CONTENTS

1.Harmonic Function
2.Properties of Harmonic Functions
3.Harmonic Conjugate
4.Function satisfies Couchy-Riemann Equation
Then, Function is Harmonic Conjugate of each
other
5.Applications of Harmonic Functions
6.Refrences
 HARMONIC FUNCTION

If f(z)=u+iv be an analytic function in some region of the z-plane, then the Cauchy-Riemann
equations are satisfied. By double differentiating the Cauchy-Riemann equation and then
adding both equation we get zero.

Thus both the function u

and v satisfy the LAPLACE’S EQUATION in two variables. They are known as
HARMONIC FUNCTIONS and their theory is called POTENTIAL THEORY.

Suppose f is analytic in a domain D,

f(x + iy) = u(x, y) + iv(x, y),

and u and v have continuous partial derivatives of all orders. From the
Cauchy-Riemann equations we know that

ux(x, y) = vy(x, y) and uy(x, y) = −vx(x, y)

for all x + iy 2 D. Differentiating with respect to x, we have

uxx(x, y) = vyx(x, y) and uyx(x, y) = −vxx(x, y);

differentiating with respect to y, we have

uxy(x, y) = vyy(x, y) and uyy(x, y) = −vxy(x, y).

Hence

uxx(x, y) + uyy(x, y) = vyx(x, y) − vxy(x, y) = vxy(x, y) − vxy(x, y) = 0

for all x + iy 2 D and

vxx(x, y) + vyy(x, y) = −uyx(x, y) + uxy(x, y) = −uxy(x, y) + uxy(x, y) = 0

for all x + iy 2 D.

Suppose H : R2 -> R has continuous second partial derivatives on a domain D. We say H is

harmonic in D if for all (x, y) E D,
Hxx(x, y) + Hyy(x, y) = 0.
Harmonic functions arise frequently in applications, such as in the study of heat distributions
and electrostatic potentials.
If f is analytic in a domain D and

f(x + iy) = u(x, y) + iv(x, y),

then u and v are harmonic in D.

Proof:
The result follows from the discussion above combined with a result we will prove later: if f
is analytic at z0 = x0 + iy0, then u and v have continuous partial derivatives of all orders at
(x0, y0).

Example: We know that f(z) = ez is entire. Since

f(x + iy) = ex cos(y) + iex sin(y),
it follows that
u(x, y) = ex cos(y) and v(x, y) = ex sin(y)
are both harmonic in C (which is also easily checked directly).
Example: We know that
f(z) =1/z2
is analytic in {z 2 C : z 6= 0}. Now
1/z2 =(1/z2)( ¯z2/ ¯z2) =(x2/ − y2)( − 2xyi/(x2 + y2)2) ,

So

u(x, y) =(x2 − y2)/(x2 + y2)2

and

v(x, y) = −2xy/(x2 + y2)2

are harmonic in {(x, y) 2 R2 : (x, y) 6= (0, 0)}.

Properties of Harmonic Functions

Some important properties of harmonic functions can be deduced from Laplace's equation.
1. Regularity theorem for harmonic functions:
Harmonic functions are infinitely differentiable. In fact, harmonic functions are real analytic.
2. Maximum principle:
Harmonic functions satisfy the following maximum principle: if K is any compact
subset of U, then f, restricted to K, attains its maximum and minimum on the boundary of K.
If U isconnected, this means that f cannot have local maxima or minima, other than the
exceptional case where f is constant. Similar properties can be shown for subharmonic
functions.
3. Mean value property:
If B(x,r) is a ball with center x and radius r which is completely contained in the open
set  , then the value u(x) of a harmonic function   at the center of the
ball is given by the average value of u on the surface of the ball; this average value is also
equal to the average value of u in the interior of the ball. In other words

where ωn is the volume of the unit ball in n dimensions and σ is the n−1 dimensional surface

measure. The mean value theorem follows by verifying that the spherical mean of u is
constant:

which in turn follows by making a change of variable and then applying Green's theorem.

As a consequence of the mean value theorem, u is preserved by the convolution of a

harmonic function u with any radial function η with total integral one. More precisely, if η is
an integrable radial function supported in B(0,ε) and ∫η = 1, then

provided that B(x,ε) ⊂ Ω. In particular, by taking η to be a C∞ function, the convolution

η∗u is also smooth, and therefore harmonic functions are smooth throughout their domains
(in fact,real analytic, by the Poisson integral representation). Similar arguments also show
that harmonic distributions are, in fact, (smooth) harmonic functions (Weyl's lemma).

The converse to the mean value theorem also holds: all locally integrable functions satisfying
the (volume) mean-value property are infinitely differentiable and harmonic functions as
well. This follows for C2 functions again by the method of spherical means. For locally
integrable functions, it follows since the mean value property implies that u is unchanged
when convolved with any radial mollifier of total integral one, but convolutions with
mollifiers are smooth and so the C2 result can still be applied.
4. Harnack's inequality:
Let u be a non-negative harmonic function in a bounded domain Ω. Then for every connected
set

Harnack's inequality

holds for some constant C that depends only on V and Ω.

5. Removal of singularities:
The following principle of removal of singularies holds for harmonic functions. If f is a
harmonic function defined on a dotted open subset   of Rn, which is less singular
at x0 than the fundamental solution, that is

then f extends to a harmonic function on Ω (compare Riemann's theorem for functions of a

complex variable).
6. Liouville's theorem:
If f is a harmonic function defined on all of Rn which is bounded above or bounded below,
then f is constant (compare Liouville's theorem for functions of a complex variable).

HARMONIC CONJUGATE
The Harmonic Conjugate of a harmonic real-valued function of two variables u(x,y), is a
function v(x,y) such that v is harmonic and u and v satisfy the Cauchy-Riemann equations,
that is, the complex-valued function u(x,y)+iv(x,y) = f(z) is analytic. The harmonic conjugate
(when it exists, in a given connected region) is unique up to addition of a constant to v.

Observe that if the functions related to u and v were interchanged, the functions would not be
harmonic conjugates, since the minus sign in the Cauchy-Riemann equations makes the
relationship asymmetric.

The conformal mapping property of analytic functions (at points where the derivative is not
zero) gives rise to to a geometric property of harmonic conjugates. Clearly the harmonic
conjugate of x is y, and the lines of constant x and constant y are orthogonal. Conformality
says that equally contours of constant u(x,y) and v(x,y) will also be orthogonal where they
cross (away from the zeroes of f′(z)). That means that v is a specific solution of the orthogonal
trajectory problem for the family of contours given by u (not the only solution, naturally,
since we can take also functions of v): the question, going back to the mathematics of
theseventeenth century, of finding the curves that cross a given family of non-intersecting
curves at right angles.

Two Function of u and v are Cauchy-

Riemann Equations Then they are the
HARMONIC CONJUGATE
FUNCTION of Each Other
Two harmonic functions u and v from an open subset A of   to   , which satisfy
the Cauchy-Riemann equations
(1)

are the harmonic conjugate functions of each other.

 The relationship between u and v has a simple geometric meaning: Let's determine

the slopes of the constant-value curves u(x y)=a and v(x y)=bin any point (x y) by
differentiating these equations. The first gives uxdx+uydy=0 , or

dxdy(u)=−uyux=tan

and the second similarly

dxdy(v)=−vyvx

but this is, by virtue of (1), equal to

uxuy=−1tan

Thus, by the condition of orthogonality, the curves intersect at right angles in every point.

 If one of u and v is known, then the other may be determined with (1): When e.g.
the function u is known, we need only to calculate the line integral

v(x y)= (x y)(x0 y0)(−uydx+uxdy) 

along any path connecting (x0 y0) and (x y) in A . The result is the harmonic

 It follows from the preceding, that every harmonic function has a harmonic conjugate
function.
 The real part and the imaginary part of a holomorphic function are always the
harmonic conjugate functions of each other.

Example: sinxcoshy and cosxsinhy are harmonic conjugates of each other.

If u and v are harmonic in a domain D and satisfy the Cauchy-Riemann equations, then we
say v is a harmonic conjugate of u.
Example: It is easy to check that the function
u(x, y) = x3 − 3xy2

is harmonic. To find a harmonic conjugate v of u, we must have

ux(x, y) = vy(x, y)
and

uy(x, y) = −vx(x, y).

From the first we have

vy(x, y) = 3x2 − 3y2,

from which it follows that

v(x, y) = 3x2y − y3 + '(x)

for some function ' of x. It now follows from the second equation that

−6xy = −vx(x, y) = −(6xy + '0(x)),

and so '0(x) = 0. Hence for any real number c, the function

v(x, y) = 3x2y − y3 + c

is a harmonic conjugate of u.

If u and v are harmonic in a domain D

and satisfy the Cauchy-Riemann
equations, then we say v is a harmonic
conjugate of u.

Example: It is easy to check that the function

u(x, y) = x3 − 3xy2

is harmonic. To find a harmonic conjugate v of u, we must have

ux(x, y) = vy(x, y)

and
 uy(x, y) = −vx(x, y).

From the first we have

vy(x, y) = 3x2 − 3y2,

from which it follows that

v(x, y) = 3x2y − y3 + '(x)

for some function ' of x. It now follows from the second equation that

−6xy = −vx(x, y) = −(6xy + '0(x)),

and so '0(x) = 0. Hence for any real number c, the function

v(x, y) = 3x2y − y3 + c

is a harmonic conjugate of u.