MODULE 1: INTRODUCTION TO THEORY OF 1.

A simply supported beam has

STRUCTURES
a. 2 hinges
b. 2 rollers
LEARNING c. 1 hinge and 1 roller
d. None of the above
OBJECTIVES
After studying this module, you are expected to: 2. What unit is typically used in moment?
a. N - m2
1. Comprehend the fundamentals in theory of b. kN - m
structures; c. kN
d. kg - m2
2. Have a deeper understanding on how a
structure behaves subjected to loading; 3. The weight of the beam is considered
3. Solve the Strain Energy of a structure; as?
4. Recognize the relationship between E, G a. Live Load
and v. b. Dead Load
c. Impact Load
TOPIC d. Environmental Load

OUTLINE 4. When a member is subjected to compressive

load, the member tends to?
1.1 Engineering Structures a. explode
1.2 Theory of Structures b. deteriorate
1.3 Complete Design of a Structure Stages c. Shrink
1.3.1. Developing a General Layout d. Elongate
1.3.2. Investigating the loads
1.3.3. Stress Analysis 5. When applying equilibrium equations, which is
1.3.4. Selection of Element among the following statements are true?
a. Summation of forces along x-axis is zero
1.3.5. Drawing and Detailing
b. Summation of forces along y-axis is zero
1.4 Strain Energy c. Summation of forces along z-axis is zero
1.5 Relationship between E, G, and v d. All of the above

OVERVIEW 1.1 ENGINEERING STRUCTURES

Module 1 serves as a review on Mechanics of The word structure has various meanings. By an
Deformable Bodies. It prepares you to become ready Engineering Structure we mean roughly something
for the succeeding lessons throughout the course. It constructed or built. The principal structures of
also gives overview on how a structure behaves concern to Civil Engineers are bridges, buildings,
subjected to loading. This module is good for a 6-hour walls, dams, towers, and shell structures. Structures
lecture. as such are composed of one or more solid elements
so arranged that the whole structures as well as their
components are capable of holding themselves
ACTIVATING without appreciable geometric change during loading
and unloading.
PRIOR KNOWLEDGE
To design a structure involves many considerations
Before studying this unit, take the test to determine
among which are two major objectives that must be
how much you already know about Theory of
satisfied:
Structures.

Direction: Encircle the letter of the correct answer.

Module 1: Introduction to Theory of Structures | Page 1 of 5

1 The structure must meet the performance in which all members are usually assumed to be
requirement. connected by frictionless hinges. A truss is completely
2 The structure must carry loads safely. analyzed when the direct stresses in all members
have been determined.

1.2 THEORY OF 1.3.2 INVESTIGATING THE LOADS

STRUCTURES Before a refined structural analysis can be carried out,
it is necessary to determine the loads for which a
The Theory of Structures deals with the principles and given structure should be designed. General
methods by which the direct stress, the shear and information about the loads imposed on a structure is
bending moment, and the deflection at any section of usually given in the specifications and codes.
each constituent member in the structure may be However, it is part of the designer’s responsibility to
calculated. The next phase of the design is to specify the load conditions and to take care of
proportion the members in accordance with the exceptional cases.
allowable working stresses of the material and other
requirements for the proper functioning of the Generally, the loads on structures consists of dead
structure. This work is generally within the scope of load, live load, and the dynamic or impact effects of
texts on strength of materials or structural design. the live load.

a) Dead Load – it includes the weight of the

structure itself. Thus, in building design, the
1.3 COMPLETE DESIGN OF weight of the floorings, beams, girders, and
A STRUCTURE STAGES columns makes up the dead load.
b) Live Load – it is the loading to be carried by
the structure. It is the weight of movable
The complete design of a structure is outlined in the partitions, furniture, appliances, etc. Snow
following stages: load and Wind load are considered as live
load.
1.3.1 DEVELOPING A GENERAL LAYOUT
c) Impact Load – it is the dynamic effect of the
The General Layout of a structure is selected from application of live load. Often the live load
many possible alternatives. The primary concern is comes on a structure rather suddenly or as a
the purpose for what the structure is to be built. This moving or rolling load, as, for example, when
stage involves the choice of structural type, the a train passes over a bridge. In this case the
selection of material, and a tentative estimation of live load is increased by an estimated
cost based on a reasonable analysis of a preliminary
percentage to include its dynamic effect. This
structural design. It may also involve selecting the
best location or adapting the structure to a site that increase is called the Impact Load.
has not been predetermined. Proper attention should
also be given to the aesthetic value of the structure, 1.3.3 STRESS ANALYSIS
since the requirement of good appearance can
reasonably be met without much increase in cost. Once the basic form of the structure and the external
loads are defined, a structural analysis can be made
Basically, most structures may be classified as to determine the internal forces in various members
beams, rigid frames, or trusses or combination of of the structure and the displacements at some
these elements. A beam is a structural member controlling points. When live loads are involved, it is
subjected to transverse loads only. It is completely
important to determine the maximum possible
analyzed when the shear and bending-moment
values have been found. A rigid frame is a structure stresses in each member being considered.
composed of members connected by rigid joints
(welded joints, for instance). A rigid frame is 1.3.4 SELECTION OF ELEMENT
completely analyzed when the variations in direct
stress, shear, and bending-moment along the lengths The selection of suitable sizes and shapes of
of all members have been found. A truss is a structure members and their connections depends on the

Module 1: Introduction to Theory of Structures | Page 2 of 5

results of the stress analysis together with the design
provisions of the specifications or codes. A trial-and-
error approach may be used in the search for a
proportioning of elements that will be both economical
and adequate. A sound knowledge of strength of
material and process of fabrication is also essential.

1.3.5 DRAWING AND DETAILING

Load P is directly proportional to deformation 𝛿
Once the makeup of each part of the structure has
The strain energy is simply the shaded area:
been determined, the last stage of design can begin.
This final stage includes the preparation of contract 1
𝑈= 𝑃 𝛿
drawing, detailing, job specification, and final cost; 2
this information is necessary for construction to 𝑃𝐿
but 𝛿 = 𝐴𝐸
proceed.
𝛴𝑃2 𝐿
𝑈=
𝐴𝐸
1.4 STRAIN ENERGY
Where:
𝑈 = Strain Energy
Strain energy is a type of potential energy that is 𝑃 = Summation of load carried by a
stored in a structural member as a result of elastic certain floor
deformation. The external work done on such a 𝐿 = Height of the floor
member when it is deformed from its unstressed state 𝐴 = Cross-sectional area of the
is transformed into (and considered equal to the strain column
energy stored in it. If, for instance, a beam that is 𝐸 = Modulus of elasticity
supported at two ends is subjected to a bending
moment by a load suspended in the canter, then the 1.5 RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN E,
beam is said to be deflected from its unstressed state, G, AND v
and strain energy is stored in it.
The relationship between modulus of elasticity E,
The integration for strain energy can only be applied shear modulus G and Poisson's ratio ν is:
over a length of beam for which a continuous
expression can be obtained. This generally will imply Modulus of Rigidity, G
a separate integration for each section between two
concentrated loads or reactions. It describes the material's response to shear
stress. It is also called Modulus of Elasticity in Shear.
Whenever we apply a force to an object of a deformable
material, it will change its shape. Sometimes, it is a big E
change, like when we stretch out a rubber band. Also, G=
2(1 + 𝑣)
it’s hard to see, like when a load is applied to a steel
support beam. As we apply more and more force, the Bulk Modulus, K
object will continue to stretch. Stress will be the amount
of force applied divided by the cross-sectional area of
The bulk modulus of elasticity K is a measure of a
the object.
resistance of a material to change in volume without
change in shape or form. It is also called Elasticity or
Modulus of Volume Expansion.

Module 1: Introduction to Theory of Structures | Page 3 of 5

 E ➢ The complete design of a structure is
K= outlined in the following stages:
3(1 − 2𝑣)
Developing a General Layout,
Or Investigating the Loads, Stress
Analysis, Selection of Element and
∆𝑃
K= Drawing and Detailing
∆𝑉/𝑉

Constrained Modulus, D
LEARNING ACTIVITY
It is one of the elastic moduli available to describe
isotropic homogeneous materials. It is also called P 1. A three-storey steel column in a building
– wave Modulus and Longitudinal Modulus. supports roof and floor loads. The story
height H is 3m, the cross-sectional area of the
column is 10000 mm2, and the modulus of
E(1 − 𝑣)
D= elasticity of steel is 200 GPa. The load carried
(1 + 𝑣)(1 − 2𝑣)
by the column of each floor are as follows, P1
= 30kN, P2 = 30 kN, P3 = 25 kN.
Dilatation, e a) What is the strain energy of the ground floor
column?
The object changes shape in all three b) What is the strain energy of the second floor
directions, that means it will change its volume. It is column?
also called Relative Change in Volume and c) What is the strain energy of the third floor
column?
Volumetric Strain.

∆V
e=
V

SUMMARY
Let us see if you can remember the main
points raised in this lesson. Below is a summary of
these points:

➢ When we say Engineering Structure,

we mean roughly something
constructed or built.
➢ To design a structure involves many
considerations among which are two 2. A bar with an equilateral triangle cross
major objectives that must be satisfied: section experienced a strain of 6.5983 x 10 -4
The structure must meet the due to an axial load of 2 kN. The dimensions
performance requirement and the of the cross section is 5 mm and the length is
structure must carry loads safely. 300 mm. Assume that the poisson’s ratio is
➢ Theory of Structures deals with the 0.28.
principles and methods by which the a) What is the value of the modulus of elasticity
direct stress, the shear and bending in GPa?
moment, and the deflection at any b) What is the value of the modulus of rigidity
section of each constituent member in in GPa?
the structure may be calculated c) What is the bulk modulus in GPa?

Module 1: Introduction to Theory of Structures | Page 4 of 5

 d) What is the value of the constrained
modulus in GPa?
e) What is the value of the dilatation in percent
(%) if the change in pressure is 30 GPa?

REFERENCES

Strength of Materials 4th Ed.

Ferdinand L. Singer & Andrew Pytel

Structural Analysis - 8th Edition

R.C. Hibbeler

Structural Analysis 4th edition

Aslam Kasimali

Structural Analysis
Caprani

Structural Analysis in Theory and Practice

Alan Williams

Structural Analysis Using Classical and Matrix

Methods 4th Ed
Jack McCormac

Elementary Theory of Structures, Second Edition

Yuan-Yu Hsieh

Prepared by:

ENGR. LEO GERARDO S. ROXAS, MME

Civil Engineering Department
Faculty, College of Engineering and Architecture

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