CELL DIVISION

Mitosis and Meiosis

Learning Competencies
• Describe the interphase stage.
• Characterize the phases of mitosis and meiosis.
• Explain the process of cytokinesis.
• Describe the stages of mitosis and its importance.
• Identify the disorders and diseases that result from the malfunction of the cell during
the cell cycle.

Cell Theory
1. All organisms are composed of one or more cells.
2. The cell is the structural and functional unit of life.
3. Cells can arise only by division from preexisting cells.

Cell Division
 The process by which a parent cell divides into two or more daughter cells.
 Results in the formation of new cell.
 Cell division in non-sex cells or somatic cell is called mitosis while cell division involving
sex cells is called meiosis.
 Starts with interphase – 3 sub-phases G1, S, and G2, then mitosis follows with the next 4
phases


Basic Terms
Gene – basic unit of hereditary; codes for a specific trait
Genome – the total hereditary endowment of DNA of a cell or organism
Somatic cell – all body cells except reproductive cells
Gamete – reproductive cells (sperm & eggs)
Chromosome – elongated cellular structure composed of DNA and protein
Diploid (2n) – cellular condition where each chromosome type is represented by two
homologous chromosomes
Haploid (n) – cellular condition where each chromosome type is represented by only one
chromosome.
Homologous chromosome – chromosome of the same size and shape which carry the same
type of genes
Chromatid – one of two duplicated chromosomes connected at the centromere
Centromere – region of chromosomes where microtubules attach during mitosis and meiosis

MITOSIS
• is the process, in the cell cycle, by which a cell duplicates into two genetically identical
daughter cells.
 • it is the division of the somatic (body) cells

The Cell Cycle

Sequence of events being repeated from one mitotic cell division to the next
INTERPHASE
 Interphase is also known as the non-dividing stage.
 It is devoted to cell growth.
 Most actively dividing cell spend some 90% of their time in the interphase stage.
 During interphase, there are sequence of events which are divided into three
• G1 PHASE- rapid cell growth/mature; RNA and protein production
- The longest phase
- It is the period of preparation for cell division.
- RNA and proteins necessary for making DNA are synthesized.
• S PHASE- DNA replication/copied
- DNA is synthesized and chromosomes are replicated
- Each stand of a double stranded chromosomes is called sister chromatids
• G2 PHASE- protein synthesis/ cell prepare for division
- the cell continues to synthesize RNA and protein and increase in size.
- Some cells go into an arrested stage known as G0 state to undergo cell
differentiation.
- Nerve cells and blood cells remain in G0 throughout their lives.
(before division, the cell grows to its characteristics adult size/ after division, the cell may go to

Mitosis
• It is the process of forming identical daughter cells by replicating and dividing the
original chromosomes.
• Mitotic phase is a combination of mitosis and cytokinesis.
• It is a cell division that involves somatic cells or body cells.

Mitotic Phases
• Prophase
• Metaphase
• Anaphase
• Telophase
• Mitotic phase is a combination of mitosis and cytokinesis.
 • It is a cell division that involves somatic cells or body cells.

Prophase

•
Nuclear envelope and nucleolus
disappear.
• Chromatic materials thicken and
shorten into double stranded
chromosomes with two chromatids
joined by centromere.
• The centrioles divide and produce asters
(asters are formed only for animal cells)
• The centrioles move to the opposite poles of the cell.
• Spindle fibers are formed.

Chromosomes consists of two sister chromatids attached

to single centromere.

Changes that occur in a cell during prophase:

• Chromatin fibers become coiled into chromosomes with each chromosome having two
chromatids joined at a centromere.
• The mitotic spindle, composed of microtubules and proteins, forms in the cytoplasm.
• The two pair of centrioles (formed from the replication of one pair in Interphase) move
away from one another toward opposite ends of the cell due to the lengthening of the
microtubules that form between them.
In late prophase:
• The nuclear envelope breaks up and nucleolus
disappear
• Kinetochore appear at the centromere
• Kinetochore – a special protein complex
• The function is to link the spindle fibers to
the centromere
Metaphase

• The double stranded chromosomes

align themselves at the equatorial
region. (metaphase plate)
• Spindles attach to the kinetochore
fibers.
• This is the shortest stage of
mitosis.

• 3 kinds of microtubules in the spindle fiber: ASTRAL (grows only near the centrosome),
POLAR (grow away from the centrosome), and the KINETOCHORE (only ones attached
to the kinetochore

Changes that occur in a cell during metaphase:

• In metaphase, the spindle fully develops and the chromosomes align at the metaphase
plate (a plane that is equally distant from the two spindle poles).

Anaphase

• Centromere separates/split.
• Spindle fibers pull the chromosomes to
the opposite pole.
 • Single stranded chromosomes migrate to the opposite poles

• Anaphase A – the kinetochore microtubules of the spindle fibers separate and move the
sister chromatids toward, opposite poles.
• Anaphase B – the polar microtubules begin to elongated, while the astral microtubules
pull them on the other side. Poles moving farther apart from each other.

Changes that occur in a cell during anaphase:

• In anaphase, the paired chromosomes (sister chromatids) separate and begin moving to
opposite ends (poles) of the cell. Spindle fibers not connected to chromatids lengthen
and elongate the cell. At the end of anaphase, each pole contains a complete
compilation of chromosomes.

Telophase

 The chromosomes
reach the poles of
their respective
spindles.
 Formation of two
smaller cells each
with exactly the
same genetic
information. These
cells may then develop into different adult forms via processes of
development.
 The nuclear envelope reappears.
 Chromosomes uncoil into chromatin form
  Nucleolus reappears.
 Formation of two smaller cells each with exactly the same genetic
information.

Changes that occur in a cell during telophase:

• In telophase, the chromosomes are cordoned off into distinct new nuclei in the
emerging daughter cells.
• The nuclear envelopes of these nuclei are formed from remnant pieces of the parent
cell's nuclear envelope and from pieces of the endomembrane system.
• Chromatin fibers of chromosomes uncoil
• After these changes, telophase (mitosis in general) is largely complete and the genetic
"contents" of one cell have been divided equally into two.

• Cleavage furrow – a groove on the cell membrane

between the poles usually observed in animal cells. It is
produce when contractile ring, which is made up of
protein, constricts the middle of the cell.

The cell wall of plants is a strong

substance. and it cannot be constricted
by contractile rings. NO CLEAVAGE
FURROW. CELL PLATE FORMS –
involved in forming the cell wall of
each daughter cell in plants.

Cytokinesis
  Cytokinesis, the division of the original cell's cytoplasm, begins prior to the end of
mitosis and completes shortly after telophase. At the end of cytokinesis, two genetically
identical daughter cells are produced.
 Cytokinesis starts at anaphase and continues to the next phase.

Purposes of Mitosis
1. Ensures that the number of chromosomes of the parent cell is identical to its two
daughter cells.
2. Ensures the growth of offspring.
3. Replaces the damaged cells in wounds.

Note:
Problem with mitosis happens too often.
• Chromosomes 17 are the p53 protein (tumor-suppressing proteins that can trigger
either cell cycle arrest or apoptosis)
• IF p53 MUTATES, MITOSIS WOULD NOT STOP, WHICH MAY RESULT IN CANCER.
• CANCER – cells that undergo continuous division without stopping.

MEIOSIS
• most important contribution in reproduction.
• also known as reductive division (meiosis I), the cell division involving gametes (sex cells)
specifically the sperm and the egg. (the diploid cell is reduced to haploid)
• equational division – second division (meiosis II) - sister chromatids separate, which is a
process similar to mitosis
• It is a special type of nuclear division which segregates one copy of each homologous
chromosomes into each new “gamete”.
• Meiosis takes a cell with two copies of every chromosome (diploid) and makes cells with
a single copy of every chromosome
(haploid). In meiosis, one diploid cells
produces four haploid cells.
• Meiosis is necessary to halve the
number of chromosomes going into
the sex cells.
• It is divided into meiosis I and
meiosis II
 • In Meiosis I, the homologous chromosomes separate giving rise to two haploid cells (N
chromosomes, 23 in humans) and therefore called reduction division.
• A diploid human cell contains 46 chromosomes which are represented as 2N which
denotes 23 pairs of homologous chromosomes
• After meiosis I, the cell contains only 23 chromosomes.
• In meiosis II, the sister chromatids will split thereby creating 4 haploid cells.

Why halve the chromosomes in gametes?

• At fertilization the male and female sex cells will provide ½ of the chromosomes each –
so the offspring has genes from both parents.

MEIOSIS I - First Meiotic Division

• What’s unique with meiosis I are these phenomena: SYNAPSIS and CROSSING OVER.

Prophase I
Five stages:
1. Leptotene
2. Zygotene
3. Pachytene
4. Diplotene
5. Diakinesis

• Leptotene stage – chromatins condense and chromosomes

appear.
• Zygotene stage, synapsis (close pairing of the homologous
chromosomes) starts.
• Synaptonemal complex – a highly organized protein structure
that connects the two homologous chromosomes together.

Synapsis
• is the pairing of two homologous
chromosomes that occurs during meiosis.
 It allows matching-up of homologous pairs prior to their segregation, and possible
chromosomal crossover between them
• Synapsis occurs. In this process, homologous chromosomes which are made up of sister
chromatids come together as pair forming tetrad, a complex of four-chromatids.

• This is a crucial phase for meiosis.

• During this phase each pair of chromatids don’t move to the equator alone, they match
up with their homologous pair and fasten together (synapsis) in a group of four called a
tetrad.

• Pachytene stage – crossing over can take place

Crossing-Over
• It is a process in which homologous
chromosomes exchange corresponding
segments during prophase I. It gives rise to new
combinations of parental alleles among
offspring in sexual reproducers.

• Diplotene stage – the synaptonemal complex

starts to dissolve, and the homologous chromosomes start to
process called TERMINALIZATION (separation from the
centromere toward the ends)

Chiasmata
• is the point where two homologous non-sister
chromatids exchange genetic material during
chromosomal crossover
 • Diakinesis stage – the homologous chromosomes continue to separate and the
chiasmata undergo terminalization.
• The homologous chromosomes are condensed and shortened.

 Chromosomes begin to condense.

 The centriole pairs move away from
each other and spindle microtubules
are formed between them.
 Nuclear envelope and nucleolus
disappear.
 Chromosomes begin to move to the
equatorial region.
 This stage usually occupies more than
90% of the time require for meiosis thus
considered the longest stage

Metaphase I
• The chromosomes line up at the equator attached by their centromeres to spindle fibers
from centrioles.
• Still in homologous pairs

 The homologous chromosomes are now arranged in the

equatorial plane or metaphase plate in the form of tetrad.
 Spindle fibers from one pole of the cell attach to one
chromosome of each pair, while spindle fibers from the
opposite pole attaché to the homologue.
 The random orientation of each bivalent along the
metaphase plate and in the equatorial plane is the basis of
the chromosomal independent assortment.

Independent Assortment
• Homologous pairs of chromosomes orient randomly at metaphase I of meiosis
• In independent assortment, each pair of chromosomes sorts maternal and paternal
homologues into daughter cells independently of the other pairs.
• The number of combinations possible when chromosomes assort independently into
gametes is 2n, where n is the haploid number
 • For humans (n = 23), there are more than 8,388,608 (223) possible combinations of
chromosomes.

Anaphase I

 The spindle apparatus pulled the chromosomes toward the

poles.
 Sister chromatids remain attached at their centromeres and
move as a single unit toward the same pole.

• The homologous chromosome moves toward the opposite pole

• Contrasts mitosis – chromosomes appear as individuals instead of pairs (meiosis)

Telophase I

 Spindle fibers apparatus continues to separate

to homologous chromosomes until the
chromosomes reach the poles of the cell.
 Each pole has a haploid chromosome set with
two chromatids.

• The homologous chromosome pairs complete their migration to the two poles as a
result of the action of the spindle. Now a haploid set of chromosomes is at each pole,
with each chromosome still having two chromatids.

Cytokinesis
  completes the creation of the two
haploid daughter cells

INTERKINESIS
• brief resting period between
telophase I and prophase II
• no duplication of chromosomes
happen

MEIOSIS II
• Meiosis II is the second part of the meiotic process. Mechanically, the process is similar
to mitosis, though its genetic results are fundamentally different. The end result is
production of four haploid cells (23 chromosomes) from the two haploid cells (23
chromosomes, each of the chromosomes consisting of two sister chromatids) produced
in meiosis I. The four main steps of Meiosis II are: Prophase II, Metaphase II, Anaphase
II, and Telophase II.

Prophase II
• Chromosomes begin to condense again.
• The nuclear membrane and the nucleolus
disappear.
• Spindle fibers begin to form.

Metaphase II
• Chromosomes align at the equatorial plate.
• The kinetochores are then attached to the
centromere of each sister chromatid.
• Sister chromatids prepare themselves to move at
opposite poles.

Anaphase II
• The sister chromatids begin to separate.
• Each sister chromatid moves to the opposite poles.
Telophase II and cytokinesis
• The chromosomes uncoil.
• The nuclear membrane and
the nucleolus reappear.
• Cytokinesis finally splits the
cells, producing four haploid
cells.

NOTE:
The products of meiosis are FOUR HAPLOID DAUGHTER CELLS, whereas the products of mitosis
are TWO DIPLOID DAUGHTER CELLS.

GAMETOGENESIS
• The process of producing gametes, or sex cells.
2 types
1. SPERMATOGENESIS – process of producing sperm cells
2. OOGENESIS – process of producing egg cells

BOTH INVOLVE MEIOSIS

Spermatogenesis
• Spermatogonium forms into the primary spermatocyte (enters meiosis I to produce two
secondary spermatocytes)
• Secondary spermatocytes enter meiosis II to produce four haploid spermatids (undergo
spermiogenesis: to mature into motile spermatozoa SPERM CELL)
 EACH CYCLE OF SPERMATOGENESIS PRODUCES
FOUR SPERM CELLS FROM ONE
SPERMATOGONIUM

Oogenesis
• Starts with the oogonium (become the primary oocyte which will enter meiosis I)
• Result: one secondary oocyte and one polar body.
• Secondary oocytes enter meiosis II: one egg cell and polar body.
• First polar body divides to form two polar bodies (cannot be fertilized by a sperm)

EACH CYCLE OF OOGENESIS PRODUCES ONE EGG

CELL AND THREE POLAR BODIES, ALL FROM ONE
OOGONIUM