linkage of People and Events (New York: Simon and Schuster,
new edition 1979); Hywell Williams, Cassell’s Chronology of World History:
Dates, Events and Ideas that Made History (London: Weidenfeld &
Nicolson, 2005), and Music and History http://musicandhistory.com/.

1855 Alexander II becomes Tsar of Russia. Leaves of Grass, Walt

Whitman. Les deux aveugles and Ba-ta-clan, Offenbach.
1856 Crimean War ends. Sigmund Freud born. Les Contemplations,
Hugo. Le financier et le savetier, Offenbach. Schumann dies.
1857 Siege of Delhi. Madame Bovary, Flaubert. Le mariage aux lanternes,
Offenbach.
1858 Arthur Sullivan studies in Leipzig. Covent Garden opera house is
built. Orphée aux enfers, Offenbach.
1859 Victor Herbert born. On the Origin of Species, Darwin. A Tale of Two
Cities, Dickens. Faust, Gounod. Geneviève de Brabant, Offenbach.
1860 End of Second Opium War (China); Victor Emmanuel proclaimed
king of Italy. Das Pensionat, Suppé (first Viennese operetta).
1861 Abraham Lincoln is President of the USA; outbreak of US Civil
War. The emancipation of Russian serfs is completed. Great
Expectations, Dickens. La Chanson de Fortunio, Offenbach.
1862 Bismarck becomes prime minister of Prussia. Austrian botanist
Ludwig Ritter von Köchel catalogues Mozart’s compositions.
Anton Rubinstein founds St Petersburg Conservatoire. The first
Monte Carlo gambling casino opens in Monaco. Fathers and Sons,
Turgenev. La forza del destino, Verdi. Bavard et bavarde, Offenbach.
1863 Emancipation Proclamation issued by Lincoln. World’s first under-
ground railway opens in London (The London Underground). The
Football Association is established in London and draws up the
rules for the game. First instalment of War and Peace by Leo
Tolstoy published. Lischen et Frizchen, Offenbach.
1864 Marx founds First International Workingmen’s Association. Notes
from the Underground, Dostoyevsky; Voyage au centre de la terre,
Jules Verne. Millöcker is Kapellmeister in Graz. Ku Klux Klan
[xix]

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xx Chronology, 1855–1950

(KKK) is formed in Pulaski, Tennessee. Alice’s Adventures in

Wonderland, Lewis Carroll. La belle Hélène, Offenbach.
1865 End of American Civil War. Tristan und Isolde, Richard Wagner.
Die schöne Galathée, Franz von Suppé.
1866 Austro-Prussian War. Cretan Revolt. Paul Lincke born. Travel
agent Thomas Cook offers its first organized tours to the USA.
Moscow Conservatoire is founded by Nicholas Rubinstein. Crime
and Punishment and The Gambler, Dostoyevsky. Barbe-bleue and
La vie parisienne, Offenbach; Les chevaliers de la table ronde, Hervé;
Leichte Kavallerie, Suppé.
1867 Paris World Exposition. The USA buys Alaska from Russia for
$7,200,200. Peer Gynt, Ibsen; Thérèse Raquin, Zola. La Grande-
Duchesse de Gérolstein, Offenbach. Granados born.
1868 Shogunate abolished in Japan. Spanish Revolution. The game of
badminton invented in Gloucester. Die Meistersinger, Wagner. La
Périchole, Offenbach.
1869 Opening of the Suez Canal. The National Woman Suffrage
Association is established in the USA. The first college for
women is founded at Cambridge University (Girton College).
Rickshaw invented in Japan. The Idiot, Dostoyevsky. The first
performance of Wagner’s Das Rheingold in Munich. Les brigands,
Offenbach; Le petit Faust, Hervé. Berlioz dies.
1870 Franco-Prussian War. Franz Lehár and Oscar Straus born. Vingt
mille lieues sous les mers, Jules Verne. Dickens dies.
1871 Paris Commune. The Royal Albert Hall opens in London. The
German Second Reich. Stanley finds Livingstone in East Africa.
Johann Strauss Jr visits the USA. Aida, Giuseppe Verdi, premiered
at the newly built Cairo Opera House. Indigo und die 40 Räuber,
Strauss.
1872 World Peace Jubilee, Boston. Japan’s first railway opens, built by
British engineers. James Abbott McNeill Whistler paints
Arrangement in Grey and Black No 1: Portrait of the Painter’s
Mother. La fille de Madame Angot, Charles Lecocq.
1873 Crash of the Vienna Stock Exchange in May. Leo Fall born. Une
Saison en enfer, Arthur Rimbaud; Le tour du monde en quatre-
vingts jours, Jules Verne. La veuve du Malabar, Hervé.
1874 The first Remington typewriter is sold. First impressionist exhibi-
tion, Paris. Boris Godunov, Mussorgsky; Die Fledermaus, Johann
Strauss. Giroflé-Girofla, Lecocq; El barberillo, Barbieri.
1875 Uprising against Ottoman rule in Bosnia and Herzegovina. The
Paris Opera House, designed by Charles Garnier, is completed,

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xxi Chronology, 1855–1950

where Bizet’s Carmen is premiered. Piano Concerto No. 1 in B flat

minor, Tchaikovsky. Trial by Jury, Gilbert and Sullivan.
1876 Japan recognizes Korea’s independence from China. Bayreuth
Festival opens. The Adventures of Tom Sawyer, Mark Twain;
Daniel Deronda, George Eliot. Offenbach in the USA. Fatinitza,
Suppé. Manuel de Falla born.
1877 Russo-Turkish War. Queen Victoria proclaimed Empress of India.
Anna Karenina, Leo Tolstoy. Swan Lake, Tchaikovsky. Les cloches
de Corneville, Robert Planquette.
1878 Congress of Berlin. H.M.S. Pinafore, Gilbert and Sullivan; Madame
Favart, Offenbach.
1879 Zulu War. Frank Winfield Woolworth opens the store where every-
thing costs 5 cents. Albert Einstein born. Eugene Onegin, Tchaikovsky.
Gilbert and Sullivan in the USA. Boccaccio, Suppé; Gräfin Dubarry,
Millöcker; The Pirates of Penzance, Gilbert and Sullivan.
1880 Disraeli resigns and Gladstone becomes prime minister for a sec-
ond time. The game of table tennis is invented. Robert Stolz born.
Victor Herbert is a cellist in the Strauss Orchestra. Nana, Zola.
L’Arbre de Noël, Lecocq. Flaubert and Offenbach die.
1881 Alexander II is assassinated and is succeeded by his son, Alexander
III. Boston Symphony Orchestra is founded. Electric lighting in the
Savoy Theatre, London. Der lustige Krieg, Strauss. Patience, or
Bunthorne’s Bride, Gilbert and Sullivan. Mussorgsky and Nicholas
Rubinstein die.
1882 Robert Koch discovers that tuberculosis is a communicable disease.
Parsifal, Wagner. Emmerich Kálmán born. Der Bettelstudent,
Millöcker; Iolanthe, Gilbert and Sullivan.
1883 Metropolitan Opera House opens. Brooklyn Bridge opens. Eine
Nacht in Venedig, Strauss; Mam’zelle Nitouche, Hervé. Wagner dies.
1884 Paul Nipkow’s invention of rotating scanning devices anticipates
development of television technology. Ralph Benatzky born.
Princess Ida, Gilbert and Sullivan; Gasparone, Millöcker.
1885 Fingerprint identification system is invented. A bicycle with two
wheels of the same size is developed in France. The Boston Pops
Orchestra is formed and gives the first concert of light classical
music. Eduard Künneke, Jerome Kern and Alban Berg born.
Germinal, Zola. Der Zigeunerbaron, Strauss; The Mikado, Gilbert
and Sullivan.
1886 Gladstone introduces Irish Home Rule Bill. Coca Cola is invented
as a headache and hangover cure. Liszt dies. Le Baiser (sculpture),
Auguste Rodin. La Gran Vía, Chueca.

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xxii Chronology, 1855–1950

1887 Queen Victoria’s Golden Jubilee. Esperanto is invented. Otello,

Verdi. Ruddigore, Gilbert and Sullivan; Ali-Baba, Lecocq.
1888 Dunlop invents the pneumatic tyre. Irving Berlin born. The
Sunflowers, Vincent Van Gogh. The Yeomen of the Guard, Gilbert
and Sullivan.
1889 Eiffel Tower opens as entrance to the World Exposition in Paris
where Ode triomphale en l’honneur du centenaire de 1789 by
Augusta Holmès is premiered by 1,200 performers. Three Men in
a Boat, Jerome K. Jerome. Les Bourgeois de Calais, Rodin. The
Gondoliers, Gilbert and Sullivan.
1890 First Japanese general election. Electric chair is introduced in New
York state as a ‘humane alternative’ to hanging. Paul Whiteman
born. Frühlings Erwachen (Spring Awakening), Frank Wedekind.
Sleeping Beauty and Queen of Spades, Tchaikovsky; Cavalleria
rusticana, Pietro Mascagni. L’Égyptienne, Lecocq.
1891 Formation of the Young Turk Movement. The first advertising
agency is founded in New York. A telephone link is established
between London and Paris. Carnegie Hall opens in New York. The
first electric oven for domestic use is sold in the USA. Hedda
Gabler, Ibsen; The Picture of Dorian Gray, Oscar Wilde. Der
Vogelhändler, Zeller.
1892 Pan-Slav Conference, Kraków. Paul Abraham born. The Adventures
of Sherlock Holmes, Sir Arthur Conan Doyle; The Diary of a Nobody,
George and Weedon Grossmith. The Nutcracker, Tchaikovsky;
Werther, Massenet.
1893 World Exposition, Chicago. Wall Street market crash is followed by
a four-year depression. The first cultured pearl is produced in
Japan. Ivor Novello and Cole Porter born. The Scream, Edvard
Munch. Hänsel und Gretel, Engelbert Humperdinck; Symphony
No. 6 in E minor (Pathétique), Tchaikovsky.
1894 Tsar Alexander III dies and is succeeded by his son Nicholas II.
First motorcycle (Hilldebrand & Wolfmüller, Munich). Arms and
the Man, Shaw; The Jungle Book, Rudyard Kipling. Der Obersteiger,
Zeller. La verbena de la Paloma, Bretón.
1895 Gillette invents the safety razor. The first American pizzeria opens
in New York. Oscar Wilde is sentenced to two years’ hard labour
for ‘gross indecency’ (homosexual behaviour). Brothers Lumière
stage the first public screening of a motion picture in Paris. The first
commercial screening of a four-minute film of a boxing match in
New York. Henry Wood conducts the first of the annual
Promenade Concerts (‘Proms’) in London. Waldmeister, Strauss;
The Wizard of the Nile, Herbert. Suppé dies.

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xxiii Chronology, 1855–1950

1896 Marconi invents the wireless telegraph. Daily Mail is founded. The
Tate Gallery opens in London. The Seagull, Chekhov. The Geisha,
Sidney Jones. Bruckner dies.
1897 Famine in India. Discovery of the electron. La Bohème, Giacomo
Puccini. The Stars and Stripes Forever, Sousa. The Belle of New York,
Gustave Kerker. Brahms dies. La revoltosa, Chapi.
1898 Construction of Paris métro begins. Stanislavsky founds Moscow
Arts Theatre. George Gershwin and Vincent Youmans born.
Véronique, André Messager; Der Opernball, Heuberger; The
Fortune Teller, Herbert. Spanish–American War.
1899 Boer War. Global cholera pandemic starts. Aspirin is devel-
oped. Uncle Vanya, Chekhov; Resurrection, Leo Tolstoy. Frau
Luna, Lincke; Die Landstreicher, Ziehrer. Johann Strauss and
Suppé die.
1900 Paris métro opens. First Mercedes car. Kurt Weill born. Isaak
Dunayevsky born. Tosca, Puccini. Arthur Sullivan dies.
1901 The Commonwealth of Australia established. Queen Victoria dies.
Marconi transmits the first transatlantic wireless signals. First
Nobel prizes are awarded. Buddenbrooks, Thomas Mann. The
Toreador, Caryll. Verdi dies.
1902 Caruso’s first acoustic recordings. Richard Rodgers born.
Imperialism, J. A. Hobson. Merrie England, Edward German; The
Duchess of Dantzic, Caryll.
1903 The Russian Social Democratic Labour Party splits into Menshevik
and Bolshevik factions. Severe anti-Jewish pogroms begin in
Russia. Emmeline Pankhurst founds the Women’s Social and
Political Union. First successful aeroplane flight by the Wright
brothers. The Cherry Orchard, Chekhov. Bruder Straubinger,
Eysler; Babes in Toyland, Herbert. Planquette and Whistler die.
1904 Japanese–Russian War. The Trans-Siberian Railway opens. First
radio transmission of music in Graz, Austria. Picasso’s ‘pink per-
iod’ begins with his arrival in Paris. Madama Butterfly, Puccini. Die
lustigen Nibelungen, Straus. Chekhov dies.
1905 ‘Bloody Sunday’ in Russia provokes a series of revolutionary out-
bursts. A treaty of separation between Sweden and Norway is
signed. Einstein’s theory of relativity. Salome, Richard Strauss.
Die lustige Witwe, Lehár.
1906 Opening of Simplon rail tunnel between Switzerland and Italy.
Tausend und eine Nacht, Strauss, arr. Reiterer. Cézanne dies.
1907 First mass march by suffragettes in London. Women are given the
right to vote in Norway. Florenz Ziegfeld’s revue Follies of 1907
starts a new vogue for the slim figure as a model for female fashion.

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Ein Walzertraum, Straus; Der fidele Bauer, Fall; Die

Dollarprinzessin, Fall.
1908 Model T Ford car. Two-sided phonograph record discs are
invented. Der tapfere Soldat, Straus; Die geschiedene Frau, Fall.
The Kiss, Gustav Klimt.
1909 Freud gives lectures in the USA on psychoanalysis. The Victoria
and Albert Museum opens in London. Elektra, R. Strauss. Ein
Herbstmanöver, Kálmán; Der Graf von Luxemburg, Lehár; The
Arcadians, Talbot and Mockton.
1910 Traité de radioactivité, Marie Curie. The Firebird, Stravinsky.
Zigeunerliebe, Lehár; Die keusche Susanne, Jean Gilbert; Naughty
Marietta, Herbert. Leo Tolstoy dies.
1911 Famine causes mass starvation in Russia. Revolution in China.
‘Alexander’s Ragtime Band’, Berlin; Der Rosenkavalier, R. Strauss.
Eva, Lehár. Mahler dies.
1912 Sinking of the Titanic. Pierrot Lunaire, Schoenberg. Der
Zigeunerprimas, Kálmán; Der liebe Augustin, Fall; Der lila
Domino, Cuvillier. La generala, Vives.
1913 Balkan War. Grand Central Station is completed in New York. Man
with a Guitar, Picasso. Le sacre du printemps, Stravinsky. Endlich
allein, Lehár; Die Kino-Königin, Gilbert; Polenblut, Nedbal;
Sweethearts, Herbert; La vida breve, Falla.
1914 World War I commences. Concert of noise music in Milan given by
Luigi Russolo. Dubliners and A Portrait of the Artist as a Young
Man, James Joyce. Rund um die Liebe, Straus.
1915 Torpedo sinks the Lusitania. Absinthe is outlawed in France. In the
USA, the millionth Ford car is produced. Die Csárdásfürstin,
Kálmán; Die Kaiserin, Fall.
1916 Easter Rising, Dublin. Die Rose von Stambul, Fall; Das
Dreimäderlhaus, Berté/Schubert; Chu Chin Chow, Asche and Norton.
1917 Russian Revolution. Schwarzwaldmädel, Leon Jessel; The Maid of
the Mountains, Harold Fraser-Simson.
1918 End of World War I, but there is worldwide deadly influenza
pandemic from January 1918 to December 1920. Leonard
Bernstein born. Lecocq dies. Wo die Lerche singt, Lehár; Phi-Phi,
Christiné.
1919 Spartacist Uprising, Germany. Das Dorf ohne Glocke, Kunneke; Die
Frau im Hermelin, Gilbert; Monsieur Beaucaire, Messager; La La
Lucille, Gershwin.
1920 League of Nations established. Das Hollandweibchen, Kálmán; Die
blaue Mazur, Lehár; Der letzte Walzer, Straus; Sally, Kern.

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1921 BBC founded. First regular radio programmes begin in USA. Der
Tanz ins Glück, Stolz; Der Vetter aus Dingsda, Künneke; Die
Bajadere, Kálmán; Blossom Time, Romberg.
1922 Creation of Irish Free State. Mussolini becomes Italian Prime
Minister. Frasquita, Lehár; Madame Pompadour, Fall.
1923 Value of German mark drops severely. Die Perlen der
Cleopatra, Straus; Mädi, Stolz; Katja, die Tänzerin, Gilbert;
Ciboulette, Hahn; Doña Francisquita, Vives.
1924 Herbert and Puccini die. Gräfin Mariza, Kálmán; Rose-Marie,
Rudolf Friml; The Student Prince, Sigmund Romberg; Lady Be
Good, Gershwin.
1925 Fall dies. Der Orlow, Granichstaedten; Paganini, Lehár; No, No,
Nanette, Youmans.
1926 General Strike, UK. Muskrat Ramble, first of Armstrong’s Hot Five
recordings. Die Zirkusprinzessin, Kálmán; The Desert Song,
Romberg; Oh Kay!, Gershwin.
1927 Der Zarewitsch, Lehár; Die gold’ne Meisterin, Eysler; A Connecticut
Yankee, Rodgers; Funny Face, Gershwin; Show Boat, Kern.
1928 Fleming discovers penicillin. Gershwin in Vienna. Friederike,
Lehár; Die Herzogin von Chicago, Kálmán; Die Dreigroschenoper,
Weill; The New Moon, Romberg; Casanova, Benatzky/Strauss.
1929 Wall Street Crash. Das Land des Lächelns, Lehár; Strike up the Band,
Gershwin; Bitter Sweet, Noël Coward.
1930 Viktoria und ihr Husar, Abraham; Im weißen Rössl, Benatzky;
Schön ist die Welt, Lehár; Walzer aus Wien, Strauss/Korngold/
Bittner; Die Drei von der Tankstelle (film operetta), Heymann.
1931 Die Blume von Hawai, Abraham; Of Thee I Sing, Gershwin; Die
Dubarry, Millöcker, arr. Mackeben; Der Kongress tanzt (film oper-
etta), Heymann.
1932 Famine in USSR. Ball im Savoy, Abraham; Glückliche Reise,
Künneke; Wenn die kleinen Veilchen blühn, Stolz; Eine Frau, die
weiss, was sie will, Straus; Gay Divorce, Cole Porter.
1933 Hitler becomes Chancellor. Clivia, Dostal; Zwei Herzen in
Dreivierteltakt, Stolz; Let ’em Eat Cake, Gershwin.
1934 Mosley holds Fascist mass meetings in UK. Giuditta, Lehár;
Anything Goes, Porter; Conversation Piece, Coward.
1935 Porgy and Bess, Gershwin; Drei Walzer, Strauss/Straus; Glamorous
Night, Novello; Der Kuhhandel, Weill.
1936 Spanish Civil War. BBC television service begins. Careless Rapture,
Novello; Johnny Johnson, Weill; On Your Toes, Rodgers; Kaiserin
Josephine, Kálmán; La tabernera del puerto, Sorozábal.

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1937 Gershwin dies. Polnische Hochzeit, Beer; Die Maske in Blau,

Raymond; The Cradle Will Rock, Marc Blitzstein; Crest of the
Wave, Novello; Babes in Arms, Rodgers.
1938 Austrian Anschluss. Saison in Salzburg, Raymond; The Boys from
Syracuse, Rodgers; Operette, Coward.
1939 World War II commences. Die ungarische Hochzeit, Dostal; The
Dancing Years, Novello.
1940 Trotsky assassinated in Mexico. Die Geigerin von Wien,
Steinbrecher; Ein Liebestraum, Lincke.
1941 Bombing of Pearl Harbor. Quatuor pour le fin du temps, Messiaen.
Traumland, Künneke; Lady in the Dark, Weill.
1942 Mass extermination of Jews by Nazis using gas chambers.
Symphony No. 7, ‘Leningrad’, Shostakovich. Hochzeitsnacht im
Paradies, Schröder; Black, el pavaso, Sorozábal.
1943 Warsaw ghetto massacre. Oklahoma!, Rodgers and Hammerstein;
One Touch of Venus, Weill.
1944 D-Day landings in Normandy. On the Town, Bernstein.
1945 Nuclear bombing of Hiroshima and Nagasaki. World War II ends;
Nuremberg trials begin; United Nations established. Kern and
Youmans die. Perchance to Dream, Novello; Carousel, Rodgers.
1946 Peace conference attended by twenty-one nations in Paris. Lincke
dies. Annie Get Your Gun, Berlin.
1947 Partition of India into two independent states. Brigadoon, Lerner
and Loewe; Street Scene, Weill.
1948 Gandhi assassinated. Lehár dies. Kiss Me, Kate, Porter.
1949 Communist People’s Republic proclaimed in China. South Pacific,
Rodgers and Hammerstein; King’s Rhapsody, Novello.
1950 Protests in Johannesburg against apartheid. Weill dies. Call Me
Madam, Berlin; Guys and Dolls, Loesser; Feuerwerk, Burkhardt.

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