Big Picture

Week 1-3: Unit Learning Outcomes (ULO): At the end of the unit, you are expected to

a. Apply the rules and techniques in manipulating algebraic expression

Big Picture in Focus

ULOa. To apply the rules and techniques in manipulating algebraic expression

Metalanguage
In this section, the most essential terms relevant to the study of curriculum and to
demonstrate on how to apply the rules and techniques in manipulating algebraic
expressions will be operationally defined the terms used in the course. You will encounter
these terms as we go on with the lesson. Please refer to these definitions in case you will
encounter difficulty in the in understanding the concepts.
1. Algebra. It is the study of properties of operations carried out on sets of numbers.
2. Algebraic expression. It is an expression that consists of a constant, variable or a
combination which are separated by plus or minus signs.
3. Term. It is either a single number or variable, or numbers and variables multiplied
together.
4. Literal Coefficient. It is a coefficient expressed in letters in a term.
5. Numerical Coefficient. It is a coefficient expressed in number in a term.

Essential Knowledge
To perform the aforesaid big picture (unit learning outcomes) for the first six (6)
weeks of the course, you need to review the properties of real numbers and the learned
from K to 12. Please note that you are not limited to exclusively refer to stated
resources in the syllabus. Thus, you are expected to utilize other books, research articles
and other resources that are available in the university’s library e.g. ebrary,
search.proquest.com etc.
Basic Algebraic Operations
Combining Like Terms

Like terms or similar terms - two or more terms that contain the same variables with the
same powers (e.g. 4𝑥& 6𝑥; −5𝑦 2 , 8𝑦 2 &2𝑦 2 ; 4𝑥𝑦𝑧 2 , −8𝑥𝑦𝑧 2 & 7𝑥𝑦𝑧 2 )

Examples: Perform the indicated operation by combining the similar terms:

1. b + 2b = 1b + 2b =34b

2. 7a – 9 – 6a + 7 –a + 2 = (7a – 6a –a) + (-9 +7 +2)

= (7a – 7a) + (-9 + 9) = 0

3. 5xy – (-13xy) = 5xy + 13xy = 18xy

4. 3𝑚2 – 4n + 6𝑚2 + 5𝑛 − 12𝑚2 − 4𝑛 = −3𝑚2 − 3𝑛

5. 10xyz – 5rst + 2xyz + 4rst = 12xyz –rst

Removing/ Inserting Parenthesis

When simplifying algebraic expressions, removing symbols of grouping should be

done first. The following are the symbols of grouping: the (parenthesis), [brackets], and

{braces}.

Rules:

1. In removing or inserting parentheses preceded by plus (+) sign, copy all the terms

without changing any sign.

2. In removing or inserting parentheses preceded by a minus (-) sign, copy all terms

with their signs changed.

3. If a symbol of grouping encloses other symbols of grouping, remove the

innermost symbol first and work from the inside out.

Examples:

1. Remove parentheses preceded by a plus (+) sign:

a.) 2 + (5x + 2) = 2 + 5x + 2
= 5x + 4
b.) 6 + 5 (𝑘 2 − 2) – 𝑘 2 + 5 = 6 + 5𝑘 2 − 10 − 𝑘 2 + 5
= 4𝑘 2 + 1
c.) (m - n) + 2 (-3m + 5) = m – n – 6m + 10
= -5m – n + 10
2. Remove parentheses preceded by a minus (-) sign:
a.) – (3x + 5) = -3x – 5
b.) 5x – (2x - 7) = 5x – 2x + 7
= 3x + 7
c.) -5b – (-at + 7b) = -5b + at – 7b
= at – 12b

3. Inserting parentheses preceded by a plus (+) sign

Enclose the last three terms in parentheses preceded by a plus sign:
a.) 5w + 6y – 3z + 1 = 5w + (6y – 3z + 1)
b.) 1 - 𝑥 2 − 𝑦 2 + 𝑧 2 = 1 + (−𝑥 2 − 𝑦 2 + 𝑧 2 )
c.) -3x – 5y – 7z – 4w = -3x + (-5y – 7z – 4w)

4. Inserting parentheses preceded by a minus (-) sign

Enclose the last three terms in parentheses preceded by a minus sign:
a.) 7x + 8y + z – 3 = 7x – (-8y – z + 3)
b.) 2m – 7n – 5p + 3s = 2m – (7n + 5p – 3s)
c.) -8xy + 2xy + 5xy = - (8xy – 2xy – 5xy)
Examples

Simplify by removing symbols of grouping and combine similar terms:

1. 5 – [3(2x+3)-6] + 5(3y-2)
= 5 – [6x+9–6] + 15y -10
= 5 – [6x+3]+15y-10
= 5-6x-3+15y-10
= -6x+15y-8

2. x – (3y-3z) – [4x + 2y – (x – y – z) + 2z] – ( 3x – y ) + z

= x – 3y +3z – [4x+2y-x+y+z+2z] – 3x + y +z
= x – 3y +3z – [3x+3y +3z] – 3x + y +z
= x – 3y + 3z – 3x – 3y– 3z – 3x + y + z
= -5x – 5y +z

3. 8𝑥 2 − [4𝑥 + 3(2𝑥 2 − 5𝑥 − 𝑥(𝑥 − 3) − 5)]

= 8𝑥 2 − [4𝑥 + 3 (2𝑥 2 − 5𝑥 − 𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 − 5)]
= 8𝑥 2 − [4𝑥 + 3(𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 − 5)]
= 8𝑥 2 – [4x +3𝑥 2 − 6𝑥 − 15]
= 8𝑥 2 − [3𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 − 15]
= 8𝑥 2 − 3𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 + 15
= 5𝑥 2 + 2x + 15

Index Laws
Exponents

If we multiply x by y, the product is written as xy. However, if we multiply x by x, the

product is not written xx but 𝑥 2 which read “x square”. Similarly, (y) (y) (y) is not yyy but 𝑦 3
which is read as “y cube”; zzzz is written as 𝑧 4 . The numbers 2, 3, and 4 indicate how many
times the variable are being multiplied by itself in each case. When no exponent is written
it is understood to be 1.

𝑎𝑚
From the above Laws, if a ≠ 0, 𝑎0 = 𝑎𝑚−𝑛 = 𝑎𝑚 = 1

Therefore, any number except zero, raised to the power zero equals 1.

In a similar manner,

𝑎0 = 𝑎𝑛−𝑛 = 𝑎𝑛+(−𝑛) = 𝑎𝑛 ∗ 𝑎−𝑛

But 𝑎0 = 1, hence 𝑎𝑛 ∗ 𝑎−𝑛 = 1

1 1
∴ 𝑎−𝑛 = 𝑎𝑛 or 𝑎𝑛 = 𝑎−𝑛

Laws of Integer Exponents

Let x, a and b be real positive numbers

1. 𝑋 𝑛 = 𝑥 ∙ 𝑥 ∙ 𝑥 … n factors of x

2. 𝑥 𝑎 ∙ 𝑥 𝑏 = 𝑥 𝑎+𝑏

𝑥𝑎
3. 𝑥 𝑎 ÷ 𝑥 𝑏 = = 𝑥 𝑎−𝑏
𝑥𝑏

𝑥 𝑥𝑎
4. (𝑦)𝑎 = 𝑦 𝑎 , y ≠ 0

5. 𝑥 0 = 1

6. (𝑥𝑦)𝑎 = 𝑥 𝑎 𝑦 𝑎

7. (𝑥 𝑎 )𝑏 = 𝑥 𝑎𝑏
1
8. 𝑥 −𝑎 = 𝑥 𝑎 , x ≠ 0
Examples
Simplify the following:
1. 𝑥 3 ∙ 𝑥 5 = 𝑥 3+5 = 𝑥 8

2. 3𝑚4 ∙ 2𝑚2 ∙ 5𝑚3 = 30𝑚9

𝑥6
3. 𝑥 6 ÷ 𝑥 4 = = 𝑥 6−4 = 𝑥 2
𝑥4

𝑢3 12 12 1
4. (𝑢)2 (𝑢4 ) = (𝑢3 ∙ 𝑢2 ) = 4𝑢
3 3 𝑢4

2𝑥 8𝑥 3
5. ( 3𝑦 2 )3 = 27𝑦 6

6. (2𝑥 + 3𝑦 + 1 )0 = 1

7. ( 5𝑥𝑦 2 )4 = 625𝑥 4 𝑦 8

9𝑥 6𝑡
8. (3𝑥 3𝑡−1 ) 2 = 9𝑥 6𝑡−2 = 𝑥2

2𝑢−1 𝑣 3 3 8𝑢−3 𝑣 9 8𝑣 9 𝑤 9
9. ( ) = 125𝑤−9 =
5𝑤 −3 125𝑢3

1 1
10. ( 3𝑚𝑛2 )−3 = 3−3 𝑚−3 𝑛−6 = 33 𝑚3 𝑛6 = 27𝑚3 𝑛6

3
−3𝑥 3 −27𝑥 9
11. ( 4𝑦 2 ) = 64𝑦 6

−𝑥 8 4𝑦 6 𝑧 3 −2𝑥 3 𝑦
12. (2𝑦 5𝑧 6) ( )=
𝑥5 𝑧3

Special Products
1. Product of a monomial and a polynomial
a(x ±𝑦) = ax ± ay
a(x ±𝑦+ z) = ax ± ay± az
Example
Find the product
a) 3𝑥 2 (2x - 5𝑦 3 ) = 6𝑥 3 − 15𝑥 2 𝑦 3
b) 4𝑚3 𝑛2 (𝑚2 − 3𝑚𝑛 + 15𝑛2 ) = 4𝑚5 𝑛2 − 12𝑚4 𝑛3 + 60𝑚3 𝑛4
 2. Product of the sum and difference of two expressions
(x + y)(x - y) = 𝑥 2 − 𝑦 2
Example
Find the product
a) (3x – 4y)(3x + 4y) = 9𝑥 2 − 16𝑦 2
b) (𝑥 3 − 3𝑦 2 )(𝑥 3 + 3𝑦 2) = (𝑥 6 − 9𝑦 4 )

3. Square of a binomial
The square of the sum of two quantities is equal to the square of the first plus twice
the algebraic product of the first and second plus the square of the last term.
(𝑥 + 𝑦)2 = 𝑥 2 + 2𝑥𝑦 + 𝑦 2
The square of the difference of two quantities is equal to the square of the first minus
twice the algebraic product of the first and the second plus the square of the last term.
(𝑥 − 𝑦)2 = 𝑥 2 − 2𝑥𝑦 + 𝑦 2
Example
Find the product

a) (3𝑥 2 + 2𝑦)2 = 9𝑥 4 + 12𝑥 2 𝑦 + 4𝑦 2

b) (4𝑢3 − 𝑣 2 𝑤)2 = 16𝑢6 − 8𝑢3 𝑣 2 𝑤 + 𝑣 4 𝑤 2

4. Product of a binomial having common first term

The product of two binomials having a common first term is the square of the first
term plus the algebraic sum of the second terms multiplied by the first term plus the
algebraic product of the second terms.

(x + a)(x + b) = 𝑥 2 + (𝑎 + 𝑏)𝑥 + 𝑎b

Example
Find the product

a) (x +3)(x + 2) = 𝑥 2 + 5𝑥 + 6
 b) (𝑢2 - 5)(𝑢2 + 7) = 𝑢4 + 2𝑢 − 35

5. Product of two binomials that have no common terms

The product of two binomials having no common term is may use the FOIL
method.

F = first terms
O = outermost terms
I = innermost terms
L = last terms

(x + v)(y + v) = xy + vx + uy +uv
Example
Find the product

1. (3𝑥 2 + 𝑦)(2z - 5) = 6𝑥 2 𝑧 − 15𝑥 2 + 2𝑦𝑧 − 5𝑦

2. (2u – 3v)(5𝑢3 − 𝑤 3 ) = 10𝑢4 − 2𝑢𝑤 3 − 15𝑢3 𝑣 + 3𝑣𝑤 3

6. Square of a trinomial

The square of a trinomial is the sum of the square of each term plus twice the
product of each term by each term taken separately.

(x + y +z)2 = 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 𝑧 2 + 2𝑥𝑦 + 2𝑥𝑧 + 2𝑦𝑧

Example
Find the product

a) (3𝑥 2 + 𝑦 + 2𝑧)2 = 9𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 4𝑧 2 + 6𝑥 2 𝑦 + 4𝑦𝑧 + 12𝑥 2 𝑧

b) (u – 3𝑣 3 + 5𝑤)2 = 𝑢2 + 9𝑣 6 + 25𝑤 2 + 2𝑢(−3𝑣 3 ) + 2𝑢(5𝑤) +
2(−3𝑣 3 )(5
= 𝑢2 + 9𝑣 6 + 25𝑤 2 − 6𝑢𝑣 3 + 10𝑢𝑤 − 30𝑣 3 𝑤
7. Cube of a binomial
(x + y)3 = 𝑥 3 + 3𝑥 2 𝑦 + 3𝑥𝑦 2 + 𝑦 3
(x - y)3 = 𝑥 3 − 3𝑥 2 𝑦 + 3𝑥𝑦 2 − 𝑦 3
Example
Expand the binomial

a) (2x + y)3 = (2x)3 + 3(2𝑥)2 𝑦 + 3(2𝑥)𝑦 2 + 𝑦 3

= 8𝑥 3 + 12𝑥 2 𝑦 + 6𝑥𝑦 2 + 𝑦 3

1 1 1 2 1
b) (3 𝑣 − 2𝑤)3 = (3 𝑣)3 − 3 (3 𝑣) (2𝑤) + 3(3 𝑣)(2𝑤)2 − (2𝑤)3
1 6𝑣 2 𝑤 12𝑣𝑤 2
= 27 𝑣 3 − + − 8𝑤 3
9 3
1 2𝑣 2 𝑤
= 𝑣3 − + 4𝑣𝑤 2 − 8𝑤 3
27 3

8. Product of a binomial and a trinomial

(x+ y)(𝑥 2 − 𝑥𝑦 + 𝑦 2 ) = 𝑥 3 + 𝑦 3

(x - y)(𝑥 2 + 𝑥𝑦 + 𝑦 2 ) = 𝑥 3 − 𝑦 3

Example
Expand the following:

a) (a - 3)(𝑎2 + 3𝑎 + 9) = 𝑎3 − 33 = 𝑎3 − 27

b) (3x +2y)(9𝑥 2 − 6𝑥𝑦 + 4𝑦 2 ) = 27𝑥 2 + 8𝑦 3

Factoring
To factor a polynomial will mean to express it as a product of its prime factors.

Types of Factoring

1. Common Factor
When the term of a polynomial have a common factor, the Distributive law can
be applied.
Greatest Common Factor
Examples
a𝑥 2 𝑦 − 𝑎𝑥𝑦 2 = 𝑎𝑥𝑦(𝑥 − 𝑦)

12𝑥 3 − 8𝑥 2 = 4𝑥 2 (3𝑥 − 2)

Greatest Common Factor

2. Grouping of Terms
The terms of polynomial may be grouped so that the groups have a common
factor.

Examples
ax + ay + bx + by = (ax + ay) + (bx + by)
= a (x + y) + b (x+y )
Careful with the sign
=(a+b)(x+y)

am – 2bm – 3a + 6b = (am – 2bm) – (3a – 6b)

= m(a -2b) – 3(a – 2b)
= (m - 3)(a – 2b) Factor out negative 3

3. Difference of Two Squares

To factor the difference of two squares, apply 𝑚2 − 𝑛2 = (𝑚 + 𝑛)(𝑚 − 𝑛)

 Examples

1. (16𝑥 2 − 9) = (4x + 3)(4x - 3)

2. 4𝑎4 𝑏 2 − 25𝑐 6 = (2𝑎2 𝑏 + 5𝑐 3 )(2𝑎2 𝑏 − 5𝑐 3 )

3. (5x - y)2 −(x + 2y)2 = (5x – y + x+ 2y)(5x – y –(x +2y))

= (5x – y + x + 2y)(5x – y – x - 2y)

= (6x + y)(4x – 3y)

4. Trinomial which is a Perfect Square

A trinomial is a perfect square if:
The first and third terms are perfect and the middle term is twice the product of
the square root of the first and third terms.
Examples
1. 𝑥 2 ± 2𝑥𝑦 + 𝑦 2 = (𝑥 ± 𝑦)2

2. 4𝑥 2 − 12𝑥 + 9 = (2𝑥 − 3)2

3. 9𝑥 4 − 30𝑥 2 𝑦𝑧 3 + 25𝑦 2 𝑧 6 = (3𝑥 2 − 5𝑦𝑧 3 )2

4. (x+y)2 − 4𝑐(𝑥 + 𝑦) + 4𝑐 2 = (𝑥 + 𝑦 + 2𝑐)2

Trinomial which is not a perfect square but follows the form 𝑥 2 ± 𝑏𝑥 ± 𝑐 = 0

To factor a trinomial of the form 𝑥 2 ± 𝑏𝑥 ± 𝑐 = 0, find two numbers n and m whose

sum/difference is b and whose product is c. Then the two factors are (x+m) and (x+n).
This method is most commonly called Trial and Error method.

product

𝑥 2 ± 𝑏𝑥 ± 𝑐 = 0 (x±𝑚)(x±𝑛)

Sum/difference
Quadratic equation a𝑥 2 ± 𝑏𝑥 ± 𝑐 = 0
 To factor a trinomial of the form, a𝑥 2 ± 𝑏𝑥 ± 𝑐 = 0, find four numbers d, e, f and g
such that d and f are factors of a and e and g are factors of c while the product of
dg and ef when added gives us b.

factors
2
a𝑥 ± 𝑏𝑥 ± 𝑐 = 0 (±𝑑𝑥 ± 𝑒)(±𝑓𝑥 ± 𝑔)

Sum or difference between

the products of dg and ef

Examples

1: If possible, factor 𝑥 2 − 𝑥 − 20

Solution: Since it can be factored in only one way, we must have two integers m and n
whose product is -20. One has to be aware of that m or n should be positive.

𝑥 2 − 𝑥 − 20 = (𝑥 ± 𝑚)(𝑥 ± 𝑛)

Thus, the possible choices of m and n are as follows:

Corresponding
m 1, 2, 4, 5, 10, 20 factors of m and n.

n 20, 10, 5, 4, 2, 1

In order to obtain negative 1 for the middle term, we have to choose factors 4 and 5.

𝑥 2 − 𝑥 − 20 = (𝑥 + 4)(𝑥 − 5)

2: If possible, factor 12𝑥 2 + 44𝑥 + 35

Solution: To factor this polynomial, we must correctly fill the foul blank spaces below.

12𝑥 2

12𝑥 2 + 44𝑥 + 35 = (?x + ?)(?x +?)

?
+44 x
 All four types must be filled with positive integers. The spaces in front of the x’s
must be filled with one of the following pairs of factors of 12:

1 and 12, 2 and 6, 3 and 4

The other two spaces must be filled with one of the pairs of factors of 35.

1 and 35 or 5 and 7

The correct factor will be

12𝑥 2 + 44𝑥 + 35 = (2x + 5)(6x +7)

5. Sum and difference of two cubes

𝑎3 ± 𝑏 3 = (𝑎 ± 𝑏)(𝑎2 ± 𝑎𝑏 + 𝑏 2 )

Examples
a. 𝑎3 − 33 = (𝑎 − 3)(𝑎2 + 3𝑎 + 9)

b. 27𝑥 2 + 8𝑦 3 = (3𝑥 + 2𝑦)(9𝑥 2 − 6𝑥𝑦 + 4𝑦 2 )

6. Sum and difference of two odd powers

𝑎5 ± 𝑏 5 = (a±𝑏)(𝑎4 ± 𝑎3 𝑏 + 𝑎2 𝑏 2 ± 𝑎𝑏 3 + 𝑏 4 )

Example

𝑎. 𝑎7 − 37
= (a -3) [𝑎6 + 𝑎5 (−3) + 𝑎4 (−3)2 + 𝑎3 (−3)3 + 𝑎2 (−3)4 + 𝑎(−3)5 + (−3)6 ]

= (a-3) [𝑎6 − 3𝑎5 + 9𝑎4 − 27𝑎3 + 81𝑎2 − 243𝑎 + 729]

7. Sum and difference of two even powers

a) Sum of two even powers which can be factored as sum of two cubes
Example
a. 𝑎6 + 𝑏 6 = (𝑎2 )3 + (𝑏 2 )3
= (𝑎2 + 𝑏 2 )(𝑎4 − 𝑎2 𝑏 2 + 𝑏 4 )
b) Difference of two even powers which can be factored as difference of two cubes

Example

𝑎6 − 𝑏 6 = (𝑎3 )2 − (𝑏 3 )2

= (𝑎3 − 𝑏 3 )(𝑎3 + 𝑏 3 )

= (a-b)(a+b)(𝑎2 + 𝑎𝑏 + 𝑏 2 )(𝑎2 − 𝑎𝑏 + 𝑏 2 )

8. Expression that can be reduced to difference of two squares

Example:

𝑥 2 − 𝑦 2 − 𝑧 2 + 2𝑥𝑦𝑧 = 𝑥 2 − (𝑦 2 − 2𝑦𝑧 + 𝑧 2 )
= 𝑥 2 − (𝑦 − 𝑧)2

= (x - y + z)(x + y -z)

9. Expression that can be reduced to difference of two cubes

Example

3𝑥 6 − 3 = 3(𝑥 6 − 1)

Express (𝑥 6 − 1) as difference 2 cubes

(𝑥 6 − 1) = (𝑥 2 )3 − 13

3𝑥 6 − 3 = 3(𝑥 6 − 1)

= 3 [(𝑥 3 )2 − 1]

= 3 (𝑥 3 − 1)(𝑥 3 + 1)

= 3(x-1) (𝑥 2 + 𝑥 + 1)(x+1)(𝑥 2 − 𝑥 + 1)

= 3 (x-1)(x+1)(𝑥 2 + 𝑥 + 1)(𝑥 2 − 𝑥 + 1)
Rational Expressions
𝑥
If you are given , this is known as a fraction with x as the numerator and y
𝑦
as the denominator. If the expression is a quotient of two algebraic expressions whose
numerator and denominator are both polynomials, it is called a rational expression. The
skills factoring techniques are very essential in dealing and simplifying rational
expressions.

Find the value of each rational expression given that a = -5, b = 3, x = 2 and y = -1.
𝑎2 −3𝑏 2 (−5)2 −3(3)2 25−27 −2 2
1. = −5(32 +(−5)2) = −5(9+50) = −295 = 295
𝑎(𝑏 2 +2𝑎2 )

𝑎3 −𝑏 3 (−5)3 −(3)3 125−27 98

2. = 2+3(−1)+1 = = = undefined (not ∞)
𝑥+3𝑦+1 2−3+1 0

2𝑥 2 +5𝑥−3
3. Simplify 2𝑥 2 −3𝑥−2

2𝑥 2 +5𝑥−3 (2𝑥−1)(𝑥+3) 𝑥+3

=2𝑥 2 −3𝑥−2 = (𝑥+2)(2𝑥−1) = 𝑥+2

The least common multiple (LCM) is the smallest common multiple of two integers
a and b, usually denoted by LCM (a, b), is the smallest positive integer that is divisible
by both a and b.

Finding the LCM of two or more fractions:

1. Find the prime factors of each expression.
2. Select all different prime factors and give to each the highest exponent that appears
in the given expression
3. Form the product of all the factors
Examples:

Find the LCM of the ff:

1. (x+2)(x+5) , (x+2)(x-3)

LCM: (x+2) , (x+5) , (x-3)

2. (𝑥 3 + 8) , (𝑥 + 2)2 , (𝑥 2 − 4)
 Expression Factors formed

(𝑥 3 + 8) (x + 2) (𝑥 2 − 2𝑥𝑦 + 𝑦 2 )
(𝑥 + 2)2 (x+2) (x+2)
(𝑥 2 − 4) (x-2) (x+2)

The LCM of(𝑥 3 + 8) , (𝑥 + 2)2 , (𝑥 2 − 4) is (𝑥 − 2)(𝑥 + 2)2 (𝑥 2 − 2𝑥𝑦 + 𝑦)

Addition and Subtraction of fractions

You can only directly add and subtract similar fractions. Similar fractions are
fractions with the same denominator. If the fractions are dissimilar, you have to find first
the Least Common Denominator (LCD) of the fractions. LCD is the LCM of the
denominators of the fractions.
The sum of two or more fractions with the same denominator is a fraction whose
numerator is the sum of the numerators of the separate fractions and whose
denominator is the common denominator.

Perform the indicated operation and simplify.

2𝑥 1 𝑥+5 3𝑥+2 2x+1−x−5+3x+2 4x−2

1. + − + = =
3𝑦𝑧 3𝑦𝑧 3𝑦𝑧 3𝑦𝑧 3yz 3yz
3𝑥 𝑥+1 2 5𝑥𝑧
2. + 𝑥−2𝑦 − 𝑥−2𝑦 + 𝑥𝑧−2𝑦𝑧
𝑥−2𝑦

3𝑥 𝑥+1 2 5𝑥𝑧 3𝑥 𝑥+1 2 (5𝑥)𝑧 3𝑥+𝑥+1−2+5𝑥

= + 𝑥−2𝑦 − 𝑥−2𝑦 + 𝑥𝑧−2𝑦𝑧 = + 𝑥−2𝑦 − 𝑥−2𝑦 + =
𝑥−2𝑦 𝑥−2𝑦 𝑧(𝑥−2𝑦) 𝑥−2𝑦

9𝑥−1
= 𝑥−2𝑦
4 𝑥−1
3. + 3 − 𝑥 2−5𝑥
𝑥

4 𝑥−1 4 3 𝑥−1
+ 3 − 𝑥 2 −5𝑥 = 𝑥 + − LCD: 𝑥(𝑥 − 5)
𝑥 1 𝑥(𝑥−5)

4(𝑥−5)+3𝑥(𝑥−5)−(𝑥−1)
= 𝑥(𝑥−5)

4𝑥−20+3𝑥 2 −15𝑥−𝑥+1
= 𝑥(𝑥−5)

3𝑥 2 −12𝑥−19
= 𝑥(𝑥−5)
 Multiplication of Fractions

The product of two or more given fractions is a fraction whose numerator is the
product of the numerators of the given fractions and whose denominator is the product of
the denominators of the given fractions. That is,
𝒂 𝒄 𝒂𝒄
= 𝒃𝒅
𝒃 𝒅

We need to factor each fraction before we multiply if the given fraction or expression is
factorable.
Example
1. Multiply the following fractions and simplify
2𝑥 3𝑥+1 2𝑥 2 +𝑥𝑦−𝑦 2
∙ ∙
𝑥+𝑦 2𝑥−𝑦 2𝑥 2 −2𝑥𝑦 2

Solution:
2𝑥 3𝑥+1 2𝑥 2 +𝑥𝑦−𝑦 2 2𝑥 3𝑥+1 (2𝑥−𝑦)(𝑥+𝑦)
∙ ∙ = 𝑥+𝑦 ∙ 2𝑥−𝑦 ∙
𝑥+𝑦 2𝑥−𝑦 2𝑥 2 −2𝑥𝑦 2 2𝑥(𝑥−𝑦 2 )

3𝑥+1
= 𝑥−𝑦 2

2. Give the product and simplify

𝑎2 −𝑏 2 𝑎2 −𝑎𝑏−6𝑏 2 2𝑎2 + 5𝑎𝑏−3𝑏 2
∙ ∙
𝑎2 +5𝑎𝑏+6𝑏 2 2𝑎2 + 𝑎𝑏−𝑏 2 𝑎2 − 4𝑎𝑏 +3𝑏2

Solution:
(𝑎+𝑏)(𝑎−𝑏) (𝑎−3𝑏)(𝑎+2𝑏) (2𝑎−𝑏)(𝑎+3𝑏)
= (𝑎+3𝑏)(𝑎+2𝑏)
∙ (2𝑎−𝑏)(𝑎+𝑏)
∙ (𝑎−𝑏)(𝑎−3𝑏)

= 1.
Division of Fractions
A fraction whose numerator or denominator or both are fractional is called complex fraction.
There is a great difference between the two complex fractions below:

One-half
One divided divided by 3
by two-thirds
1
1 2 3 1
2 ≠ >6
3 2
3
The length of the division line dictates which operation must be done ahead.
In determining the quotient of two fractions, we multiply the given dividend by the reciprocal
of the given divisor. That is,
𝑎 𝑐 𝑎 𝑑 𝑎𝑑
𝑥 = 𝑥 =
𝑏 𝑑 𝑏 𝑐 𝑏𝑐

Examples

1. Divide and simplify

3𝑥−5 3𝑥 2 −8𝑥+5
÷
𝑥+𝑦 𝑥 2 −𝑦 2

3𝑥−5 𝑥 2 −𝑦 2 3𝑥−5 (𝑥+𝑦)(𝑥−𝑦)

∙ = ∙
𝑥+𝑦 3𝑥 2 −8𝑥+5 𝑥+𝑦 (3𝑥−5)(𝑥−1)

𝑥−𝑦
= 𝑥−1

2. Divide and simplify:

𝑎2 −2𝑎𝑏+𝑏 2 𝑎2 −3𝑎𝑏+𝑏2 𝑎2 −2𝑎𝑏+𝑏 2 𝑎+3𝑏
÷ = ∙
𝑎−2𝑏 𝑎+3𝑏 𝑎−2𝑏 𝑎2 −3𝑎𝑏+𝑏 2

(𝑎−𝑏)2 𝑎+3𝑏
= ∙
𝑎−2𝑏 (𝑎−2𝑏)(𝑎−𝑏)

𝑎2 +2𝑎𝑏−3𝑏 2
= (𝑎−2𝑏)2

2
( −3)
𝑥
3. Simplify the complex fraction: 1
(1− )
𝑥−1

2−3(𝑥)
[ ]
𝑥
= 1(𝑥−1)−1
[ ]
𝑥−1

2−3𝑥
( )
𝑥
= 𝑥−2
( )
𝑥−1
2−3𝑥 𝑥−1
= ( )
𝑥 𝑥−2
(2−3𝑥)(𝑥−1)
= 𝑥(𝑥−2)
 Complex numbers
A complex number is a number which can be put in the form a+bi, where a and b are
real numbers and i is called the imaginary unit , √−1 , where 𝑖 2 = −1. In the expression, a
is called the real part and b the imaginary part of the complex number.
Addition and Subtraction

(a+bi) +(c+ di) = ( a + c ) + ( b + d )i.

(a+bi) - (c+ di) = ( a - c ) + ( b - d )i.

Multiplication and Division

(a+bi) +(c+ di) = ( ac + 𝑖 2 bd ) + ( bc + ad )i.= ( ac - bd ) + ( bc + ad )i

In particular, the square of the imaginary unit is -1:

𝑖 2 = 𝑖 𝑖 = −1.

The preceding definition of multiplication of general complex numbers follows

naturally from this fundamental property of the imaginary unit. Indeed, if it is treated as a
number so that di means d times i, the above multiplication rule is identical to the usual rule
for multiplying two sums of two terms.
(a+bi) +(c+ di) = ac + bci + adi +bidi (distributive law)

= ac + bidi + bci +adi (commutative law of addition the order of the

summands can be changed)

= ac+𝑏𝑑𝑖 2 + (bc + ad)i (commutative law of multiplication the order of

the multiplicands can be changed)

= (ac - bd) + (bc + ad)i (fundamental property of the imaginary unit)

Division can be defined in this way:

𝑎 + 𝑏𝑖 (𝑎 + 𝑏𝑖) ∙ (𝑐 − 𝑑𝑖) 𝑎𝑐 + 𝑏𝑑 𝑏𝑐 − 𝑎𝑑
= =( 2 2
)+ ( 2 ) 𝑖.
𝑐 + 𝑑𝑖 (𝑐 + 𝑑𝑖) ∙ (𝑐 − 𝑑𝑖) 𝑐 +𝑑 𝑐 + 𝑑2

c – di is the complex conjugate of the denominator c + di. The real part c and the
imaginary part d of the denominator must not both be zero for division to be defined.
Examples:
1. 7i + 9i
Solution:
Combine like terms.
7i + 9i = 16i

2. (2 + 3i) + (4 + 5i) = 6 + 8i

Complex numbers, like real numbers, can be equal. For example, a + bi = c + di means
that a and c must be equal and b and d must be equal.

Examples

1. Find x and y in 3x + yi = 5x + 1 + 2i

Solution: Using the above definition for equality of complex numbers, set the
real parts of the equation equal and set the imaginary parts equal.

3x = 5x + 1 yi = 2i
-2ix = 1i y=2
x = -1/2

Multiplication is done as if the imaginary parts of complex numbers were just another
term. Always remember that 𝑖 2 = −1.

2. 3i ∙ 4i = 12𝑖 2 (Remember that 𝑖 2 equals -1. Rewrite the answer.)

= 12(-1) = -12
When dividing complex numbers, you multiply to the conjugate of the denominator.
−5+9𝑖 −5+9𝑖 1+𝑖
3. = ∙ (Multiply out as you would normally multiply a binomial
1−𝑖 1−𝑖 1−𝑖
by a binomial. FOIL might be useful.)
−5−5𝑖+9𝑖+9𝑖 2
= (Perform the indicated operations, keeping in mind that
1+𝑖−𝑖−𝑖 2
𝑖 2 is equal to -1. Combine like terms)
−14+4𝑖
= 1−𝑖 2

−14+4𝑖
= 2

2(−7+21)
= 2
= -7 + 2i

We can find powers of i using the fact that 𝑖 2 = −1.

𝑖 3 = 𝑖 2 ∙ 𝑖 = −1 ∙ 1 = −1
The value of 𝑖 4 is found from the value of 𝑖 3 .
𝑖 4 = 𝑖 3 ∙ 𝑖 = −1 ∙ 1 = −𝑖 2 = 1
You can actually find any power of 𝑖 by factoring out all of the four powers.
Examples:
𝑖 13 = (𝑖 4 )3 ∙ 𝑖 = 13 ∙ 𝑖 = 𝑖
𝑖 18 = (𝑖 4 )4 ∙ 𝑖 2 = 1 ∙ −1 = −1
4𝑖 99 = 4(𝑖 4 )24 ∙ 𝑖 3 = 4 ∙ 1 ∙ −1 = −4𝑖
Functions and Graphs
Functions
In the equation y = 3x, we cannot know a value for y until we have assigned a value
for x. Thus, x is the independent variable and y is the dependent variable.
If two variables x and y are so related that, whenever a value is assigned to x, one
or more corresponding values for y are determined, then y variable is said to a function of
x, or
y = function of x or y = f(x)
A function is a set of ordered pairs of real numbers (x, y) in which no two distinct
ordered pairs have the same first number. The set of all admissible values of x is called the
domain of the function, and the set of all resulting values of y is called the range of the
function.
Example:
In the equation y = 3x + 5, if we will assign x be equal to 2, the resulting y would be y = 3(2)
+ 5 and y = 11, and because the value of y is dependent on the choice of x, x is the
independent variable and y is the dependent variable.
Cartesian ( or rectangular0 Coordinate

x
 The abscissa x is the horizontal distance of P which is measured from the line 0Y (or
from the origin) and this distance is positive or negative according as P is to the right or to
the left of 0Y. The ordinate y is the vertical distance of P which is measured from the line
0X (or from the origin) and this distance is positive or negative according as P is above or
below 0X. Both the abscissa and the ordinate are called the coordinates of point P, and is
designated by P(x, y), with the abscissa always written first.
To plot (or locate) a point of given coordinates (means to measure the proper
distances from the axes and to mark the point thus determined):
1. Measure off from the origin along the X-axis being the abscissa of the point.
2. From this terminal, measure off, parallel to the Y-axis, the ordinate of the point.
3. The terminal is the point desired.

EXAMPLE
1. Plot the following points in the Cartesian coordinate system.
A(3,5), B(-4, 5), C(-5, -4), D(4, -5)

Graph of an Equation
The graph of an equation is the set of all points in the equation whose coordinates
are the numbers satisfying the equation. The solution of the equation is an ordered pair of
real numbers, one for x and one for y that satisfies the equation. We can do this by assigning
arbitrary values of x to get the corresponding values of y and forming a series of ordered
pairs ( x, y ). Since we can assign any real numbers to x, an infinite number of ordered pairs
in the solution is thus formed.
Graph of a linear equation
A linear equation is an equation whose terms involve variables of the first degree.
The general form of a linear equation in two variables x and y is
Ax + By = C
Where A, B, C are constant, and A and B are not both zero.
A solution of an equation in two variables x and y is defined as a pair of corresponding
values of x and y which satisfy the equation. There can be infinite number of ordered pairs
in the solution.
To graph an equation will mean to draw its graph by locating all the points in a
rectangular system whose coordinates satisfy the given equation. Make a table of values
with x and y values. To simplify graphing operation, tabulate some values of the solution.
The x-coordinate of a point where the graph crosses the X-axis is called an x-intercept.
The y-coordinate of a point where the graph crosses the Y-axis is called a y-intercept.
An equation of a curve in an XY-plane is an equation in x and y whose graph is the given
curve.
Example 1: Graph the given equation. y = 5x + 6
Point plotting:
A B C D E F
X 0 1 2 -1 -2 -3
y = 5x +6 6 11 16 1 -4 -9

Example 2. Graph the given quadratic function

𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 + 2
 f(2) f(1) f(0) f(-1)
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 + 2 (2)2+3(2)+2 (1)2+3(1)+2 (0)2+3(0)+2 (-1)2+3(-1)+2
y = f(x) 12 6 2 0

f(-2) f(-3) f(-4) f(-5)

𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 + 2 (-2)2+3(2)+2 (-3)2+3(-3)+2 (-4)2+3(-4)+2 (-5)2+3(-5)+2
y = f(x) 0 2 6 12

Evaluation of a function
To evaluate y = f(x) means to find the value of f at the specified value of x.
Operations on functions
To find the value of the particular number, we substitute the number to the variable
in the function.
 Given two functions f(x) and g(x), we can add, subtract, multiply and divide them by
the following principles:

Let f and g be two functions. Then,

i. (f + g)(x) = f(x) + g(x)
ii. (f – g)(x) = f(x) – g(x)
iii. (f ∙ g)(x) = f(x) ∙ g(x)
f f(x)
iv. (g)(x) = g(x) provided g(x) ≠ 0

Examples:
1. Evaluate the function f(y):
Let f(y) = y 2 − 4y + 7. Find f(5), f(-2), and f(a + 2b)

(a) For y = 5 f(5) = 52 − 4(5) + 7 = 25 − 20 + 7 = 12

(b) For y = -2 f(−2) = (−2)2 − 4(−2) + 7 = 4 + 8 + 7 = 19
(c) For y = a +2b f(a + 2b) = (a + 2b)2 − 4(a + 2b) + 7
= 𝑎2 + 4𝑎𝑏 + 4𝑏 2 − 4𝑎 − 8𝑏 + 7
2. Suppose f(x) = 2x +3 and g(x) = 3x then,

(a) (f + g)(x) = (2x +3) + 3x We add the two functions

= 5x + 3
(b) (f – g)(x) = (2x +3) – 3x We subtract the second from
= -x + 3 the first function

(c) (f ∙ g)(x) = (2x + 3)(3x) We multiply the two functions

= 6x 2 + 9x applying the distributive property

f 2𝑥+3
(d) (𝑔) (𝑥) = We divide the first function to
3𝑥
second Function
2x 3 2 1
or + 3𝑥 = + Separate the function
3𝑥 3 𝑥
Composition of a function
Let f(x) and g(x) be any two functions. The composite function g ○ f = g[f(x)] requires us to
first calculate f(x) and then substitute this value for x in the formula for g(x).

Examples:
1. Suppose f(x) = 2x + 3 and g(x) = 3x

Find: (a) (f ○ g)(x) ; (b) (g ○ f)(x)

Solution:
a) (f ○ g)(x) = f(g(x))
= f(3x) = 2(3x) + 3
= 6x + 3

b) (g ○ f)(x) = g(f(x))
= g(2x + 3) = 3(2x +3)
= 6x + 9
𝑡+1
2. Given: f(t) = and g(t) = 𝑡 2 − 1
t−1
Find: (a) (f ○ g)(t) ; (b) (g ○ f)(t) ; (c) (f ○ g)(-3)

(t2 −1)+ 1 t2 − 1+1 t2

(a) (f ○ g)(t) = f[g(t)] = (t2 −1)−1
= =
t2 −1−1 t2 −2

t+1 2 (𝑡+1)2 (t+1)2 − (t−1)2 t2 + 2t+1−(t2 −2t+1)

(b) (g ○ f)(t) = (t−1) − 1 = −1= =
(𝑡−1)2 (t−1)2 (t−1)2

t2 +2t+1−t2 +2t−1 4t
= (t−1)2
= (t−1)2
8+1 9
(c) (f ○ g)(-3) = 8−1 = 7

Inverse of a function

Finding the inverse of a function 𝑓 −1 , if 𝑓 −1 (𝑥), if it exists:

1. y = f(x) is given
2. Interchange x and y and get x = f(y)
3. Solve for y, and write the solution as y = f-1(x). We call f-1 the inverse
function of f.
Example

1. If the function f is defined by f(x) = 2x – 3, find the equation that represents the
inverse of f.
Since the inverse of f is obtained by interchanging the components of all the
ordered pairs belonging to f, and each ordered pair in f satisfies the equation y = 2x – 3,
we simply exchange x and y in the equation y = 2x – 3 to get the formula for 𝑓 −1 .

x = 2y -3

We now solve this equation for y in terms of x:

x + 3 = 2y

x+3
=y
2

x+3
y= 2

x+3
The inverse of f(x) = 2x – 3 is f-1(x) =
2

2. Give the inverse of the equation y = x 2 − 2

The equation that corresponds to the inverse of y = x 2 − 2 is obtained by interchanging x

and y to get x 2 = y − 2
We can solve the equation x = y 2 − 2 for y in terms of x as follows:
x = y2 − 2
x + 2 = y2

y = ±√x + 2
Using function notation, we can write the function and its inverse as
𝑓(x) = x 2 − 2 ;

𝑓 −1 (𝑥) = ±√x + 2
 Self-Help: You can also refer to the sources below to help you further
understand the lesson:

[1] Downing , Douglas ( 2009). Mathematics terms 3rd ed.New York: Barron’s
Educational Series Inc.

Let’s Check
Solve the following and simplify your answer.

1. 4(32 ) + 7 − 2(√289 − 17)

3(−4)+(−5)(−8)
2. 23 −2−6

3. 6x – 7 – 4(2x – 5)

4. {4y – [13x – (14y – 2x)] – 18y}

Perform the given operations and simplify your answer.

1. (6p3 q5 r)(7p−7 q−7 )(2q0 r 5 )

2𝑥+1 6−𝑥
2. -
3𝑥−3 𝑥 2 −5𝑥+4

3. If f(x)= x-2, g(x)= 3x

a. (f ◦g)(x)

b. f(f(5))

c. 𝑔−1

4. (5-2i) ( 1+3i)
Let’s Analyze

1. Evaluating the ( 𝑥 4 − 4) ( 𝑥 2 + 2)
What is the most appropriate/ easiest way of solving this problem?

What are the necessary steps that have to undergo to arrive with the correct answer?

3−2𝑖
2. Evaluating 1+𝑖

What is the first step that you will make?

Why will you make that step?

Show the step by step procedure to arrive with the correct answer

In a Nutshell

The importance of learning the basic rules and protocols in solving algebraic
equation and reducing them to its simplest form is an important tool in mathematics. In
this portion of the unit, you will be required to state your arguments or synthesis relevant
to the topics presented. I will supply the first two items and you will continue the rest.

1. The concept of PEMDAS is not limited to real numbers but to all types of numbers.
2. The skills developed in finding the products and factoring are necessary in getting
the simplest form of expression.

Your turn:
3. _____________________________________________________________________
4. _____________________________________________________________________
5. _____________________________________________________________________
Q&A List
If you have any questions regarding this topic, kindly write down on the table provided.

QUESTIONS ANSWERS

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

Keywords Index

Algebra Numerical coefficient Special Product

Algebraic expression Literal coefficient Factoring
Complex numbers conjugate Ordinate
Imaginary number abcissa Number pair