19

Leak and Pressure Test

19.1 LEAK TEST AND PRESSURE TEST

A leak test is conducted at or below operating pressure to verify that a pip-

ing system is leak tight or, for certain applications such as waterworks or fire
mains, that leakage is within prescribed limits. A pressure test is conducted above
operating pressure, often times at 1.1 times to 1.5 times the system design pressure
to verify the strength and leak tightness of a system. The leak and pressure tests
defined by the construction codes are shell tests; their purpose is to verify that the
fluid in the piping system does not leak out of the system. The construction code
leak test is not a closure test meant to confirm that a closed valve does not leak
through its seat. Seat leak tightness is addressed in Chapter 25. The leak test is a
control on the quality of assembly during construction or maintenance. Most often,
when leaks occur during testing they originate at mechanical joints, such as
flanges or threaded connections. Leaks have also occurred, but much more rarely,
in a defective weld or base metal, such as a cracked elbow, or in components, such
as at a repair weld in a valve body.

The hydrostatic and pneumatic tests are pressure tests that challenge the
system above the design pressure. But they do not replace pressure design of pip-
ing or components. The pipe size, fitting and component rating must still be sized
in accordance with the design rules or qualified by proof testing to a pressure
higher than the system hydrostatic or pneumatic test pressure.

In some cases, hydrostatic tests of pressure vessels have resulted in cata-

strophic ruptures of the vessel while conducting the test. In most cases, post-
failure analyses indicated an unusually low impact toughness of the steel at room
temperature (low Charpy V-notch toughness) aggravated by the presence of a
weld flaw undetected by earlier examination. In these cases, the pressure test was

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 instrumental in uncovering a material of poor quality or a weld defect. This is
however an unacceptable and costly way of uncovering such problems.

In the oil and gas pipeline industries, hydrostatic testing is used to assess the
fitness-for-service of a pipeline, based on fracture mechanics analysis. The logic
being that if a pipeline can withstand a certain hydrostatic pressure it can be con-
cluded that it does not contain flaws larger than a certain size. In Chapter 21 we
will see that a pipeline tested at a hoop stress of 100% its specified minimum yield
stress (SMYS) will not contain a flaw longer or deeper than the limits of ASME
B31G, otherwise the line would have failed at these flaws during hydrotest.

19.2 LEAK AND PRESSURE TEST METHODS

There are several methods for leak and pressure testing a piping system.
ASME B&PV Code, Section V Article 10, provides a good reference for leak
testing techniques. Following are the most common leak test methods used for
industrial piping systems and pipelines.

Bubble test (ASME B&PV Section V Article 10, Appendix I): air or an inert
gas is introduced in the pipe, at a relatively low pressure, in the order of 15 psig. A
bubble solution is applied at welds and joints. The joints are then visually in-
spected for signs of bubbles, which would indicate a leak. The bubble solution
may contain inhibitors to avoid corrosion. The sensitivity of the method is in the
order of 10"4 to 10"5 std. cc/sec.

Vacuum box (ASME B&PV Section V Article 10, Appendix II): a bubble
forming solution is applied at welds and joints. The weld or joint is then covered
with a sealed box with transparent windows, as shown in Figure 19-1. A slight
vacuum of about - 2 psid is drawn into the box and held for a short time, typically
less than a minute. The joints in the vacuum box are then visually inspected for
signs of bubbles, which would indicate a leak. The method is particularly well
suited for the leak testing girth welds in pipes. The sensitivity of the method is in
the order of 1 to 10"2 std. cc/sec.

Sensitive leak test (ASME B&PV Section V Article 10, Appendix IV and
V): the sensitive leak test technique consists in detecting leakage of a tracer gas,
such as Helium or SF6, into or out of the tested system [ASTM E 432]. There are
four sensitive leak test methods, illustrated in Figure 19-2. Either a gas is intro-
duced inside the component and the air is sampled around it for traces of gas
(sniffing probe or bell jar), or the component is immersed in gas or joints are
sprayed with gas, and the air inside the component or system is sampled for traces
of gas (hood or tracer spray). A detector probe is used to detect small amounts of
leakage by ionization and magnetic field deflection of the tracer gas. The sensitiv-

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 ity of the method ranges from 10~2 to 10~10 std. cc/sec, depending on the particular
option and method of leak detection selected.

Figure 19-1 Leak Box Test Arrangement

Figure 19-2 Sensitive Leak Test Arrangements

(a) Sniffing Probe, (b) Bell Jar, (c) Hood, (d) Tracer Spray

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 Hydrostatic test: The piping system is filled with water to a pressure speci-
fied by the construction code, Figure 19-3 at top. Note the isolation valve, the rec-
ommended relief valve, and the easily visible pressure gages. Joints are inspected
for evidence of leakage. To this end, the joints should be visible, bare, and unin-
sulated. The sensitivity of the method is in the range of 1 to 10~2 std. cc/sec. As a
practical point of reference, a liquid leak rate of 1 std. cc/sec corresponds ap-
proximately to 1 gallon per hour. The power piping code, ASME B31.1 would
permit the leak test to be conducted after insulation is installed, provided the hy-
drostatic pressure is maintained for a sufficiently long time; low points should be
left uninsulated to permit the detection of leaking water. The hydrostatic test pres-
sure is defined in ASME B31.3 as

"test = 1.5 "design Cutest' ^design)

Ptest = test pressure, psi

Pdesign = design pressure, psi
S,est = allowable stress at test temperature, psi
=
allowable stress at design temperature, psi

Figure 19-3 Hydrostatic (top) and Pneumatic (bottom) Test Arrangements.

The correction Stest / Sdesign has an important practical consequence when hy-
drostatically testing piping systems in the field: the leakage of valve packing dur-
ing hydrotest. Indeed, take for example a carbon steel system with a design tem-
perature of 650°F. The correction factor is 20 ksi / 17 ksi = 1.18. The piping sys-
tem will be tested at a pressure of 1.5 x 1.18 x Pdesign. Yet, the vendor has only
tested the valve at 1.5 times its rated pressure [ASME B16.34]. Therefore, if the
system design pressure is equal to the valve pressure rating, the valve will be ex-
posed for the first time to a pressure 1.5 x 1.18 x Prated, in this case the field hy-

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 drotest pressure is 18% larger than its manufacturer tested pressure of 1.5 x Prated,
and as a result there are cases where the valve packing leaked during the field hy-
drotest.

New pipelines are hydrostatically tested before commissioning and service.

Hazardous liquid pipelines operating at a hoop stress larger than 20% of SMYS
(minimum specified yield stress) are tested in accordance with ASME B31.4 at
1.25 times the design pressure for a minimum of four hours [ASME B31.4,
49CFR195]. If the line is covered and the joints are not visible, the test is extended
for four more hours at a pressure of 1.1 times the design pressure. A pipeline de-
signed for the maximum hoop stress of 72% SMYS will therefore experience a
stress of 1.25 x 72% = 90% SMYS during hydrotest. Conversely, a pipeline can-
not be operated at a pressure that exceeds 80% of the hydrostatic test pressure,
which corresponds to 80% x 90% SMYS = 72% SMYS.

Up to the 1950's, many gas transmission pipelines were tested with air or
gas slightly above maximum operating pressure. As a result of failures, operating
and insurance companies and regulators imposed a hydrostatic test at 1.1 to 1 .4
times the maximum allowable operating pressure (MAOP) depending on the loca-
tion class (population density) [ASME B31.8, 49CFR192].

A pig is inserted in front of the hydrostatic water to sweep all the air out of
the line through open-air vent valves at high points. This will insure that the pipe-
line is full of liquid, with no trapped air pockets. There are three reasons why air
has to be removed when hydrotesting a pipeline: (1) to reduce the energy trapped
in the line, so that a leak will not turn into a large rupture (Chapter 4), (2) to avoid
pressure fluctuations caused by pumping water against trapped air bubbles
(Chapter 9), (3) to maintain the siphon effect to balance static heads caused by ups
and downs in elevation. A pipeline can be tested in sections, to reuse the test wa-
ter.

When testing pipelines, a pressure-volume (P-V) chart is used together with

a calculation of projected volume vs. pressure to compare volume of water
pumped (pump strokes) to corresponding pressure increase [API 1110, Kiefner]. If
the pressure does not rise as predicted with pumped volume, this would indicate
either a leak or plastic deformation of the pipe. The volume of water required to
fill a pipeline and raise its pressure from atmospheric pressure to a test pressure P
is [McAllister]

FWP X Fpp X FPWT

itae = 0.0408 d2 L

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 Fpp = 1 + (D/t)(0.91P/30) 10'6 + 3.6 10~* (T - 60)

FPWT = [1 + (T - 60) 18.2 lO"6] / FWT

Vtes, = volume of test water to fill and pressurize the line, gallons
Vpipe = pipe volume, gallons
FWP = correction factor for water compressibility
Fpp = correction factor pipe volume increase with pressure
FpT = correction factor for pipe and water temperature change
D = pipe inner diameter, in
L = pipe length, ft
P = test pressure, psi
D = pipe outside diameter, in
T = pipe temperature, °F
FWT = factor 1.0 at 60°F [McAllister]

Pneumatic test: the piping system is filled with air or gas, and slowly pres-
surized to a pressure specified by the construction code, such as 110% of the de-
sign pressure for ASME B31.3 pneumatic tests. An arrangement of the test assem-
bly is shown in Figure 19-3, at bottom. Note the pressure regulator, the isolation
valve, the mandatory safety valve, the easily visible pressure gages, and the barrier
or rope placed as a safety precaution. Joints are inspected for evidence of leaks,
either using bubble solution or by monitoring the pressure drop.

Pressure change test (ASME B&PV Section V Article 10, Appendix VI):
this pressure testing technique is also referred to as pressure decay (rate of fall)
test. The system is pressurized, typically with water, and sealed. The pressure is
monitored at least every hour for large systems, during a sufficiently long period
of time to detect any pressure drop that would indicate leakage. For testing small
volumes (such as a small vessel) 15 minutes may be sufficient. The sensitivity of a
rate of fall test is 1 to 10"2 std. cc/sec. Note that the rate of fall has to be corrected
because the pressure in the sealed system will increase if the ambient temperature
increases and vice-versa. The increase in pressure due to a temperature rise AT of
a trapped liquid can be obtained by solving the following set of algebraic equa-
tions [Mohitpour, McAllister]

A-BC+D=0

A = d2 L F AT

B = {d + a AT d + (2PR/E) [R2 (1 + v) + r2 (1 - 2v)] / (R2 - r2)}2 - d2

' C = L + L a AT + (PL/E) r2 (1 -2v) / (R2 - r2)

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 D=Pd2L/B

d = internal pipe diameter, in

E = Young's modulus of pipe material, psi
F = thermal expansion of fluid
L = length of isolated pipe, in
P = pressure, psi
R = outer radius, in
r = inside radius, in
a = coefficient of thermal expansion of pipe material, 1/°F
AT = change pf temperature of trapped fluid, °F
v = Poisson ratio of pipe material

For vacuum systems, the test is reversed, and the pressure increase (rate of
rise) would be measured to detect in-leakage. The sensitivity of a rate of rise test is
in the range of 1 to 10~5 std. cc/sec.

Ultrasonic leak detection (ASME B&PV Section V Article 10, Appendix

X): a probe is used to detect ultrasounds, in the range of 20 to 100 kHz, emitted by
gas leakage through a small hole or crack.

In-service leak test: the in-service leak test is a visual inspection of pipe
joints during system startup, at normal operating pressure.

19.3 CHOICE OF TEST METHOD

Neither the constructor nor the owner has much latitude when it comes to
leak or pressure testing. The type of test and the test pressure are typically speci-
fied by the construction code, federal, state or local regulations. In the construction
of pressure vessels or piping systems, pressure testing is typically a hold point
witnessed by the owner's inspector, or a third party inspector. Leak testing must
include all the new joints of a piping system. Even if new piping subassemblies
are tested in the pipe shop, the field joints between these subassemblies must be
tested in the field.

hi power and chemical process plant piping, the leak test is a pressure test
typically a hydrostatic test at 150% of the design pressure. For systems with low
design pressure, typically below 150 psi, and non-flammable, non-toxic fluids, the
pressure test may be replaced by an in-service leak test during system startup, if
permitted by the construction code or the applicable regulation. For example, an
in-service leak test is typical for building services and in non-critical process sys-
tems operating below 150 psi and 366°F. In industrial process plants, for piping

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 systems operating above 150 psi, when the hydrostatic or pneumatic tests cannot
be conducted, they may be substituted by full radiography of girth butt welds, PT
or MT of fillet welds and an in-service leak test. This may be the case for closure
welds, which are the last welds in a new construction, and the tie-ins between new
and existing piping. Where the tie-in is at a flange or mechanical joint that can not
be hydrostatically tested, then the joint assembly should follow written instructions
and be witnessed by an independent inspector.

Oil and hazardous liquids pipelines (ASME B31.4) are hydrostatically

tested, typically at 125% the design pressure, for at least 4 hours if the system op-
erates at a hoop stress PD / (2t) in excess of 20% of the yield stress. If the joints
are not visible, the first test is to be followed by a second test for at least four hours
at 110% the design pressure [49 CFR 195,ASME B31.4].

Leak testing of gas pipelines and distribution systems depends on the loca-
tion of the pipeline and the operating hoop stress. For a hoop stress below 100 psi,
an in-service soap bubble leak test is often sufficient. For hoop stresses above 30%
of yield, the pipeline is hydrostatically tested at pressures ranging from 110% to
140% of design pressure, depending on the pipeline location [49 CFR 192, ASME
B31.8].

Keep in mind that the hydrostatic test pressure is the minimum pressure to
be achieved in the system, therefore, because of elevation heads, low points will
see a pressure in excess of the hydrostatic test pressure. But in no case should the
hydrostatic hoop stress in the pipe exceed its yield stress or, preferably, 90% of the
yield stress, except when the hydrotest is used as a means to check for flaws in
pipelines (Chapter 21).

19.4 CONDUCT OF TEST

A leak test has to be competently planned and conducted [ASTM E 479,

API 1110]. The following guidance applies to hydrostatic tests.

19.4.1 Plan the Test

(1) Select and train test inspectors, preferably personnel qualified for visual in-
spections.
(2) Prepare written test procedures and develop forms to record date, system
boundaries, fluid, pressure, examiner certification.
(3) Decide on hold points for quality or owner inspections.
(4) Walk down the system to verify that construction is correct and complete.
(5) Verify proper location and condition of vents and drains.
(6) Make sure supports are completed and temporary supports are in place, if re-
quired.

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 (7) Spring hangers should be pinned if not sized to support the water weight.
(8) If the test pressure exceeds the design pressure, restrain expansion joints to
safely sustain the test pressure.
(9) Verify test boundaries and valve alignments, use a piping line diagram to indi-
cate test boundaries, valve status, vents, drains, pressure gages and test pressures.
(10) Verify the pressure rating of all components and fittings against the test pres-
sure. Note that for the purpose of hydrostatic testing, a B16.5 flange can withstand
1.5 times its rated pressure, but an instrument should not be tested above its indi-
cated range.
(11) Disconnect equipment, components and gages that can not withstand the test
pressure.
(12) Make sure joints are visible, uninsulated. They could be painted. Joints that
were successfully tested in the shop need not be reexamined in the field.
(13) Make provisions for a relief valve close to the fill connection. Temporarily
remove or seal system relief valves, since the test pressure will exceed the design
pressure and relief valve set point.
(14) Install test relief valves. For process piping a test relief valve is recommended
during hydrotest and required during a pneumatic test.
(15) Chose a clean fluid compatible with the pipe. For example, use water with
less than 250 ppm chlorides with stainless steel. In one case, untreated hydrotest
water was permitted to stay stagnant inside several stainless steel systems for a
period of five months, resulting in widespread pitting corrosion and costly re-
placements.
(16) Avoid testing in cold weather, below 40°F for carbon steel. If using anti-
freeze, plan for its disposition.
(17) For pneumatic tests, rope off, and shield if necessary, the test area. To select
the rope-off distance on pneumatic tests, consider the equivalent TNT approach
described in Chapter 4.

19.4.2 Conduct the Test

(1) Fill from bottom and vent air at high points. If air is entrapped, it will be diffi-
cult to reach the test pressure, and the trapped pressurized air bubble could be a
source of catastrophic rupture of the pipe during hydrostatic testing.
(2) Consider a first plateau at low pressure.
(3) Pressurize slowly, in plateaus, to permit the system temperature to reach equi-
librium.
(4) Watch for solar heating, refer to formulas for pressure increase with ambient
temperature.
(5) Maintain the test pressure for 10 minutes during visual inspection.
(6) Wipe condensation as it occurs. It is preferable to heat the fluid slightly or test
above the dew point. Dew points are given in Table 19-1. For example, from Ta-
ble 19-1, if the ambient temperature is 70°F and the humidity is 50%, dew will
form if the pipe wall is at 50°F.

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 (7) Examine all joints.

Table 19-1 Dew Point in Air (°F), given Ambient Temperature and Humidity
Humidity % 30°F 50°F 70°F 80°F
90% 28 47 67 87
70% 22 40 60 78
50% 15 31 50 67
40% 11 26 43 61
30% 4 20 36 52

19.4.3 Plan for Leaks

(1) If leakage occurs, drain, repair and reexamine the piping, then retest.
(2) Unless otherwise required by regulations, the owner may wave retesting for
minor repairs, such as flange retightening, or welded repairs that do not penetrate
the pipe wall.
(3) For bolted joints, bolts may be retightened if permitted by the owner. Retight-
ening bolted joints should not be permitted during pneumatic testing, instead, the
test should be interrupted and the system depressurized to repair the leak.

19.4.4 Drain and Dry

(1) Flush and dispose of the test water.
(2) Dry by reducing the line pressure below atmospheric pressure, close to vac-
uum. Any water is then entrained as a low-pressure vapor outside the pipe. Drying
may also be accomplished by blowing dry air or nitrogen in the system. Drying of
long pipelines may be accomplished by several runs of polyurethane foam pigs
followed by blowing dry air. The drying operation is completed when the outlet air
is measured to be dry. In pipelines, drying may be accomplished by running
batches of liquid methanol to absorb moisture.

19.5 ISOLATION

In practice, it is sometimes difficult to find an isolation point, such as a gate

valve, to isolate a new subsystem to be tested from the rest of an existing piping
system. Inflatable plugs, Figure 19-4 top, can be used to isolate sections of low-
pressure systems. They are commonly used to test water lines.

High-pressure pipe stoppers, discs or pistons with neoprene seal, have been
used to isolate sections for test pressures as high as 5000 psi, Figure 19-4. Line
stops, Figure 19-4 bottom, can be inserted using hot taps (Chapter 23). They have
been used to isolate pipelines with diameter as high as 36" and pressures as high
as 1000 psi. Plugs with inflatable seals have been used in subsea pipelines [Far-
que].

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 ^ o,.>.v..-?^.T».T^.->.:a-^..-s , 4 . ^ .^, „ .^ ^ '^^_^nl

'^ f
\
. , . v, . K ~ ~~

ZZJjZA
; ; ! L!

Figure 19-4 Line Isolation Techniques

Figure 19-5 Freeze Plug Arrangement.

(A) Refrigerant Inlet, (B) Outlet, (C) Thermocouple and (D) Vent

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 An alternative method for isolating liquid filled pipe sections is to form a
freeze plug, by circulating liquid nitrogen or Freon in coils or through a jacket
placed around the pipe, as illustrated in Figure 19-5, or by packing dry ice (carbon
dioxide) in a cradle around the pipe. Precautions are in order to assure that (1) the
plug will not fail at test pressure, (2) the frozen pipe will not fracture [EPRI, Bo-
wen], and (3) the trapped liquid will not over-pressurize and burst the pipe. For
these reasons, it is advisable to retain the services of a specialized contractors or
certified technicians to perform the freeze plug. When the activity is complete, it
will be necessary to thaw the freeze plug from the center towards the periphery so
that the plug will not detach from the pipe wall while still under differential pres-
sure, and be propelled down the line.

19.6 LOCATING LEAKS UNDERGOUND

Ideally, and as is often required by construction codes, the joints of under-

ground pipelines should be kept uncovered during hydrostatic testing. But some-
times a hydrostatic test is conducted with the line fully buried and leak detection
becomes more difficult. In this case, the simplest way of detecting liquid leaks, is
to inspect the ground surface along the route of the buried pipeline, on a dry day,
looking for wet spots. Dye (for liquids) or odorant (for gases) can be added to the
water to facilitate the detection of leaks at the ground surface. Tracer gas may be
added to the hydrotest water and leaks detected by hand held sniffing probes at the
ground surface or, for long pipelines, by a riding cart containing the sniffing
probes [Tracer].

As an alternative to direct inspection of joints, the prediction of pump

strokes required to reach the test pressure, starting with a water-filled line at at-
mospheric pressure, can be compared to the number of pump strokes actually
needed in the field to determine whether the line is leaking.

Small digs can be made to locally expose the pipe, or manholes used to
place listening devices to detect sound that will indicate leaks. To isolate the leak
in a buried line, it may be necessary dig and cut the line at mid-point, and hy-
drostatically test each half of the line. A leaking half would in turn be divided in
two halves and the procedure is repeated until the leaking area is isolated. Alter-
natively, a freeze plug may be used, as described section 19.5, to isolate pipe sec-
tions.

Small chronicle leaks in hydrocarbon pipelines can be detected by sampling

hydrocarbon through a collection tube run next to the buried pipeline [Bryce]. In
the same manner, leaks of toxic fluid can be detected by using double-containment

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 piping (carrier or core pipe within an outer or jacket pipe) and sampling the vapor
in the annular space between the inner and outer pipe [Ziu].

19.7 REFERENCES

49CFR192, Transportation of Natural and Other Gas by Pipeline: Minimum Federal Safety,
Code of federal Regulations, Washington, DC.

49CFR195, Transportation of Hazardous Liquids by Pipelines, Code of federal Regulations,

Washington, DC.

API 598, Valve Inspection and Testing, American Petroleum Institute, Washington, D.C.

API 1110, Pressure Testing of Liquid Petroleum Pipelines, American Petroleum Institute,
Washington, DC.

ASME B31.4, Pipeline Transportation Systems for Liquid Hydrocarbons and Other Liq-
uids, American Society of Mechanical Engineers, New York, NY.

ASME B31.8, Gas Transmission and Distribution Piping Systems, American Society of
Mechanical Engineers, New York, NY.

ASME B16.34, Valves - Flanged, Threaded, and Welding End, American Society of Me-
chanical Engineers, New York.

ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code, Section V, Article 10 Leak testing, ASME, New
York.

ASTM E 432, Standard Recommended Guide for the Selection of a Leak testing Method,
American Society for Testing and Materials, West Conshohocken, PA.

ASTM E 479, Recommended Guide for Preparation of a Leak testing Specification, Ameri-
can Society for Testing and Materials, West Conshohocken, PA.

Bowen, R.J., et. al., Pipe Freezing Operations Offshore - Some Safety Considerations, Off-
shore Marine and Arctic Engineering Symposium, Volume V Pipeline Technology, ASME,
1996.

Bryce, P.W., et. al., Leak-Detection System to Catch Slow Leaks in Offshore Alaska Line,
Oil & Gas Journal, December 9, 2002.

EPRI, Freeze Sealing (Ice Plugging) of Piping, report TR-016384R1, Electric Power Re-
search Institute, November, 1997.

Farque, J.A., Remotely Operated Hydroplug Keeps Vital Pipeline Online, Pipeline & Gas
Journal, February, 1999.

FCI, Flow Control Institute, Control Valve Seat Leakage, ANSI/FCI 70-2, Cleveland, Ohio.

Copyright © 2003 by Marcel Dekker, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

 FCI, Flow Control Institute, Standard for Solenoid Valve Seat Leakage, ANSI/FCI 91-2,
Cleveland, Ohio.

Howard, G.J., The Ice-O-Lator: A Proven Way to Determine Pipeline Leaks, OCG Journal,
April 19, 1987.

McAllister, E.W. editor, Pipelines Rule of Thumb Handbook, Gulf Publishing, Third Edi-
tion.

Mohitpour, M, Golshan, H., and Murray A., Pipeline Design and Construction A Practical
Approach, ASME Press, New York.

MSS-SP-61, Pressure Testing of Steel Valves, Manufacturers Standardization Society, Vi-

enna, Virginia.

Ziu, C.G., Handbook of Double Containment Piping Systems, McGraw Hill, New York.

Copyright © 2003 by Marcel Dekker, Inc. All Rights Reserved.