Code For Lighting CIBSE (NEW 2012)

g
The Society of
Light and Lighting
The SLL
Code for
Lighting
Radwan Kassir, [email protected], 8:48am 08/05/2012, 1, 28903
The SLL Code for Lighting
The Society of
Light and Lighting
222 Balham High Road, London SW12 9BS

+44 (0)20 8675 5211
www.cibse.org
This document is based on the best knowledge available at the time of publication. However, no
responsibility of any kind for any injury, death, loss, damage or delay however caused resulting
from the use of these recommendations can be accepted by the Chartered Institution of Build-
ing Services Engineers, The Society of Light and Lighting, the authors or others involved in its
publication. In adopting these recommendations for use each adopter by doing so agrees to accept
full responsibility for any personal injury, death, loss, damage or delay arising out of or in connec-
tion with their use by or on behalf of such adopter irrespective of the cause or reason therefore
and agrees to defend, indemnify and hold harmless the Chartered Institution of Building Services
Engineers, The Society of Light and Lighting, the authors and others involved in their publi-
cation from any and all liability arising out of or in connection with such use as aforesaid and
irrespective of any negligence on the part of those indemnified.
The rights of publication or translation are reserved.
No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any
form or by any means without the prior permission of the publisher.
Note from the publisher

This publication is primarily intended to give guidance. It is not intended to be exhaustive or de-
finitive, and it will be necessary for users of the guidance given to exercise their own professional
judgement when deciding whether to abide by or depart from it.
© March 2012 The Society of Light and Lighting
The Society of
Light and Lighting
The Society is part of CIBSE, which is a registered charity, number 278104.
ISBN 978-1-906846-21-3
Print management and typesetting by The Charlesworth Group
Printed in Great Britain on FSC certified mix source paper by Page Bros (Norwich) Ltd.,
Norwich, Norfolk, NR6 6SA
Main cover image: The Royal Pavilion, Brighton; photograph by Liz Peck
(LPA Photography)
ii
Foreword
The Society of Light and Lighting (SLL) and its predecessors, the Lighting Division of the
Chartered Institution of Building Services Engineers (CIBSE) and the Illuminating Engineering
Society (IES), have published recommendations on lighting practice since 1936. From the
beginning, these recommendations, called Codes for Lighting, have all contained details of the
illuminances required for use in different applications together with qualitative guidance on how
to implement these recommendations. Over the years, as the understanding of how lighting
conditions can affect visual performance and cause visual discomfort has increased, additional
quantitative lighting criteria have been added, notably those concerned with the level of colour
rendering required and with limiting discomfort glare. For many years, the IES Code for Lighting
was the de facto standard for lighting provision in the United Kingdom. However, in 2002,
the Committee for European Standardisation (CEN) took on the task of providing lighting
recommendations, and, since then the British Standards Institution has adopted the CEN
recommendations for use in the United Kingdom. As a result, there are now a range of British
Standards that specify the quantitative lighting requirements for a wide range of applications.
Consequently, the role of the SLL Code for Lighting has shifted from being the only source for
quantitative lighting recommendations to being a guide on how to interpret the British Standard
recommendations and how to implement them in practice.
This edition of the SLL Code for Lighting takes the changes in lighting guidance a step further
by a process of separation and concentration. The separation involves moving the details of
vision, lighting technology and lighting applications into another publication, the SLL Lighting
Handbook. The concentration occurs because this SLL Code for Lighting provides information on
three fundamental matters of relevance to lighting practice. These matters are:
z A summary of what is known about the effects of lighting on task performance, behaviour,
safety, perception and health as well as its financial and environmental costs.
z A compendium of all the lighting recommendations relevant to the United Kingdom

with suggestions as to how these should be interpreted. This compendium covers
recommendations for both interior and exterior lighting in normal conditions.
z A detailed description of all the calculations required for quantitative lighting design. While it
is a fact that, today, most lighting calculations are done using software that simply implements
the fundamental calculations described here, without knowledge of these calculations, it is
difficult to assess the meaning and merit of the results produced by software.
iii
Principal author
Peter Raynham BSc Msc CEng FSLL MCIBSE MILP
Contributors
Peter Boyce PhD FSLL FIESNA
John Fitzpatrick BSc PhD
Editor
The Charlesworth Group
SLL Secretary
Liz Peck FSLL
CIBSE Editorial Manager

Ken Butcher
CIBSE Head of Knowledge

Nicolas Peake
Acknowledgements
The Society of Light and Lighting gratefully acknowledges the following for reviewing the draft
prior to publication: Robert Bean, Lou Bedocs, Brian Glynn, Ruth Kelly, Paul Littlefair, David
Loe, Michael Pointer, Paul Ruffles, Anthony Slater, Peter Thorns, Alan Tulla and Bob Venning.
The Society also wishes to acknowledge the following for permission to reproduce illustrations:
Illuminating Engineering Society of North America (Figure 1.4), Naomi Miller Lighting Design
LLC (Figure 1.8), Commission Internationale de l’Eclairage (Figure 1.11), Electronic Healing
(Figure 1.12), NCS Colour AB (Figures 16.14, 16.15 and 16.16), British Standards Institution
(Figure 16.19). Other illustrations courtesy of the author and contributors.
NCS-Natural Colour System®© is the property of and used on licence from NCS Colour AB
Stockholm 2012. References to NCS®© in this publication are used with permission from NCS
Colour AB.
Permission to reproduce extracts from BS 667, BS 5489, BS 5252, BS 8206, BS EN 12464,

BS EN 12665, BS EN 13201, BS EN 13032, BS EN 15193 and BS ISO 23539 is granted by BSI.
British Standards can be obtained in PDF or hard copy formats from the BSI online shop:
www.bsigroup.com/Shop or by contacting BSI Customer Services for hard copies only:
Tel: +44 (0)20 8996 9001, Email: [email protected].
iv
Contents
Chapter 1: The balance of lighting
1.1 Lighting quality 1
1.2 The place of lighting in the modern world 2
1.3 An overview of the effects of light on human performance 3
1.4 Lighting and visual task performance 6
1.4.1 Visual performance 7
1.4.2 Visual search 9
1.4.3 Mesopic conditions 10
1.4.4 A discrepancy 11
1.4.5 Improving visual performance 12
1.5 Lighting and behaviour 12
1.5.1 Attracting attention 13
1.5.2 Directing movement 13
1.5.3 Communication 13
1.6 Lighting and safety 14
1.6.1 Emergency escape lighting 14
1.6.2 Road lighting 15
1.6.3 Lighting and crime 15
1.7 Lighting and perception 16
1.7.1 Brightness 16
1.7.2 Form 16
1.7.3 Higher order perceptions 17
1.8 Lighting and health 20
1.8.1 Eyestrain 20
1.8.2 Non-visual effects 21
1.8.3 Tissue damage by optical radiation 24
1.9 Lighting costs 24
1.9.1 Financial costs 25
1.9.2 Electricity consumption 25
1.9.3 Chemical pollution 26
1.9.4 Light pollution 26
1.10 The future 28
Chapter 2: Indoor workplaces

2.1 Lighting design criteria 29
2.1.1 Luminous environment 29
2.1.2 Luminance distribution 30
2.1.3 Illuminance 32
2.1.4 Illuminance grid 35
2.1.5 Glare 36
2.1.6 Lighting in the interior space 39
2.1.7 Colour aspects 40
2.1.8 Flicker and stroboscopic effects 42
2.1.9 Lighting of work stations with display screen equipment (DSE) 42
2.1.10 Maintenance factor 44
2.1.11 Energy efficiency requirements 44
2.1.12 Additional benefits of daylight 45
2.1.13 Variability of light 45
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2.2 Schedule of lighting requirements 45

2.2.1 Composition of the tables 45
2.2.2 Schedule of interior areas, tasks and activities 46
2.2.3 Verification procedures 85
Chapter 3: Outdoor workplaces

3.1 Lighting design criteria 86
3.1.1 Luminous environment 86
3.1.2 Luminance distribution 87
3.1.4 Glare 89
3.1.5 Obtrusive light 90
3.1.6 Directional lighting 91
3.1.7 Colour aspects 92
3.1.8 Flicker and stroboscopic effects 93
3.1.9 Maintenance factor (MF) 93
3.1.10 Energy considerations 93
3.1.11 Sustainability 94
3.1.12 Emergency lighting 94
3.2 Schedule of lighting requirements 94
3.2.1 Composition of Tables 3.5 to 3.19 94
3.2.2 Schedule of areas, tasks and activities 95
3.2.3 Lighting requirements for areas, tasks and activities 96
3.2.4 Lighting requirements for safety and security 104
3.3 Verification procedures 105
3.3.2 Glare rating 105
3.3.3 Colour Rendering Index 105
3.3.4 Obtrusive light 105
Chapter 4: Road lighting

4.1 Classification of roads 106
4.1.1 Traffic routes 106
4.1.2 Subsidiary roads 109
4.1.3 Conflict areas 110
4.2 Lighting classes 112
4.2.1 ME classes 112
4.2.2 S classes 113
4.2.3 CE classes 113
4.2.4 G classes 114
Chapter 5: Daylight
5.1 Daylight and health 115
5.1.1 Regulation of the circadian system 115
5.1.2 Mood 115
5.1.3 Seasonal affective disorder (SAD) 115
5.1.4 Ultraviolet (UV) radiation 116
5.2 Windows and view 116
5.2.1 Analysis of view 116
5.2.2 Size and proportion of windows 118
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5.3 Daylight and room brightness 118
5.3.1 Sunlight 119
5.3.2 Skylight 119
5.3.3 Contrast between the interior and the view outside 120
5.4 Daylight for task lighting 121
5.4.1 Glare 121
5.4.2 Specular reflection 122
5.5 Electric lighting used in conjunction with daylight 122
5.5.1 Balance of daylight and electric light 122
5.5.2 Modelling 122
5.5.3 Contrast between exterior and interior 122
5.5.4 Colour appearance of lamps 123
5.5.5 Changes of lighting at dusk 123
5.6 Sunlight shading 123
Chapter 6: Energy
6.1 Simple guidance for energy efficient lighting 124
6.1.1 The right amount of light 124
6.1.2 Light in the right place 124
6.1.3 Light at the right time 125
6.1.4 The right lighting equipment 125
6.2 Energy regulations, and standards 126
6.2.1 Building regulations 127
6.2.2 Dwellings 128
6.2.3 Non-domestic buildings 129
6.2.4 BS EN 15193 130
6.2.5 Schemes to support energy efficient lighting 134
Chapter 7: Construction (Design and Management) Regulations

7.1 Introduction 135
7.2 General management duties 136
7.2.1 Duties of clients 137
7.2.2 Duties of designers 138
7.2.3 Duties of contractors 138
7.3 Additional duties if the project is notifiable 139
7.3.1 Additional duties of the client 139
7.3.2 Additional duties of designers 139
7.3.3 Additional duties of contractors 140
7.3.4 Duties of the CDM co-ordinator 140
7.3.5 Duties of the principal contractor 141
7.4 Duties relating to health and safety on construction sites 141
7.4.1 Electricity distribution 142
7.4.2 Emergency routes and exits 142
7.4.3 Lighting 142
Chapter 8: Basic energy and light

8.1 Properties of electromagnetic waves 143
8.2 Evaluating energy as light 147
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Chapter 9: Luminous flux, intensity, illuminance, luminance

and their interrelationships
9.1 Definitions of the units 156
9.1.1 Flux 156
9.1.2 Intensity 156
9.1.4 Luminance 157
9.2 Interrelationships between the units 158
9.2.1 Flux and intensity 158
9.2.2 Intensity and illuminance 159
Chapter 10: Direct lighting

10.1 Illuminance from point sources 161
10.1.1 Planar illuminance 161
10.1.2 Cylindrical illuminance 162
10.1.3 Semi-cylindrical illuminance 162
10.1.4 Spherical illuminance 163
10.1.5 Hemispherical illuminance 163
10.2 Non-point sources 164
10.2.1 Line source calculations 164
10.2.2 Area sources 167
10.2.3 Recursive source subdivision 167
Chapter 11: Indirect lighting

11.2 Sumpner’s method 169
11.2.1 Checking the results of lighting calculation software 169
11.3 Transfer factors 170
11.3.1 Basis of calculation 171
11.3.2 Calculation of form factors 172
11.3.3 The three surface case 172
11.3.4 The four surface case 173
11.3.5 Derivation of transfer factors 176
Chapter 12: Photometric datasheets

12.1 Photometric measurement 187
12.1.1 The C-γ system 187
12.1.2 The B-β system 188
12.1.3 Relationships between the two angular co-ordinate systems 189
12.1.4 Photometric centre 189
12.2 Elements of a datasheet 191
12.2.1 Normalised intensity table 191
12.2.2 Intensity diagram 192
12.2.3 Light output ratios 192
12.2.4 Spacing to height ratio (SHR) 193
12.2.5 Utilisation factor (UF) tables 193
12.2.6 Shielding angle 194
12.2.7 Normalised luminance table 195
12.2.8 Unified glare rating (UGR) table 196
12.2.9 Luminaire maintenance factor (LMF) 199
12.2.10 Spacing tables (emergency lighting) 199
viii
12.3 Calculations for datasheets 200
12.3.1 Flux calculations 200
12.3.2 Calculation of spacing to height ratio 201
12.3.3 Calculation of utilisation factors 203
12.3.4 Calculation of normalised luminance tables 206
12.3.5 Calculation of UGR tables 206
Chapter 13: Indoor lighting calculations

13.2 The illumination vector 219
13.3 Cubic illuminance 219
13.4 Derived values 221
Chapter: 14 Outdoor lighting calculations

14.1 Calculation of intensity towards a point 223
14.1.1 Calculation of C and c 224
14.1.2 Finding the intensity value I 225
14.2 The reflective properties of road surfaces 228
14.3 Calculation of illuminance and luminance 229
14.4 Calculation of glare 232
14.5 Calculations in other outdoor areas 232
Chapter 15: Measurement of lighting installations and

interpreting the results
15.1 Light measuring equipment 234
15.1.1 Illuminance meters 234
15.1.2 Luminance meters 236
15.2 Field measurements 238
15.2.1 Operating conditions 238
15.2.2 Grids and illuminance measurement 238
15.2.3 Averages and uniformities 240
15.2.4 Measurement of road luminance 240
15.2.5 Other measures of spatial illuminance 240
Chapter 16: Colour

16.2 Colour properties of light sources 241
16.2.1 Colour appearance in the CIE chromaticity (1931) diagram 241
16.2.2 CIE UCS (1976) diagram 244
16.2.3 Colour temperature 247
16.2.4 Colour rendering 248
16.2.5 Colour rendering index (CRI) 249
16.2.6 Colour quality scale (CQS) 255
16.3 Colour properties of surfaces 263
16.3.1 Munsell system 263
16.3.2 Natural Colour System (NCS) 264
16.3.3 DIN system 266
16.3.4 BS 5252 267
16.3.5 RAL design system 271
16.3.6 CIE L*a*b* 272
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Chapter 17: Daylight calculations

17.1 Average daylight factor 274
17.2 Calculation of the sun position 275
Chapter 18: Predicting maintenance factor

18.1 Determination of maintenance factor 280
18.1.1 Indoor lighting 280
18.1.2 Outdoor lighting 280
18.2 Lamp lumen maintenance factor and survival factor 280
18.3 Luminaire maintenance factor (LMF) – indoor 281
18.4 Luminaire maintenance factor (LMF) – outdoor 283
18.5 Room surface maintenance factor (RSMF) 285
18.6 Ingress protection (IP) classes 292
Chapter 19: Glossary 293
Chapter 20: Bibliography

20.1 Standards 316
20.2 Guidance 317
20.3 References 318
Index 325
x
Chapter One: The balance of lighting
Chapter 1: The balance of lighting
1.1 Lighting quality
The objective of anyone concerned with providing lighting should be to produce good quality
lighting, but what constitutes a good quality lighting installation? The answer is one that meets
the objectives and constraints set by the client and the designer. Depending on the context, the
objectives can include facilitating desirable outcomes, such as enhancing the performance of
relevant tasks, creating specific impressions and generating a desired pattern of behaviour, as well
as ensuring visual comfort and safety. The constraints are usually the maximum allowed financial
and power budgets, a maximum time for completion of the work and, sometimes, restrictions on
the design approach to be used.
Such a definition of good quality lighting has its limitations. It is not expressed in terms of
photometric measures, but rather in terms of the impact lighting has on more distant outcomes.
There are three arguments in favour of such an outcome-based definition of lighting quality
rather than one based directly on photometric measures. The first is that lighting is usually
designed and installed as a means to an end, not as an end in itself, so the extent to which the end
is achieved becomes the measure of success. The second is that what is desirable lighting depends
very much on the context. Almost all of the aspects of lighting that are considered undesirable in
one context are attractive in another. The third is that there are many physical and psychological
processes that can influence the perception of lighting quality (Veitch, 2001a,b). It is this inherent
variability that makes a single, universally applicable recipe for good quality lighting based on
photometric quantities an unreal expectation.
So what role do lighting recommendations have to play in ensuring good quality lighting? A
simple concept that offers a place for lighting recommendations is that lighting installations can
be divided into three classes of quality: the good, the bad and the indifferent:
z Bad quality lighting is lighting that does not allow you to see what you need to see, quickly and
easily and/or causes visual discomfort.
z Indifferent quality lighting is lighting that does allow you to see what you need to see quickly
and easily and does not cause visual discomfort but does nothing to lift the spirit.
z Good quality lighting is lighting that allows you to see what you need to see quickly and easily
and does not cause visual discomfort but does raise the human spirit.
On this scale, lighting recommendations are useful for eliminating bad lighting. Following
lighting recommendations is usually enough to ensure that indifferent quality lighting is
achieved. This is no mean achievement. Indeed, it may be the best that can be expected from the
use of guidelines and quantitative lighting criteria. It may be that once bad lighting is avoided, the
difference between indifferent lighting and good lighting is a matter of fashion and opportunity.
Fashion is important because we often crave the new to provide interest and variety in our lives.
There is no reason to suppose that lighting should be any different in this respect than most other
aspects of life. As for opportunity, that is partly a matter of technology and partly a matter of being
in the right place at the right time. And what is the right place? An eminent lighting designer,
J.M. Waldram, once said “If there is nothing worth looking at, there is nothing worth lighting”
so the right place is presumably, a place which contains something worth looking at. Also, given
1
that to be really good, the lighting has to be matched in some way to the particular environment,
each lighting solution would be specific and not generally applicable. This combination of
fashion and specificity suggests that the conditions necessary for good lighting quality are liable
to change over time and space and hence will not be achievable through the use of lighting
recommendations alone. At the moment, good quality lighting most frequently occurs at the
conjunction of a talented architect and a creative lighting designer, neither of whom is given to
slavishly following lighting recommendations.
By now it should be apparent that the writers of lighting recommendations do not have an easy
task. They have to strike the right balance between a number of conflicting aims. They have to
make recommendations that are precise and preferably quantitative but not so precise that they
lose credibility. Equally, they have to avoid making recommendations that are so vague as to be
meaningless. The recommendations have to be technically and economically feasible and simple
enough to be implemented, although they should also reflect the complexity of the subject. Yet
lighting recommendations are needed. Advice is needed on appropriate lighting by people who
buy lighting installations and by some who design them. To such people it does not matter that
they represent a balance between conflicting aims. What does matter is that the recommendations
made produce reasonable results in practice. If they do, then the recommendations will be
accepted and the judgements of the people who write the recommendations vindicated. If they
do not, then no amount of contrary evidence will convince anyone that the recommendations
are correct. It is this test of practice that is the ultimate justification for many lighting
recommendations (Jay, 1973). The lighting recommendations given in Chapters 2 to 4 of this
SLL Code for Lighting are known to produce reasonable results in practice.
1.2 The place of lighting in the modern world

Lighting is vital to the modern world – it enables a 24-hour society to exist. When first
introduced, electric lighting was expensive and available to few. Today, it is ubiquitous and cheap.
Lighting is used for many different purposes – to ensure visual work can be done accurately,
quickly, safely and in comfort, to make places attractive and interesting, to generate business
activity, to enhance security and to promote human health. Together these functions make a real
contribution to the quality of life of millions.
But lighting comes at a cost, both financial and environmental. The financial cost involves first
costs, the cost of the electricity consumed and disposal costs. The environmental cost takes three
forms: the consequences of generating the electricity required to power lighting, the chemical
pollution upon disposal and the presence of light pollution at night.
This means that lighting recommendations are a balance between the benefits and costs. Lighting
recommendations reflect this balance and are inevitably a consensus view of what is reasonable
for the conditions prevailing when they are written (Boyce, 1996). That consensus will be
different in different countries and different at different times in the same country, depending
on the state of knowledge about lighting, the technical and economic situation, and the interests
of the people contributing to the consensus. This is evident in the history of illuminance
recommendations which show considerable variations between and within countries over time
(Mills and Borg, 1999). The following sections discuss what we know about both the benefits
and costs of lighting.
2
1.3 An overview of the effects of light on human performance
Light can affect what people can do and what they choose to do via three different routes;
through the visual system, through non-visual effects on human physiology and through
perception. The outcome in any particular case is human performance in its widest sense.
Figure 1.1 shows a conceptual framework for considering the factors that influence progress
down each route and the interactions between them.
Management
Phase Motivation
Time of day
shift Personality
Retinal Circadian Mood

illuminance system
Expectations
Alerting Human Performance
Light
spectrum effect
Visual Visual
discomfort message
Glare
Flicker
Task Culture
Performance
Cognitive Motor
Performance Performance Context
Visual
perception of
environment
Fatigue Visual Performance
Luminance Colour Retinal image Retinal

Visual size
contrast difference quality illuminance
Task Lighting
Figure 1.1 A conceptual framework illustrating the routes via which lighting can affect human
performance (from Boyce, 2003)
The effect of lighting on vision is the most obvious impact of light on humans. With light we
can see, without light we cannot. The visual system is an image processing system. The optics of
the eye form an image of the outside world on the retina of the eye. At the retina, some image
processing occurs. Different aspects of the retinal image are processed through two different
channels up to the visual cortex of the brain. The magnocellular channel processes information
3
rapidly but with little detail or colour information, while the parvocellular channel provides detail
of brightness, colour and texture but at a slower rate. In addition, the visual system is organised
spatially into two parts, the fovea of the retina, where fine detail is available, and the periphery,
which is basically a detection system indicating where in the visual field the fovea should be
directed. When there is a lot of light available, e.g. in daytime, the whole of the retina is active.
When there is very little light, e.g. outside on a moonless night, the fovea is blind and only the
peripheral retina operates. A more detailed discussion of the visual system and the parameters
considered below can be found in the SLL Lighting Handbook (The Society of Light and Lighting,
2009).
Any stimulus to the visual system can be described by five parameters, its visual size, luminance
contrast, colour difference, retinal image quality and retinal illumination. These parameters
are important in determining the extent to which the visual system can detect and identify the
stimulus, i.e. the extent to which the stimulus is visible.
The visual size of a stimulus for detection is usually given by the solid angle the stimulus
subtends at the eye. The solid angle is given by the quotient of the areal extent of the object
and the square of the distance from which it is viewed. The larger the solid angle, the easier
the stimulus is to detect. The visual size for resolution is usually given as the angle the critical
dimension of the stimulus subtends at the eye. The larger the visual size of detail in a stimulus,
the easier it is to resolve that detail. Lighting can do little to change the visual size of
two-dimensional objects but shadows can be used to enhance the effective visual size of some
three-dimensional objects.
The luminance contrast of a stimulus expresses its luminance relative to its immediate
background. The higher the luminance contrast, the easier it is to detect the stimulus. Lighting
can change the luminance contrast of a stimulus by producing disability glare in the eye or veiling
reflections from the stimulus.
Luminance quantifies the amount of light emitted from a stimulus and ignores the combination
of wavelengths making up that light. It is the wavelengths emitted from the stimulus that
influence its colour. It is possible to have a stimulus with zero luminance contrast that can still be
detected because it differs from its background in colour (Eklund, 1999; O’Donell et al., 2011).
Lighting can alter the colour difference between the object and its background when light sources
with different spectral power distributions are used.
As with all image processing systems, the visual system works best when it is presented with a
sharp image. The sharpness of the retinal image is determined by the stimulus itself, the extent to
which the medium through which light from the stimulus is transmitted scatters light, and the
ability of the visual system to focus the image on the retina. Lighting can do little to alter any of
these factors, although it has been shown that light sources that are rich in the short wavelengths
produce smaller pupil sizes for the same luminance than light sources that are deficient in the
short wavelengths (Berman, 1992). A smaller pupil size produces a better quality retinal image
because it implies a greater depth of field and less spherical and chromatic aberrations.
The illuminance on the retina determines the state of adaptation of the visual system and
therefore alters the capabilities of the visual system. At higher states of visual adaptation, visual
acuity and contrast sensitivity are enhanced and colour discrimination is finer (see the SLL
Lighting Handbook). The amount of light entering the eye is mainly determined by the luminances
in the field of view. For interiors, these luminances are determined by the reflectances of the
4
surfaces in the field of view and the illuminances on them. For exteriors, the relevant luminances

are those of reflecting surfaces, such as the ground, and of self-luminous sources, such as the sky.
What these five parameters imply is that it is the interaction between the object to be seen,
the background against which it is seen and the lighting of both object and background that
determine the stimulus the object presents to the visual system and the operating state of the
visual system. It is the stimulus and the operating state of the visual system that largely determine
the level of visual performance possible. The other factors that can influence visual performance
are concerned with the presentation conditions, specifically, movement and presentation time.
When the object to be seen is in motion, particularly when the movement is not predictable so
the object cannot be fixated or when the movement is very fast so the presentation time is short,
visual performance will be worse than what is possible for a static object presenting the same
stimuli.
Another route whereby lighting conditions can affect human performance is through the
non-visual effects of light entering the eye. That there are such effects is made most evident by
the role of a regular alternating pattern to light and darkness in entraining the human circadian
system (Dijk et al., 1995). The most obvious evidence for the existence of a circadian system
in humans is the occurrence of the sleep/wake cycle although there are many other variations
in hormonal and behavioural rhythms over a 24-hour period. The organ that controls these
cycles in humans is the suprachiasmatic nuclei (SCN) set deep in the brain. The SCN is linked
directly to the retina, receiving signals from a recently discovered photoreceptor, the intrinsically
photosensitive retinal ganglion cell (ipRGC) (Berson et al., 2002). When signals are transmitted
from the retina to the SCN, no attempt is made to preserve their original location. Rather, the
ipRGCs supplying the SCN with a signal act like a simple photocell discriminating between light
and dark. Signals from the SCN are, in turn, transmitted to many parts of the brain, many of
which have not yet been investigated (CIE, 2004a). This means that the aspects of lighting that
influence the state of the SCN are the spectrum and amount of radiation reaching the retina,
which in turn depend on the spectrum of the light source used, the distribution of the resulting
radiation, the spectral reflectances of the surfaces in the space, the spectral transmittance of the
optic media and where the observer is looking.
Lighting conditions can affect human performance through the circadian system in two different
ways; a shifting effect in which the phase of the circadian rhythm can be advanced or delayed
by exposure to bright light at specific times (Dijk et al., 1995); and an acute effect related to the
suppression of the hormone melatonin at night (Campbell et al., 1995). Both of these effects
can be expected to enhance human performance in the right circumstances. Attempts have been
made to use the phase shift to more quickly adapt people to nightshift work but for that to work
requires control over light exposure over the whole 24 hours (Eastman et al., 1994). As for the
acute effect, there is clear evidence that exposure to bright light increases alertness at night (Badia
et al., 1991) and that this can enhance the performance of complex cognitive tasks (Boyce et al.,
1997). But the circadian system is only the most well explored of the non-visual effects of light
on human physiology and hence on human performance. There are known to be other effects of
light exposure, such as increased vitality during the day (Partonen and Lönnqvist, 2000), but the
mechanisms through which these effects occur are unknown.
The third route whereby lighting conditions can affect human performance is through the
perceptual system. The perceptual system takes over once the retinal image has been processed
by the visual system. The simplest output of the perceptual system is a sense of visual discomfort,
which may change the observer’s mood and motivation, particularly if the work is prolonged.
5
Lighting conditions in which achieving a high level of visual performance is difficult will be
considered uncomfortable as will conditions in which the lighting leads to distraction from the
task, as can occur when glare and flicker are present. But perception is much more sophisticated
than just producing a feeling of visual discomfort. In a sense, every lighting installation sends a
‘message’ about the people who designed it, who bought it, who work under it, who maintain it
and about the place where it is located. Observers interpret the ‘message’ according to the context
in which it occurs and their own culture and expectations. According to what the ‘message’ is,
the observer’s mood and motivation can be changed. Every lighting designer appreciates the
importance of ‘message’ but it is only in the context of retailing and entertainment that the
‘message’ a lighting installation sends is given the importance its potential to influence behaviour
deserves.
The effect of lighting on mood and motivation has not been the subject of extensive study but
what has been done has shown that lighting can be used to draw attention to objects (LaGiusa
and Perney, 1974), to modify an observer’s mood (Baron et al., 1992; McCloughan et al., 1999)
and to move people in a desired direction. There is also some evidence that lighting can be used
to generate desirable behaviour. For example, one study has shown a correlation between the
presence of skylights and the value of sales in a supermarket – the presence of skylights leads
to higher sales (Heschong Mahone Group, 1999). There is still much to learn about using the
‘message’ lighting sends to good effect.
While the visual, non-visual and perceptual routes have been discussed separately, it is important
to appreciate that they can interact and extend the range of effects of lighting to all tasks, even
those that do not require vision. For example, working at night when your body is telling you to
go to sleep will affect the performance of both cognitive and visual tasks. Another example would
be a situation where the lighting provides poor task visibility, so that visual performance is poor.
If the worker is aware of the poor level of performance and it fails to meet his or her expectations,
then the worker’s mood and motivation may be altered. To further complicate the picture, it is
necessary to appreciate that while visual performance for a given task is determined by lighting
conditions alone, a worker’s motivation can be influenced by many physical and social factors,
lighting conditions being just one of them (CIBSE, 1999).
What this overview demonstrates is that lighting conditions can influence our lives in many
different ways, sometimes being the primary factor and at other times being only one factor
amongst many. Lighting recommendations for different applications are produced with this
diversity in mind, some applications giving priority to the ability to see detail and others focusing
on the ‘message’ delivered through the perception of the space and the people in it. Only rarely
have the non-visual effects been considered but that may change in the future as more knowledge
in this area is developed.
1.4 Lighting and visual task performance

One of the main benefits of lighting is its ability to enhance the performance of visual tasks
by increasing the visibility of critical details. A visual task is one that requires the use of vision.
Virtually all visual tasks actually have three components: a visual component, a cognitive
component and a motor component (see Figure 1.1). Consider driving as an example. The visual
component is seeing the road ahead and what is on it. The cognitive component is understanding
what the scene ahead implies for the control of the vehicle. The motor component is the
movement of the vehicle’s controls. Task performance is the performance of the whole task.
Visual performance is the performance of the visual component.
6
Lighting only directly affects the visual component by making the task details more or less visible.

How important lighting is to the performance of a specific task depends on the place of the visual
component in the task structure. Different tasks have different structures. Assembling small
electronic components has a large visual component; mixing concrete does not. It is the diversity
of task structure that makes it impossible to generalise about the impact of lighting on task
performance for all tasks from measurements on one. What is possible is to measure the impact
of lighting on the performance of tasks in which the visual component has been maximised and
the other components minimised. This is the approach used in the study of visual performance.
The effect of lighting conditions on visual performance is one factor that contributes to lighting
recommendations.
1.4.1 Visual performance

Visual performance can be considered at two levels, threshold and suprathreshold. Threshold
visual performance is the performance of a visual task close to the limits of what is possible.
Suprathreshold visual performance is the performance of tasks that are easily visible because all
of the details required to perform the task are well above threshold. This raises the question as to
why lighting makes a difference to visual performance once what has to be seen is clearly visible.
The answer is that even when all the necessary details are clearly visible, lighting influences the
speed with which the visual information can be processed.
Both threshold and suprathreshold visual performance measures are useful, but in different ways.
Threshold measures are useful for determining whether or not a specific lighting condition will
be seen, e.g. will a given fluctuation in light output be seen as flicker? However, suprathreshold
visual performance is usually more relevant to lighting practice because lighting is usually
designed to make sure what needs to be seen can be easily seen and this means that the relevant
aspects of the task are well above threshold.
The most widely used form of lighting recommendation is the illuminance on the task. One of
the first people to systematically investigate the effect of illuminance on visual task performance
was H.C. Weston (1935, 1945). He used a matrix of Landolt Cs (Figure 1.2) as a standard task.
The advantage of this approach is that the difficulty of the task can be varied by changing the
size and luminance contrast of the Landolt Cs. In this task, what the observer has to do is to
identify all the Cs with a gap in a specified direction. The time taken to examine the matrix and
the number of errors made are combined to provide a measure of visual performance. Figure 1.3
shows the results obtained from Landolt C matrices of different sizes and luminance contrasts.
From such data, it is possible to identify four qualitative features of the effect of illuminance on
visual performance.
Figure 1.2 A matrix of Landolt

Cs as used in the measurement of
visual performance
7
Mean performance Size Contrast

score (min arc)
0.6 4.5 0.97
4.5 0.56
3.0 0.97
0.5 4.5 0.39
3.0 0.56
3.0 0.39 Figure 1.3 Mean performance
0.4 4.5 0.28 scores for Landolt ring charts of
1.5 0.97
3.0 0.28 different critical size and contrast,
0.3
1.5 0.56 plotted against illuminance (after
1.5 0.39
Weston, 1945)
0.2
0.1 1.5 0.28
0.0
10 100 1000 10,000
Illuminance (lx)
These are:
z Increasing illuminance follows a law of diminishing returns, i.e. equal increments in

illuminance lead to smaller and smaller changes in visual performance until saturation occurs.
z The point where saturation occurs is different for different sizes and luminance contrasts of
critical detail.
z Larger improvements in visual performance can be achieved by changing the task than by
increasing the illuminance, at least over any illuminance range of practical interest.
z It is not possible to make a visually difficult task reach the same level of performance as a
visually easy task simply by increasing the illuminance over any reasonable range.
While such understanding is useful, it is not enough to make quantitative predictions of the effect
of illuminance on visual performance. This can be done using the Relative Visual Performance
(RVP) model derived from measurements of reaction time to the onset of a target and the
time taken to compare lists of numbers (Rea, 1986; Rea and Ouellette, 1991). Figure 1.4 shows
the shape of a RVP surface for a target of a fixed size over a range of luminance contrasts and
adaptation luminances. Similar surfaces have been found for more realistic visual tasks (Eklund
et al., 2001). The overall shape of the relative visual performance surface has been described as
a plateau and an escarpment (Boyce and Rea, 1987). In essence, what it shows is that the visual
system is capable of a high level of visual performance over a wide range of sizes, luminance
contrasts and adaptation luminances (the plateau) but at some point, either size or luminance
contrast or adaptation luminance will become insufficient and visual performance will rapidly
collapse (the escarpment). The existence of a plateau of visual performance implies that for
a wide range of visual conditions, visual performance changes very little with changes in the
lighting conditions. This is why a high level of precision is not necessary in the provision of
illuminance in most lighting installations. This lack of precision is evident in two aspects of
lighting recommendations. The first is the fact that the illuminances recommended are arranged
along a scale with significant gaps between adjacent steps, e.g. the illuminances recommended for
offices are either 300 or 500 lx. The second is that associated with each recommended maintained
illuminance is an illuminance uniformity criterion. This criterion allows for considerable
variation in illuminance across the relevant surface.
8
1.0
Relative visual performance

0.8
0.6
Figure 1.4 A Relative Visual
Performance (RVP) surface (after
0.4
Rea, 1986)
0.2 1
100
Luminance (cd·m)-2 0.1 Contrast

10 0.05
The RVP model has been developed using achromatic targets, i.e. targets without colour. When
the target or the background or both are coloured, then the spectrum of the light illuminating
the task is important. This importance also takes two forms. The first is simply when the colour
has a meaning, as with fruit or vegetables where the colour can indicate the degree of ripeness, or
where there is a desired appearance, as in clothes retailing. For these applications, the light source
has to be chosen to give the objects the required colour appearance. The ability of a light source
to render colours accurately is expressed through the CIE General Colour Rendering Index
(CRI), although this has limitations when dealing with white light constructed from narrow
band light sources such as LEDs. In general, the higher the CRI of a light source, the more
accurately colours are rendered. The second is where the colour difference between the task and
its immediate background contributes to the visibility of the task. This is particularly important
where luminance contrast is low because then, a clear colour difference can help maintain visual
performance (O’Donell et al., 2011).
It might be thought that when the task is achromatic, i.e. involving only black, white and grey,
the light spectrum would not have an effect on visual performance. However, when visual
performance is on the escarpment of visual performance, it does. In this situation, a light source
with a high proportion of power in the short wavelength part of the visible spectrum will enhance
visual acuity (Berman et al., 2006) and that can be beneficial where performance is limited by the
size of detail that needs to be seen (Liebel et al., 2010) but when the plateau is reached the effect
of light source spectrum on the performance of achromatic tasks disappears (Boyce et al., 2003).
1.4.2 Visual search

So far, all the knowledge presented has been based on tasks in a known position so the task
can be viewed directly using the fovea. But not all tasks are like this. In some tasks, the object
to be detected is in an unknown location. Such tasks involve visual search. Visual search is
typically undertaken through a series of eye fixations, the fixation pattern being guided either
by expectations about where the object to be seen is most likely to appear or by what part of the
visual scene is most important (Figure 1.5).
9
S C
S
E C
M D
Figure 1.5 The pattern of fixations made by two inspectors examining men’s briefs held on
a frame. S = start of scan path, C = end of scan of front and one side, rotation of frame and
continuation of scan across back and sides, E = end of scan. Inspector M examines only the
seams while Inspector D examines the fabric as well (after Megaw and Richardson, 1979)
Typically, the object to be detected is first seen away from the visual axis and then confirmed or
resolved by an on-axis fixation. The speed with which a visual search task is completed depends
on the visibility of the object to be found, the presence of other objects in the search area, and
the extent to which the object to be found is different from the other objects. The simplest visual
search task is one in which the object to be found appears somewhere in an otherwise empty
field, e.g. an air bubble in a pane of glass. The most difficult visual search task is one where the
object to be found is situated in a cluttered field, and the clutter is very similar to the object to be
found, e.g. searching for a face in a crowd. The lighting required for fast visual search has to be
matched to the physical characteristics of the object to be found so as to maximise the luminance
contrast or colour difference between the target, its immediate background and any clutter
present.
1.4.3 Mesopic conditions

The human visual system has three operating states; photopic, mesopic and scotopic. In the
photopic state, the cone photoreceptors of the retina are dominant and the rod photoreceptors
are saturated. In the scotopic state, only the rod photoreceptors are active. In the mesopic state,
both rod and cone photoreceptors contribute. By convention, photopic vision occurs when the
adaptation luminance is above 3 cd/m2. Scotopic vision occurs when the adaptation luminance is
below 0.001 cd/m2. Mesopic vision occurs when the adaptation luminance is between 0.001 and
3 cd/m2. These boundaries are approximate because the sensitivity of individuals varies. What
these values imply is that virtually all interior lighting ensures that the visual system is in the
photopic state but some exterior lighting, such as road lighting, is only sufficient to ensure
operation in the mesopic state.
10
Mesopic vision is different from photopic vision in that different parts of the retina have different

spectral sensitivities. The fovea maintains photopic spectral sensitivity through the mesopic
region until vision fails because it contains only cone photoreceptors. However, the rest of the
retina has a different spectral sensitivity, one in which the peak sensitivity steadily shifts towards
the short wavelength end of the visible spectrum as the adaptation luminance decreases. This
occurs because the rest of the retina contains both rod and cone photoreceptors and the rods
become increasingly dominant as the adaptation luminance decreases. This divergence in spectral
sensitivity matters because all the photometric quantities used in lighting recommendations
assume a photopic spectral sensitivity. As a result, two light sources that both meet the same
outdoor photopic lighting recommendations may allow different levels of off-axis performance
when used outdoors at night. To be sure of a good level of off-axis performance when following
the exterior lighting recommendations, it is necessary to select a light source with a high
scotopic/photopic (S/P) ratio, i.e. a light source that provides a high level of stimulation to the
rod photoreceptors as well as the cone photoreceptors. Most light sources have been designed to
maximise their photopic light output/unit power but some also provide good levels of scotopic
light output. Table 1.1 shows the S/P ratios for some common light sources. Light sources
with high S/P ratios have been shown to improve the detection of off-axis targets in mesopic
conditions (Akashi et al., 2007; Fotios and Cheal, 2009).
Table 1.1 Scotopic/photopic ratios for some common light sources
Light source Scotopic/photopic ratio
High pressure sodium 0.6
Fluorescent – 3000 K 1.3
Tungsten halogen 1.4
Quartz metal halide 1.5
Ceramic metal halide 1.7
White LED – 6000 K 2.0
Fluorescent – 6500 K 2.2
These values are indicative only. Exact values should be obtained from the manufacturer of the light source.
1.4.4 A discrepancy
While the study of how lighting conditions affect visual performance has made significant
progress over the years, one of the outcomes of this study has been rather disconcerting. This
is that the illuminances required to reach the plateau of visual performance are, for most tasks
done in interiors, much less than the illuminances currently recommended. This discrepancy
can be justified in three ways. First, the ability to perform a task is not the only factor to be taken
into account when deciding on the appropriate illuminance. The illuminance has to be sufficient
to ensure that people are comfortable and can perform the task with ease. Judgments of the
illuminance required to perform a task are consistently higher than that identified as necessary
11
by models of visual performance (Newsham and Veitch, 2001; Boyce et al., 2006b). In a sense,
this is a difference between what people want and what they need. Second, it is rarely known
exactly which tasks will occur in a given location. Third, different people have different visual
capabilities. The unknown nature of the range of tasks that can occur and the differences among
people imply that a safety factor needs to be applied to the illuminance determined from models
of visual performance to ensure that all people can easily do all the tasks likely to occur in a given
situation.
1.4.5 Improving visual performance

The illuminance recommendations for applications where task performance is of primary
importance represent a consensus as to the amount of light required to be sure of a high level of
visual performance by people of working age for all the tasks likely to be found in the specific
application. However, it is always possible for new and more visually difficult tasks to occur or
for people with limited visual capabilities to be employed. If this should happen and people are
experiencing difficulty doing a specific visual task, there are a number of steps that can be taken
to improve visual performance. Not all of these steps will be possible in every situation and not
all are appropriate for every task.
A task can be made visually easier by:
z increasing the size of the detail in the task
z increasing the luminance contrast of the detail in the task
z ensuring that the target can be looked at directly without visual search
z ensuring that the worker can focus the object, using corrective lenses if necessary
z if luminance contrast is low and cannot be increased, changing the colour of the task to
increase the colour difference against the immediate background
z if the target is moving, reducing its speed so as to make it easier to track
z if the target is presented for a limited time, increasing the presentation time.
The lighting can be improved by:
z increasing the illuminance so that the adaptation luminance is increased
z selecting a light source with more appropriate colour properties
z ensuring that the lighting is free from disability glare and veiling reflections as these both
reduce luminance contrast.
1.5 Lighting and behaviour

Lighting can certainly be used to enhance the visual performance of tasks requiring the resolution
of detail but there are also other activities that benefit when lighting is used to modify behaviour.
Lighting can be used to attract attention, to direct movement and to facilitate communication.
12
1.5.1 Attracting attention
Flashing lights are widely used to attract attention to signs and vehicles but they can also cause
discomfort. Theatre lighting uses spotlights to create small areas of high luminance to direct
audience attention to important characters. This is the foundation of display lighting where the
aim is to attract attention without causing discomfort. Practice in display lighting is to provide a
luminance ratio between where the attention is to be directed and the rest of the space of at least
5:1 for a definite effect and more than 30:1 for a very dramatic effect (Figure 1.6). Accent lighting
in a shop can increase the time that consumers spend at the display (Summers and Hebert, 2001)
and lighting design that focuses the light on the merchandise can improve customer and staff
perception of the store (Cuttle and Brandston, 1995). The benefits of accent lighting extend to
educational and office settings. Studies in classrooms have found that pupils tend to pay more
attention to instructional materials and perform better on tests about the material when visual
aids are spotlighted (LaGiusa and Perney, 1973, 1974).
Figure 1.6 Accent lighting used to attract attention to merchandise
1.5.2 Directing movement

Designers of places where large numbers of people move about, such as museums and shopping
centres, use lighting to direct traffic. It is possible to influence the direction of movement by
increasing the luminance of the desired direction of movement by a factor of 10–16 over the
less-desired alternative (Kang, 2004; Taylor and Sucov, 1974).
1.5.3 Communication
Work frequently requires verbal communication, especially in classrooms, conference rooms
and at service counters. Understanding speech is primarily an auditory task but intelligibility
is improved when one can see the face of the speaker. This is particularly true when there is
13
interference from background noise or when the speaker has an unfamiliar accent. Further,
many people with subtle hearing impairments depend on lip reading to supplement their
understanding of speech. The rise of videoconferencing has also increased the importance of
understanding how to use lighting to facilitate speech intelligibility. Lighting solutions to facilitate
communication must combine lighting the speaker’s mouth with providing acceptable facial
modelling for a pleasant appearance (Zhou and Boyce, 2001).
1.6 Lighting and safety

Lighting can be used to enhance safety, both indoors and outdoors. The recommendations
for workplace lighting made in Chapters 2 and 3 of this SLL Code for Lighting take the hazards
posed by specific working situations into account. However, one situation in which safety may
be compromised is when there is a power failure, particularly if the power failure is associated
with fire and smoke. In this situation, emergency lighting comes into play. Outdoors, one of
the objectives of road lighting is to enhance road safety, while street lighting has a role to play in
crime prevention.
1.6.1 Emergency escape lighting

Emergency escape lighting requires a system that will provide information about where to leave
the building in case of an emergency (exit signs), information about how to get to the exit, and
sufficient light to enable people to move along the path to the exit. As would be expected from
knowledge of visual performance, the speed with which people can move along the path varies
as a function of the illuminance on the floor and the person’s age as well as the complexity of the
path and the individual’s knowledge of the route (Figure 1.7).
Mean speed of movement

(m/s)
2.0
1.6 young
Figure 1.7 Mean speed of movement

1.2 old in cluttered and furnished spaces
in a clear atmosphere by young and
old people, plotted against mean
0.8 illuminance on the floor (after
Ouellette and Rea, 1989)
0.4
0
0.01 0.1 1 10 100 1000
Mean illuminance on floor (lx)
Further advice on emergency lighting can be found in the SLL Lighting Handbook and in
the SLL Lighting Guide 12. Well designed emergency lighting will encourage people to
leave a building promptly when the alarm sounds.
14
1.6.2 Road lighting
Road lighting is designed to enhance road safety. How successful road lighting is in enhancing
road safety can be judged by what happens in its absence. A meta-analysis of multiple studies of
the effect of road lighting on accidents has led to the conclusion that introducing road lighting
to previously unlit roads should lead to a 65% reduction in night-time fatal accidents, a 30%
reduction in night-time injury accidents and a 15% reduction in night-time property damage
accidents (Elvik, 1995). These are overall figures and offer little guidance as to where introducing
road lighting might be most effectively employed. An alternative approach based on the sudden
change in light level at the same clock time that occurs at the daylight savings time change has
been used to examine the consequences of reduced visibility (Sullivan and Flannagan, 2007).
The results indicate that some types of accident are more sensitive to the reduction in visibility
that follows the end of the day than others. For example, adult pedestrians are almost seven times
more likely to be killed after dark than during daytime, but fatalities associated with overturning
the vehicle are less likely after dark. Further, the pattern of sensitivity to reduced visibility
conforms to common sense. The accident types with the highest sensitivity to reduced visibility
are those involving unlighted objects, such as pedestrians and animals, or where objects appear
unexpectedly in the road, or where the road suddenly changes direction. Unlighted objects will
have a low visibility after dark compared to lighted objects. Unexpected objects and unexpected
road configurations require a response within a limited time. Improving visibility through better
road lighting allows more time to make a response. There can be little doubt that road lighting
has a role to play in improving road safety through greater visibility.
1.6.3 Lighting and crime

The probability of a crime being committed is influenced by many factors, the possibility of
being seen being just one of them. Nonetheless, a series of studies of increasing sophistication
leave little doubt that lighting has a role to play in crime prevention (Painter and Farrington,
1999, 2001). Improving street lighting can lead to a decrease in crime, but it may not. This is
because lighting, per se, does not have a direct effect on the level of crime. Rather, lighting can
affect crime by two indirect mechanisms. The first is the obvious one of facilitating surveillance
by people on the street after dark, by the community in general and by the authorities. If such
increased surveillance is perceived by criminals as increasing the effort and risk and decreasing
the reward for a criminal activity, then the incidence of crime is likely to be reduced. Where
increased surveillance is perceived by the criminally inclined not to matter, then better lighting
will not be effective. The second indirect mechanism by which an investment in better lighting
might affect the level of crime is by enhancing community confidence and hence increasing the
degree of informal social control. This mechanism can be effective both day and night.
What constitutes better lighting for crime prevention is unclear. Studies which demonstrate
that better lighting reduces crime usually involve the use of more light sources with higher
light output and better colour rendering, more closely spaced. From such information and
basic knowledge of how to make it easier to see details at night, it can be concluded that the
important factors are the illuminance provided, the illuminance uniformity, the control of glare
and the light spectrum. Such lighting should allow anyone on the street to detect and recognise
a threatening situation while there is still time to do something about it, and any witnesses to
provide accurate information about the perpetrators.
15
1.7 Lighting and perception

Lighting affects the perception of spaces and objects. In many applications, it is the perception
of the people and the space around them that are matters of primary concern. Examples are the
lighting of homes, hotels, shops, restaurants, parks and plazas. The perceptions influenced by
lighting can be divided into simple and complex, although both are influenced by the amount,
colour and distribution of light. Simple perceptions, such as brightness and form, tend to be
governed by the performance of the visual system and hence are somewhat consistent across
cultures. Complex perceptions, such as attractiveness, interest and safety are also related to
previous experience and culture. A more extensive discussion of lighting and perception can be
found in the SLL Lighting Handbook (SLL, 2009).
1.7.1 Brightness
Strictly, the simple perception of brightness only occurs for a self-luminous source, such as a
computer screen, and is linked to the luminance of that source by a power law with an exponent
of 0.33. However, brightness is also commonly used to describe the perception of spaces,
both indoors and outdoors, although then it is the luminance of the surfaces in the space that
influence the perception. In such situations, the brightness of the space is influenced by the
amount and distribution of light, the reflectances of the surfaces, the luminance of the luminaire
and the spectrum of the light. This means that for a given set of surface reflectances, increasing
the illuminance on those surfaces will increase the perception of brightness. But there are ways to
increase brightness other than simply increasing illuminance. For example, for the same surface
luminance, choosing a light source with a spectrum containing a higher proportion of short
wavelength light or one which makes colours appear more saturated will increase the brightness.
As for luminaire luminance, depending on the luminance and area of any bright patches on the
luminaire, the brightness of a room can be enhanced or diminished. Balancing the luminance
and area so that the bright patch of the luminaire is perceived as sparkling will also enhance the
brightness of a room (Akashi et al., 2006). Increasing the luminance further so that the luminaire
becomes glaring will diminish the brightness of the room. The simple perception of colour
appearance is linked to the spectrum of the light source and the luminance. How strong an effect
the choice of light source has depends on whether the space is essentially achromatic or one
containing many coloured surfaces. The effect of light source will be much greater for the latter
conditions than the former because chromatic adaptation can offset some of the difference due
to different light spectra in an achromatic room but cannot offset the effect of the light spectrum
on the saturation of colours in the room. Light sources with a higher CIE General Colour
Rendering Index increase the saturation of surface colours which is why they are recommended
for places where the appearance of the space and the objects in it is of primary importance.
1.7.2 Form
Form is primarily influenced by light distribution. Different light distributions create different
patterns of highlight and shadow, patterns that can be used to reveal or mask features of the
object. Highlights are important in revealing the specular nature of materials such as silver and
glass. One of the most important objects to be lit in many locations is the human face. Figure 1.8
shows how the appearance of a face can be changed by altering the light distribution.
16
Figure 1.8 The modelling of a face by different light distributions. From left to right, the lighting
is completely diffuse, strong down-lighting and a combination of diffuse and side accent lighting
(courtesy Naomi Miller)
The importance attached to avoiding the extremes of light distribution, i.e. totally diffuse and
totally directional, where the appearance of faces matters, is evident in the recommendations
about the range of preferred surface reflectances and the minimum illuminances that should fall
on those surfaces. By using high reflectances for walls and ceilings (high reflectance floors are
not a realistic proposition) and ensuring that at least a minimum illuminance falls on them, the
contribution of diffuse inter-reflected light to the lighting of the space is increased, particularly
for small rooms. Increasing the amount of inter-reflected light serves to diminish veiling
reflections, soften shadows and reduce glare.
One metric that can be used to measure the light distribution in a space is the cylindrical
illuminance. Cylindrical illuminance is the average illuminance falling on the surface of a small
cylinder. When the cylinder is aligned vertically and is positioned at an appropriate height,
cylindrical illuminance is related to the appearance of people in the space, much more so than
the conventional illuminance on a horizontal plane. The appearance of people matters because
social interaction is governed in part by our judgments of the attractiveness of the people with
whom we interact. Attractive people are judged to be more intelligent and pleasant and are more
likely to be helped by others (Langlois et al., 2000), and enjoy better job-related outcomes such as
likelihood of being employed or promoted (Hosoda et al., 2003).
Of course, when it comes to the appearance of people, the spectrum of the light source also
matters. People are very sensitive to skin tone as it is used as an indicator of health. Similar
considerations apply to any other object where the colour has meaning. Again, this is the reason
why it is recommended to use a light source with a high CIE General Colour Rendering Index in
places where the colour appearance of people and objects in the space is important.
1.7.3 Higher order perceptions

The effect of the lighting on higher order perceptions such as attractiveness, interest and safety
is much less certain than for simple perceptions. This is because higher order perceptions are
influenced by the whole of the environment, not just the lighting, as well as the context of the
space and the culture of the observer. What we do know is that functional spaces, such as offices,
are evaluated on the dimensions of brightness and visual interest, the former being related to
the amount of light in the space; the latter being enhanced by a non-uniform distribution of
light away from the work area. This should not be taken to mean that lighting has only a limited
17
effect on the perception of spaces and objects. There is clear evidence that by changing the
lighting, the perception of objects can be changed from drab and boring to eye-catching and
dramatic (Mangum, 1998) a finding that is important for many places including shops, hotels and
museums. The problem with functional spaces such as offices is that the possible lighting effects
and the materials they have to work with are often limited by the need to provide good visibility
for work over a large portion of the space. In such spaces, lighting is most likely to have an effect
on higher order perceptions when the architect has generated an attractive space and the lighting
designer has produced lighting that provides sufficient brightness in the task area and enhances
the architecture to provide some visual interest elsewhere. Unfortunately, this is not something
that can be done through lighting recommendations. Where recommendations are given, they
should be treated as a baseline from which to elaborate rather than the beginning and end of
design.
By manipulating light to change perception, lighting can influence feelings. Changes in feelings
can influence the performance of all types of tasks, not just visual, by altering mood and
motivation. In this way, lighting can influence many outcomes that are important to individuals,
organisations and society. One conceptual model of how people evaluate a space (Kaplan and
Kaplan, 1982) suggests that they seek an illuminance that is sufficiently high to make it easy to
see what needs to be seen and a pattern of light that reflects the hierarchy of objects in the space.
Lighting can vary in many ways: amount, distribution, colour appearance, colour rendering,
light source type, luminaire appearance, controllability, temporal variation, etc. Many of these
dimensions interact with room surface characteristics, with the culture and expectations of the
people and with the architecture and purpose of the space. This makes the study of preference
for lighting very complex. Consequently, the only application that has been extensively studied is
office lighting. For offices, we know that:
z People prefer to have a window nearby, both for daylight as a light source and for a view out
(Farley and Veitch, 2001).
z People want to be protected from direct sun as a source of glare and heat gain. If available, they
will use window blinds to block direct sun (Galasiu and Veitch, 2006).
z People prefer a combination of direct and indirect lighting (Boyce et al., 2006a; Houser et al.,
2002; Veitch and Newsham, 2000).
z There are large differences between individuals in light level preferences. The central tendency
for offices with computer work hovers in the range of 300–500 lx on the desk (Newsham and
Veitch, 2001; Boyce et al., 2006b).
z Desktop uniformity (minimum/maximum illuminance) should be within the range 0.5–0.7

(Slater and Boyce, 1990).
z Spaces with an average vertical luminance in the field of view of at least 30 cd/m2 are judged to
be more attractive and comfortable (Loe et al., 1994; Newsham et al., 2005).
z People prefer a lit environment with a moderate degree of variability (Loe et al., 1994),
although there is some evidence that too much variability is undesirable (Newsham et al.,
2005).
To what extent these preferences apply to other applications such as classrooms, shops and
hospitals remains to be determined.
18
When one experiences one’s preferred environmental conditions, a pleasant mood called ‘positive

affect’ results (Baron, 1990; Baron and Thomley, 1994). People experiencing positive affect
are more likely to respond cooperatively than competitively to interpersonal conflict, are more
creative and perform better on intellectual tasks (Isen and Baron, 1991). Interestingly, a link has
been found between preferred lighting conditions and positive feelings of health and well-being
(Veitch et al., 2008). Such findings mean it is important for the lighting designer to match the
lighting to the occupants’ preferences. Following the lighting recommendations in Chapter 2 will
ensure that dramatic departures from the conditions that people prefer are avoided but will not
guarantee that the most preferred lighting is achieved.
A higher order perception of concern to people outdoors after dark is safety. Figure 1.9 shows
the mean rating of how safe it was perceived to be to walk alone through car parks by day and
night in two urban and suburban areas (Boyce et al., 2000). It is evident from Figure 1.9 that the
perceived safety for walking alone in the car parks during the day is higher in the suburban area
than in the urban area. As for perceived safety when walking alone at night, Figure 1.9 shows
that, for both urban and suburban car parks, lighting can bring that perception close to what
it is during the day but cannot exceed it. Figure 1.10 shows the difference in ratings of safety
when walking alone by day and night plotted against the median illuminance in the car park
at night, for the urban and suburban car parks. These results indicate that at a sufficiently high
illuminance, the difference in ratings of safety for day and night approach zero. However, the
approach to zero difference is asymptotic. For illuminances in the range 0 to 10 lx, small increases
in illuminance produce a large increase in perceived safety. Illuminances in the range 10 and
50 lx show a law of diminishing returns. The illuminances recommended in Chapter 4 for
lighting residential streets cover a range of 2 to 15 lx. Of course, there is much more to successful
lighting for a perception of safety than illuminance. Attention has also to be given to the
uniformity of illuminance, glare control and light source colour rendering. Nonetheless, it is
interesting that there is some agreement between a measure of the perception of safety at night
and the main recommendation for lighting residential streets.
Mean rating
7
6
Figure 1.9 Mean ratings of
perceived safety for walking
5
alone in a car park, by day and
night, for the parking lots in
4
Albany, NY (urban) and Clifton
Park, NY (suburban). The car
3
parks are presented in order of
decreasing perceived safety at
2
night (1 = very dangerous;
7 = very safe; filled symbols
1
= night, open symbols = day)
GRUnion
Ace
Arongen
Towne
Okte
CVS
Parkwood
Kaps
Enterprise
Shen
CHP
Kitchens
Townsend
Gingerman
Appliance
Marine
Nepenthe
Drome
DMV
QE2
Evergreen
Yono
CSEA
YMCA
(after Boyce et al., 2000)
Clifton Park Albany

Location
19
Difference in
mean rating
6
Figure 1.10 Difference in
5 mean ratings of perceived
safety for walking alone
4 in a car park, by day and
night (day–night) plotted
3
against median pavement
= Suburban
= Urban illuminance for the car parks
2
in Albany, NY (urban) and
1
Clifton Park, NY (suburban)
(after Boyce et al., 2000)
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Median illuminance (lx)
1.8 Lighting and health

Although illuminance on the working plane is the most widely used lighting recommendation,
simply providing that illuminance is not enough to ensure good quality lighting. Depending
on how the illuminance is delivered, the result can either be comfortable or uncomfortable.
Visual discomfort occurs when the lighting makes it difficult to see what needs to be seen, causes
distraction or pushes one to the limits of the visual system, all of which are likely to affect visual
performance negatively. Aspects of lighting that can commonly cause visual discomfort are
insufficient light, excessive light, shadows, veiling reflections, glare and flicker. Following the
illuminance recommendations given in Chapter 2 will almost always ensure that the extremes
of insufficient light and too much light are avoided. More details of the situations in which
shadows, veiling reflections, various forms of glare and flicker occur can be found in the SLL
Lighting Handbook (The Society of Light and Lighting, 2009).
1.8.1 Eyestrain
The consequence of prolonged exposure to uncomfortable lighting conditions is likely to be
eyestrain. The symptoms of eyestrain vary in form and magnitude from one individual to another
but headache, blurred vision, dry or watery eyes, tense muscles and burning or itching eyes are
common. Sleep or resting the eyes for a time usually alleviates the condition. While eyestrain
can be annoying, it rarely indicates a serious eye problem. Nonetheless, anyone who frequently
experiences eyestrain cannot be said to be enjoying the best of health.
There are a number of lighting recommendations designed to minimise the occurrence of

eyestrain. The illuminance on the working plane and the illuminance uniformity across that
plane are intended to ensure that all the tasks likely to occur in the space under consideration
will be highly visible. The luminance ratios recommended between the task area, the immediate
surround and the background seek to maximise the visual acuity and contrast sensitivity of
the visual system and minimise the likelihood of discomfort glare occurring. The ranges of
room reflectances have a role to play in increasing the amount of inter-reflected light in a
room and hence reducing the magnitude of any veiling reflections. The Unified Glare Rating
recommendations have been specifically developed to set a maximum allowed level of discomfort
glare for many applications. There are no recommendations for minimising flicker, this being
20
seen as a property of the light source. This does not mean that flicker does not matter. Rather

it means that light source manufacturers are aware of the problems caused by the perception of
flicker and seek to minimise it in their products so that flicker rarely occurs in practice.
To summarise, eyestrain can be avoided by following these recommendations:
z Provide the recommended illuminance on the task.
z Ensure the distribution of illuminance on the task is uniform.
z Keep the illuminance on the area surrounding the task similar to that on the task.
z Avoid confusing shadows in the detail of the task.
z Ensure there are no veiling reflections on the task. For work on a computer, this can be
achieved by using a high luminance background for the display and a diffusely reflecting
screen.
z Eliminate disability glare from luminaires or windows.
z Reduce discomfort glare from luminaires or windows.
z Choose light sources that are free of flicker.
1.8.2 Non-visual effects

Although being able to see is the most obvious and immediate consequence of light entering
the eye, there are other non-visual consequences. This is because, in addition to the rod and
cone photoreceptors that serve vision, there is another type of photoreceptor in the retina, the
intrinsically photosensitive retinal ganglian cell that signals the presence of light or dark to parts
of the brain concerned with many basic physiological functions. The one that has been most
extensively studied is the circadian system.
The circadian system produces circadian rhythms. Circadian rhythms are a basic part of life and
can be found in virtually all plants and animals, including humans. The most obvious of these
rhythms is the sleep/wake cycle but there are many others some relevant to task performance
such as alertness, mood, memory recall and cognitive throughput. The human circadian system
involves three basic components:
z an internal oscillator, the suprachiasmatic nuclei, located in the brain
z a number of external oscillators that can entrain the internal oscillator
z a messenger hormone, melatonin, which carries the internal ‘time’ information to all parts of
the body through the bloodstream.
In the absence of light, and other cues, the internal oscillator continues to operate but with a
period longer than 24 h. External stimuli are necessary to entrain the internal oscillator to a
24-hour period and to adjust for the seasons. The light–dark cycle is one of the most potent of
these external stimuli.
21
Given that the circadian system is fundamental for a lot of human physiology, it should not
be a surprise that when it fails or is disrupted for a long time, there are negative implications
for human health. A failing circadian system is a common feature of old age, a failing that is
associated with sleep problems. A disrupted circadian system is a common feature of rapidly
rotating night shift work. The resulting sleep deprivation is, in turn associated with an increased
number of accidents and reduced productivity (Lockley et al., 2007; Rosekind et al., 2010). Shift
work over many years is linked to an enhanced risk of major health hazards such as heart disease,
cancer and diabetes (Rosa and Colligan, 1997; Jasser et al., 2006). Further, there is growing
support for the hypothesis that repeated exposure to sufficient light to suppress melatonin from
its normal concentration has some role to play in the incidence and development of breast cancer
but there may be other necessary conditions yet to be established (Figueiro et al., 2006).
Another group of people with sleep problems are those suffering from Alzheimer’s disease. This
is a degenerative disease of the brain and is the most common cause of dementia. People with
Alzheimer’s disease and other forms of dementia often demonstrate fragmented sleep/wake
patterns throughout the day and night (van Someren et al., 1996).
Light exposure patterns have a positive role to play in the alleviation or prevention of health
problems. Exposure to bright light immediately after awakening is effective for treating delayed
sleep phase disorder, as is exposure in the evening for advanced sleep phase disorder and sleep
maintenance insomnia (Czeisler et al., 1988; Lack and Schumacher, 1993; Campbell et al., 1993).
Exposing Alzheimer’s patients to bright light during the day and little light at night, thereby
increasing the signal strength for entrainment, has been shown to help to make their rest/activity
patterns more stable, bright light being an illuminance of about 1200 lx (van Someren et al.,
1997). As for circadian disruption, it is possible to identify some actions that can be taken to
minimise it. They are:
z be exposed to high illuminances during the day and low illuminances at night
z do not do shift work
z if shift work has to be done, avoid rapidly-rotating shifts; physiologically it is preferable to stay
on one schedule as long as possible. Rosa and Colligan (1997) give advice on how to assess any
proposed shift system
z when working at night use a low illuminance provided by a light source that has a spectrum
dominated by the long wavelength end of the visible spectrum
z avoid frequent jet travel across multiple time zones. When travelling, expect to need about
1 day to adjust per 2–3 h of time shift.
All the above has been concerned with the circadian system but as is apparent in Figure 1.11,
there are many links between the retina of the eye and various parts of the brain, many of these
still waiting to be explored.
22
Visual cortex Visual processing
LGN/IGL
PVN IMLCC SCG Pineal Melatonin
POT CRH
Anterior ACTH
pituitary Adrenal cortex Cortisol
Thalamus
RHT
Septum
SCN Hypothalamus
Midbrain
Spinal cord
Figure 1.11 A simplified schematic diagram of two eye-brain pathways. Light received by the
eye is converted to neural signals that pass via the optic nerve to these visual and non-visual
pathways. POT = Primary optic tract; RHT = retino-hypothalamic tract; LGN/IGL = lateral
geniculate nucleus/intergeniculate leaflet; SCN = suprachiasmatic nucleus of the hypothalamus;
PVN = paraventricular nucleus of the hypothalamus; IMLCC = intermediolateral cell column
of the spinal cord; SCG = superior cervical ganglion; CRH = corticotropic releasing hormone;
ACTH = adrenocorticotropic hormone (after CIE, 2004a)
This means there is still much to learn about the non-visual effects of light exposure (Boyce,
2006). It would be unwise to attempt to manipulate the circadian system with light too much or
too often until all the possible consequences have been explored and understood which is why
the effects of light exposure on human health are discussed in BS EN 12464-1 but no explicit
recommendations are given. However, it is worth pointing out that both the visual system and
the circadian system have evolved under a natural regime of daylight days and dark nights. The
alternative electric light sources have only been available for use by day and night for about
a hundred years, a very short time in evolutionary terms. It may be that the main impact of a
greater understanding of the role of light exposure on human health will be to return attention to
the better daylighting of buildings.
A proven benefit for light exposure is in the treatment of seasonal mood disorders, such as
depression and bipolar disorder, although the exact mechanism is unknown. The most common
form is winter depression, better known as Seasonal Affective Disorder (SAD). Seasonal
depression symptoms include increased appetite, carbohydrate craving and unacceptable weight
gain as well as increased sleep (Lam and Levitt, 1998). Estimates vary as to the prevalence
of seasonal mood disorders and there are several theories as to their cause, but there is little
controversy concerning the value of light therapy as an effective treatment (Ravindran et al.,
2009). Standard light therapy involves the delivery of up to ~10 000 lx, measured at the eye,
for 30 min daily, usually in the early morning delivered either by daylight or by a light box
(Figure 1.12).
23
Figure 1.12 A light box being

used to deliver a high light
level to the eye (courtesy
Electronic Healing)
1.8.3 Tissue damage by optical radiation

Light can have an effect on human health simply as optical radiation incident on the eye and
skin, regardless of any signals produced by the retina that enter the brain. When considering light
as optical radiation, the definition of light is usually extended to include ultra-violet (UV) and
infrared (IR) radiation as many light sources produce all three types of radiation. In sufficient
doses, light can cause tissue damage to both the eye and skin, quickly and over many years. In the
short term, UV radiation can cause photokeratitis of the eye and erythema of the skin. Prolonged
exposure to UV radiation can lead to cataract in the lens of the eye as well as skin aging and skin
cancer. In sufficient quantities, visible radiation can produce photoretinitis of the retina. Visible
and short wavelength IR radiation can cause thermal damage to the retina and burns to the skin.
Prolonged exposure to IR radiation can lead to cataract and burns. Guidance setting out threshold
limit values that should be observed to avoid these detrimental effects on health, and a lamp
classification system based on these threshold limit values are available (IESNA, 2005, 2007,
2009; ACGIH, 2010; CIE 2006) as is advice on methods of measurement of exposure
(BSI, 2005a). When evaluated according to these threshold limit values, most light sources, when
used and viewed in a conventional manner, pose no hazard to health. Nonetheless, cases of tissue
damage can still occur in special circumstances where either exposure is excessive (O’Hagan
et al., 2011) or when individuals with extreme sensitivities are present so care should be taken to
consider each case on its merits.
1.9 Lighting costs

Lighting has both financial and environmental costs. Both need to be considered if the lighting
design is to be of good quality. There are no lighting recommendations in Chapters 2, 3 or 4 for
the financial cost of a lighting installation, although the lighting recommendations that are made
there certainly affect the cost of a lighting installation. There are also lighting recommendations
relevant to the environmental costs.
24
1.9.1 Financial costs
The financial costs of lighting are easy to quantify. The costs of buying the required equipment;
lamps, luminaires, control systems, and the costs of installing the equipment are readily obtained.
This total constitutes the first cost of the lighting installation. Having installed the lighting, there
are then the operating and maintenance costs to be considered. Operating costs will depend on
the number of hours of use and the price of electrical energy; the latter may be fixed or might
vary with time and market conditions depending on the form of the contract with the supplier.
As for maintenance costs, these will depend on the maintenance schedule adopted as part of
the lighting design as well as the costs of replacement equipment and the costs of gaining access
to and the cleaning of the installation. Finally, there are disposal costs to be considered. It is no
longer possible to simply dispose of electrical equipment by throwing it into a landfill. Under the
Waste Electrical and Electronic Equipment (WEEE) Regulations, all lighting equipment, other
than filament lamps and that in domestic premises, is considered to be hazardous waste and has
to be disposed of appropriately.
What combinations of these costs are considered will depend on who is paying. For an owner-
occupier, it is likely that all will be combined to give an estimate of life cycle costs. This measure
involves an adjustment for the fact that the operating and maintenance costs are spread out over
several years while the disposal costs occur many years in the future. For the developer who
plans to lease the property, it is likely that only the first cost and possibly the disposal costs will
be considered. The operating and maintenance costs will usually be paid by the tenant although
if the tenant is wise, he will estimate the operating cost of the lighting system before signing
the lease. The accuracy with which operating costs can be estimated will vary depending on the
amount of daylight available, the sophistication of the lighting control system and the pattern of
use of the space. The most accurate estimates will be possible where there is little daylight, the
control system is a simple on–off switch and the space is continuously occupied throughout the
working day. The least accurate estimates will occur when there are large amounts of daylight
available, the electric lighting is designed to be switched or dimmed depending on the amount of
daylight present and when the occupancy of the space is intermittent and occupancy sensors are
employed. It will also be difficult to estimate operating costs accurately when there is an element
of individual control of the illuminances provided, such as when a task/ambient lighting system is
in place.
1.9.2 Electricity consumption

The most obvious environmental consequence of the provision of lighting is the pollution
resulting from the consumption of electricity. Depending on the fuel mix used, the generation
of electricity can involve the burning of fossil fuels such as coal, oil and gas which will lead
to carbon emissions. In an age of global warming, the reduction of carbon emissions is a
policy objective of many governments. To give an idea of the magnitude of the problem, it has
been estimated that in the State of California, the fifth biggest economy in the world and for
many countries a model for the future, lighting uses 23% of the electricity generated; 14% in
commercial buildings, 8% in homes and 1% for road lighting. Over the last quarter century,
governments have made attempts to reduce or at least slow the growth in electricity demand with
little success. Improving the efficiency of lighting installations is an attractive means to achieve
this end, because more energy efficient lighting technology is available and the life of lighting
installations is a matter of years rather than decades. Consequently, a number of governments
have introduced laws either specifying a maximum lighting power density to be used in buildings
or outlawing the use of specific energy-inefficient lighting equipment. The result has been
a steady reduction in the lighting power densities in commercial buildings but little change
for homes. But this is now changing. The most common light source used in homes is the
incandescent lamp, a light source with the lowest luminous efficacy of those in common use.
25
Many countries, including both the United States and the countries of the European Union, are
in the process of legally removing the incandescent lamp from the market. The expectation is that
householder will adopt more energy efficient means to light their homes, such as the compact
fluorescent lamp and the light emitting diode.
1.9.3 Chemical pollution

While the consumption of electricity is the most obvious environmental impact of lighting, there
are also two forms of pollution; chemical pollution and light pollution. Lighting can generate
chemical pollution either directly or indirectly. Direct chemical pollution comes about when
lamps and control gear are scrapped. Some old control gear that may still be found in use contains
toxic materials such as polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) and/or di(2-ethylhexyl)phthalate
(DEHP). Modern control gear, both electromagnetic and electronic, does not contain such
toxic materials. As for lamps, a toxic material commonly found in lamps is mercury (Begley
and Linderson, 1991; Clear and Berman, 1994). Mercury is used in many discharge lamps.
In fluorescent and metal halide lamps, some mercury is essential because the mechanism for
generating light is the creation of an electric discharge through a mercury atmosphere. The
lighting industry has responded to pressure from governments and environmentalists by
dramatically reducing the amount of mercury used in fluorescent lamps.
Indirect chemical pollution occurs in the generation of the electricity consumed by the
operation of the lamp. Given the concern with mercury, it might be thought that eliminating the
incandescent lamp from the market and replacing it with the compact fluorescent lamp would
lead to an increase in mercury deposits as the compact fluorescents are scrapped. However, the
amount of mercury released by lamp disposal is very small compared to the amounts of mercury
released into the atmosphere naturally, through volcanoes, and, more controllably, by the burning
of fossil fuels to generate electricity (EPA, 1997). Thus, as long as the wider use of compact
fluorescents leads to lower electricity consumption by lighting, the amount of mercury in the
environment will be reduced as will the amounts of sulphur dioxide, nitrogen oxides and carbon
dioxide produced by electricity generation. These chemicals are considered key indicators of
pollution, sulphur dioxide, nitrogen oxides and carbon dioxide being associated with air quality,
acid rain and global climate change, respectively. There can be little doubt that maximising the
efficiency of lighting installations and thereby reducing the electricity consumed to provide the
desired lighting conditions, would have a beneficial effect on many forms of chemical pollution.
1.9.4 Light pollution

Light, itself, can be considered a form of pollution. This is apparent by the identification of light
as a potential statutory nuisance in the Clean Neighbourhoods and Environment Act 2005.
Complaints about light pollution at night, or obtrusive light as it is also known, can be divided
into two categories: light trespass and sky glow. Light trespass is local in that it is associated with
complaints from individuals in a specific location, typically about light from a road lighting
luminaire shining into a bedroom. Light trespass can be avoided by the careful selection,
positioning and aiming of luminaires with appropriate luminous intensity distributions. If that
fails then some form of shielding can usually be devised. Recommendations for limiting light
trespass in the form of maximum illuminances on windows are given in Chapter 3 of this Code.
Sky glow is more diffuse than light trespass in that it can affect people over great distances and
is more difficult to deal with. Complaints about sky glow originate from many people, ranging
from those who have a professional interest in a dark sky, i.e. optical astronomers (McNally,
1994), to those who simply like to be able to see the stars at night. Light pollution is caused by
the multiple scattering of light in the atmosphere, resulting in a diffuse distribution of luminance
called sky glow. The problem this sky glow causes is twofold. The more obvious is that it
26
reduces the luminance contrast of all the features of the night sky. A reduction in luminance

contrast means that features that are naturally close to the visual threshold will be taken below
threshold by the addition of the sky glow. As a result, as sky glow increases, the number of stars
and other astronomical phenomena that can be seen is much reduced. This means that in most
cities, it is difficult to see anything at night other than the moon and a few stars. The second is
that sky glow can adversely affect the lives of flora and fauna (Rich and Longcore, 2006). For
example, mammals and reptiles can be attracted or repulsed by light at night, birds can become
disorientated and plants can be induced to flower at inappropriate times.
Sky glow has two components, one natural and one unnatural. Natural sky glow is light from the
sun, moon, planets and stars that is scattered by interplanetary dust, and by air molecules, dust
particles, water vapour and aerosols in the Earth’s atmosphere, and light produced by a chemical
reaction of the upper atmosphere with ultra-violet radiation from the sun. The luminance of the
natural sky glow at zenith is of the order of 0.0002 cd/m2. The unnatural form of light pollution
is produced by light generated on Earth traversing the atmosphere and being scattered by air
molecules and by water vapour, dust and aerosols in the atmosphere.
The problem in dealing with sky glow is not in measuring or predicting its effects on the visibility
of the stars, but rather in agreeing what to do about it. The problem is that what constitutes
the astronomer’s pollution is often the business owner’s commercial necessity and sometimes
the citizen’s preference. Residents of cities like their streets to be lit at night for the feeling
of safety the lighting provides. Similarly, many roads are lit at night to enhance the safety of
travel. Businesses use light to identify themselves at night and to attract customers. Further, the
floodlighting of buildings and the lighting of landscapes are methods used to create an attractive
environment at night. The problem of sky glow is how to strike the right balance between these
conflicting desires.
One solution to this problem is to classify different areas into different environmental zones. CIE
(1997) have identified four major zones ranging from areas of intrinsically dark landscapes to city
centres (Table 1.2). Then a maximum upward light output ratio for any luminaires used in each
zone is given, ranging from zero in areas of intrinsically dark landscapes to 25% in city centres.
This approach offers some flexibility in that it recognises it is ridiculous to give the same priority
to sky glow limitation in a city centre as it is in an area of intrinsically dark landscapes.
Table 1.2 The environmental zoning system of the CIE (after CIE, 1997)
Zone Zone description
E1 Areas with intrinsically dark landscapes: National Parks, areas of outstanding

natural beauty (where roads are usually unlit)
E2 Areas of ‘low district brightness’: Outer urban and rural residential areas
(where roads are lit to residential road standard)
E3 Areas of ‘middle district brightness’: Generally urban residential areas (where

roads are lit to traffic route standard)
E4 Areas of ‘high district brightness’: Generally, urban areas having mixed

recreational and commercial land use with high night-time activity
27
Of course, light output ratio is a metric of relative light distribution and does nothing to control
the total amount of light emitted. To effectively limit the contribution of human activity to sky
glow, there are two complementary options. The first option is to limit the amount of light used
at night. The second option is to pay careful attention to the timing of the use of light. Light
pollution is unlike chemical pollution in that when the light source is extinguished, the pollution
goes away very rapidly. This suggests that a curfew defining the times when lighting can and
cannot be used could have a dramatic effect on the prevalence of sky glow.
1.10 The future

Our understanding of the effects of light on people rests on lighting research which is, currently,
very active. This is for three reasons. The first is the rapid introduction of solid state light sources
to the lighting market. The properties of this technology have raised a number of questions about
colour metrics, glare perception and flicker that require answering. The second is the exploration
of the non-visual effects of light. The possibility that exposure to light can have significant effects
on human health and functioning beyond the obvious visual effect implies another basis for
making lighting recommendations. However, more knowledge is required before non-visual
effects can be applied with confidence, particularly about the effects on healthy people exposed
to light by day. The third is the renewed emphasis placed on energy consumption by the threat
of global warming. Lighting is a major user of electrical energy, a use that needs to be reduced.
Together, these influences are driving lighting research forward. The findings from such research
are likely to influence lighting recommendations in the future.
28
Chapter Two: Indoor workplaces
Chapter 2: Indoor workplaces
This chapter of the Code is based on BS EN 12464-1: 2011: Light and lighting – Lighting of work
places – Part 1: Indoor work places (BSI, 2011a). All of the text in this chapter that is in italics and the
tables of lighting requirements have been taken directly from the standard. Whilst the standard
is an important document that sets out what it considers to be a sensible code of practice, it
does not have any direct statutory weight, and thus it should be treated as advice rather than an
absolute set of requirements. There are some occasions when standards and codes may be written
into contracts and in those situations, it is sensible for any deviations from its requirements to be
agreed by the designer and the client.
The other material in this chapter is advice on how best to apply the standard whilst at the same
time following what the Society of Light and Lighting regards to be good lighting practice. It
should be noted that this chapter does not include all of BS EN 12464-1 (BSI, 2011a); the scope,
normative references, terms and definitions together with annexes A and B have been omitted as
they are either not appropriate to this document or they are covered elsewhere in this Code.
2.1 Lighting design criteria

This section covers the material in section 4 of BS EN 12464-1 (BSI, 2011a).
2.1.1 Luminous environment

For good lighting practice it is essential that as well as the required illuminances, additional qualitative and
quantitative needs are satisfied.
Lighting requirements are determined by the satisfaction of three basic human needs:
z visual comfort, where the workers have a feeling of well-being; in an indirect way this also contributes to a
higher productivity level and a higher quality of work;
z visual performance, where the workers are able to perform their visual tasks, even under difficult
circumstances and during longer periods;
z safety.
Main parameters determining the luminous environment with respect to artificial light and daylight are:
z luminance distribution;
z illuminance;
z directionality of light, lighting in the interior space;
z variability of light (levels and colour of light);
z colour rendering and colour appearance of the light;
z glare;
z flicker.
29
Values for illuminance and its uniformity, discomfort glare and colour rendering index are given in section 2.2;
other parameters are described in the rest of section 2.1.
Note: In addition to the lighting there are other visual ergonomic parameters which influence visual
performance, such as:
z the intrinsic task properties (size, shape, position, colour and reflectance properties of detail and background),
z ophthalmic capacity of the person (visual acuity, depth perception, colour perception),
z intentionally improved and designed luminous environment, glare-free illumination, good colour rendering,
high contrast markings and optical and tactile guiding systems can improve visibility and sense of direction
and locality. See CIE Guidelines for Accessibility: Visibility and Lighting Guidelines for Older Persons and
Persons with Disabilities.
Attention to these factors can enhance visual performance without the need for higher illuminance.
2.1.2 Luminance distribution

2.1.2.1 General
The luminance distribution in the visual field controls the adaptation level of the eyes which affects task
visibility.
A well balanced adaptation luminance is needed to increase:
z visual acuity (sharpness of vision);
z contrast sensitivity (discrimination of small relative luminance differences);
z efficiency of the ocular functions (such as accommodation, convergence, pupillary contraction, eye movements,
etc).
The luminance distribution in the visual field also affects visual comfort. The following should be avoided for the
reasons given:
z too high luminances which can give rise to glare;
z too high luminance contrasts which will cause fatigue because of constant re-adaptation of the eyes;
z too low luminances and too low luminance contrasts which result in a dull and non-stimulating working
environment.
To create a well balanced luminance distribution the luminances of all surfaces shall be taken into consideration
and will be determined by the reflectance and the illuminance on the surfaces. To avoid gloom and to raise
adaptation levels and comfort of people in buildings, it is highly desirable to have bright interior surfaces
particularly the walls and ceiling.
The lighting designer shall consider and select the appropriate reflectance and illuminance values for the interior
surfaces based on the guidance below.
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2.1.2.2 Reflectance of surfaces

Recommended reflectances for the major interior diffuse surfaces are:
z ceiling: 0.7 to 0.9;
z walls: 0.5 to 0.8;
z floor: 0.2 to 0.4.
Note: The reflectance of major objects (like furniture, machinery, etc) should be in the range of 0.2 to 0.7.
The reflectance of surfaces is often a parameter that is outside the control of the lighting
designer; however, where possible, the designer should try to persuade those responsible to aim
for reflectances in the above range. The values given in this edition of the Code are slightly tighter
than the 2009 edition which gave the following values:
z Ceiling: 0.6–0.9
z Walls: 0.3–0.8
z Working planes: 0.2–0.6
z Floor: 0.1–0.5
The current recommendations for reflectances have increased the lower limits for walls and
ceilings; this will help to create lighter spaces and will reduce energy consumption as the amount
of inter-reflected light will increase. Note that the concept of working planes is not used in this
edition of the Code.
2.1.2.3 Illuminance on surfaces

In all enclosed places the maintained illuminances on the major surfaces shall have the following values:
z Ēm > 50 lx with Uo ≥ 0.10 on the walls and
z Ēm > 30 lx with Uo ≥ 0.10 on the ceiling.
Note 1: It is recognised that, in some places such as racked storage places, steelworks, railway terminals,
etc, due to the size, complexity and operational constraints, the desired light levels on these surfaces will not be
practical to achieve. In these places reduced levels of the recommended values are accepted. Whilst this note
acknowledges it may be difficult to achieve in some complex areas it is vital that measures are
taken to ensure that the correct illuminance is achieved in all areas where there is a visual task.
Example of such areas include the vertical face of goods stored in a racking system and control
valves and gauges located on complex plant structures.
Note 2: In some enclosed places such as offices, education, health care and general areas of entrance, corridors,
stairs, etc, the walls and ceiling need to be brighter. In these places it is recommended that the maintained
illuminances on the major surfaces should have the following values: Ēm > 75 lx with Uo ≥ 0.10 on the walls
and Ēm > 50 lx with Uo ≥ 0.01 on the ceiling.
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The previous edition of the Code provided requirements for the illuminance of the ceiling and
walls as a fraction of the working plane illuminance. The requirements were:
z Ceiling: 0.3–0.9
z Walls: 0.5–0.6
Now that the concept of a working plane has been removed, these fractions relate to the average
floor illuminance. In general, the use of these old ratios results in higher wall and ceiling
illuminance values and hence a better visual environment; whilst these higher values are not
required by BS EN 12464-1 (BSI, 2011a), the higher values do in general provide a brighter
interior and their application should be looked on as best practice.
2.1.3 Illuminance
2.1.3.1 General
The illuminance and its distribution on the task area and on the surrounding area have a great impact on how
quickly, safely and comfortably a person perceives and carries out the visual task. All values of illuminances
specified in this European Standard are maintained illuminances and fulfil visual comfort and performance
needs.
All maintained illuminance and uniformity values are dependent upon the grid definition (see sections 2.1.4
and 15.2.2).
Maintained illuminance is the value of illuminance achieved just before maintenance is carried
out. There are a number of factors that cause the illuminance delivered by a lighting system to
fall with time. Chapter 18 explains the various factors and gives tables to predict their magnitude.
2.1.3.2 Scale of illuminance

To give a perceptual difference the recommended steps of illuminance (in lx) are according to EN 12665:
20–30–50–75–100–150–200–300–500–750–1000–1500–2000–3000–5000
The terms and definitions from BS EN 12665 (BSI, 2011b) are given in the glossary of this Code.
2.1.3.3 Illuminances on the task area

The values given in section 2.2 are maintained illuminances over the task area on the reference surface which
can be horizontal, vertical or inclined. The average illuminance for each task shall not fall below the value given
in section 2.2, regardless of the age and condition of the installation. The values are valid for normal visual
conditions and take into account the following factors:
z psycho-physiological aspects such as visual comfort and well-being;
z requirements for visual tasks;
z visual ergonomics;
z practical experience;
z contribution to functional safety;
z economy.
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The value of illuminance may be adjusted by at least one step in the scale of illuminances (see 2.1.3.2), if the

visual conditions differ from the normal assumptions.
The required maintained illuminance should be increased when:
z visual work is critical;
z errors are costly to rectify;
z accuracy, higher productivity or increased concentration is of great importance;
z task details are of unusually small size or low contrast;
z the task is undertaken for an unusually long time;
z the visual capacity of the worker is below normal.
The required maintained illuminance may be decreased when:
z task details are of an unusually large size or high contrast;
z the task is undertaken for an unusually short time.
Note: For visually impaired people special requirements can be necessary with regard to illuminances and
contrasts.
The size and position of the task area should be stated and documented.
For work stations where the size and/or location of the task area(s) is/are unknown, either:
z the whole area is treated as the task area or
z the whole area is uniformly (Uo ≥ 0.40) lit to an illuminance level specified by the designer; if the task area
becomes known, the lighting scheme shall be re-designed to provide the required illuminances.
If the type of the task is not known the designer has to make assumptions about the likely tasks and state task
requirements.
Where the location of a task area within a space is unknown it is very wasteful of energy to light
the whole space just for one particular task carried out over a relatively small area. Possible
solutions include the use of individually dimmable luminaires to give flexibility to the lighting
system, or the provision of task lighting where needed.
2.1.3.4 Illuminance of the immediate surrounding area

Large spatial variations in illuminances around the task area can lead to visual stress and discomfort.
The illuminance of the immediate surrounding area shall be related to the illuminance of the task area and
should provide a well-balanced luminance distribution in the visual field. The immediate surrounding area
should be a band with a width of at least 0.5 m around the task area within the visual field.
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The illuminance of the immediate surrounding area may be lower than the illuminance on the task area but
shall be not less than the values given in Table 2.1.
In addition to the illuminance on the task area the lighting shall provide adequate adaptation luminance in
accordance with section 2.1.2.
The size and position of the immediate surrounding area should be stated and documented.
Table 2.1 Relationship of illuminances on immediate surroundings to the illuminance on the

task area
Illuminance on the task area Illuminance on immediate

Etask / lx surrounding areas / lx
≥ 750 500
500 300
300 200
200 150
150 Etask
100 Etask
< 50 Etask
Background area
Task area
≥3 m
≥0.5 m
Immediate
surrounding area
Figure 2.1 Task, immediate surrounding and background areas
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In most spaces, there are various visual tasks with differing degrees of difficulty. Although it is

possible to use general lighting systems to give flexibility of task location, the average illuminance
is determined by the needs of the most exacting task. It is almost always very wasteful to
illuminate all areas to the same level and non-uniform lighting should be provided by local
or localised lighting systems. If control systems are used, individuals may be able to adjust
their levels of supplementary task lighting, furthermore; absence detection may also switch
off luminaires in unoccupied areas. Whatever lighting system is used, excessive variations of
horizontal illuminance across an interior should be avoided and thus it is important to ensure
that around each task area, there is a surrounding area when the illuminance is only slightly less.
2.1.3.5 Illuminance on the background area

In indoor work places, particularly those devoid of daylight, a large part of the area surrounding an active and
occupied task area needs to be illuminated. This area known as the ‘background area’ should be a border at least
3 m wide adjacent to the immediate surrounding area within the limits of the space and shall be illuminated
with a maintained illuminance of ⅓ of the value of the immediate surrounding area.
The size and position of the background area should be stated and documented.
2.1.3.6 Illuminance uniformity

In the task area, the illuminance uniformity (Uo) shall be not less than the minimum uniformity values given
in the tables of section 2.2.
For lighting from artificial lighting or roof lights the illuminance uniformity:
z in the immediate surrounding area shall be Uo ≥ 0.40;
z on the background area shall be Uo ≥ 0.10.
For lighting from windows:
z in larger areas, activity areas and background areas the available daylight decreases rapidly with the distance
from the window; the additional benefits of daylight (see 2.1.12) can compensate for the lack of uniformity.
2.1.4 Illuminance grid

Grid systems shall be created to indicate the points at which the illuminance values are calculated and verified
for the task area(s), immediate surrounding area(s) and background area(s).
Grid cells approximating to a square are preferred; the ratio of length to width of a grid cell shall be kept
between 0.5 and 2. (The same method of grid specification is used in other parts of this Code and
there is a worked example of how to apply the formulae given in section 15.2.2.) The maximum
grid size shall be:
p = 0.2 × 5log d (2.1)
where p ≤ 10 m
d is the longer dimension of the calculation area (m), however if the ratio of the longer to the shorter side is 2 or
more then d becomes the shorter dimension of the area, and
p is the maximum grid cell size (m).

35
The number of points in the relevant dimension is given by the nearest whole number that is equal to or
greater than d/p.
The resulting spacing between the grid points is used to calculate the nearest whole number
of grid points in the other dimension. This will give a ratio of length to width of a grid cell close to 1.
When the area of a grid is a room or part of a room, then a band of 0.5 m from the walls is excluded
from the calculation area except when a task area is in or extends into this border area.
An appropriate grid size shall be applied to walls and ceiling and a border of 0.5 m may be applied also.
Note: The grid point spacing should not coincide with the luminaire spacing.
2.1.5 Glare
2.1.5.1 General
Glare is the sensation produced by bright areas within the visual field, such as lit surfaces, parts of the
luminaires, windows and/or roof lights. Glare shall be limited to avoid errors, fatigue and accidents. Glare
can be experienced either as discomfort glare or as disability glare. In interior work places disability glare is not
usually a major problem if discomfort glare limits are met.
Glare caused by reflections in specular surfaces is usually known as veiling reflections or reflected glare.
Note: Special care is needed to avoid glare when the direction of view is above horizontal.
2.1.5.2 Discomfort glare

For the rating of discomfort glare from windows there is currently no standardized method.
The rating of discomfort glare caused directly from the luminaires of an indoor lighting installation shall be
determined using the CIE Unified Glare Rating (UGR) tabular method, based on the formula 2.2:
 0.25 L2 v 
UGR = 8 log 10  ∑  (2.2)
 Lb p2 
where
Lb is the background luminance in cd·m–2, calculated as Eind · p–1, in which Eind is the vertical
indirect illuminance at the observer’s eye in cd·m–2,
L is the luminance of the luminous parts of each luminaire in the direction of the observer’s
eye in cd·m–2,
v is the solid angle in steradian of the luminous parts of each luminaire at the observer’s eye,
p is the Guth position index for each individual luminaire which relates to its displacement
from the line of sight.
All assumptions made in the determination of UGR shall be stated in the scheme documentation. The UGR
value of the lighting installation shall not exceed the value given in section 2.2.
The recommended limiting values of the UGR form a series whose steps indicate noticeable changes in glare.
The series of UGR is: 10, 13, 16, 19, 22, 25, 28.
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Note 1: The variations of UGR within the room can be determined using the comprehensive tables for

different observer positions, as detailed in CIE 117-1995 (CIE, 1995a).
Note 2: If the maximum UGR value in the room is higher than the UGR limit given in section 2.2,
information on appropriate positions for work stations within the room should be given.
Note 3: If the tabular method is not applicable and the observer position and the viewing directions are
known the UGR value can be determined by using the formula. However limited research has been done, to
determine the applicability of existing limiting values. Limits for this condition are under consideration.
The discomfort experienced when some elements of an interior have a much higher luminance
than others can be immediate but sometimes may only become evident after prolonged exposure.
The degree of discomfort experienced will depend on the luminance and size of the glare
source, the luminance of the background against which it is seen and the position of the glare
source relative to the line of sight. A high source luminance, large source area, low background
luminance and a position close to the line of sight all increase discomfort glare. Unfortunately,
most of the variables available to the designer alter more than one factor. For example, changing
the luminaire to reduce the source luminance may also reduce the background luminance. These
factors could counteract each other, resulting in no reduction in discomfort glare. However, as a
general rule, discomfort glare can be avoided by the choice of luminaire layout and orientation,
and the use of high reflectance surfaces for the ceiling and upper walls. Thus if a proposed
lighting scheme has a glare rating in excess of the limiting value then the three options open to
the designer are to change either the luminaire type, the luminaire orientation or increase the
reflectance of the walls and ceiling. In general, glare in a room is worse where the field of view
contains a lot of luminaires so if the field of view of people performing a glare-sensitive task is
such that they can only see a few luminaires then a scheme that nominally breaks the limiting
value of glare rating may be acceptable, however, there is no standardised way to predict this
effect.
As discomfort glare is worse in a room where the walls and ceiling have low reflectance, if the
reflectances of a space are below the values used by the lighting designer there may well be
problems with discomfort glare.
The use and production of glare tables are discussed in Chapter 12 Photometric Datasheets.
2.1.5.3 Shielding against glare

Bright sources of light can cause glare and can impair the vision of objects. It shall be avoided for example by
suitable shielding of lamps and roof lights, or suitable shading from bright daylight through windows.
For luminaires, the minimum shielding angles (see Figure 2.2) in the visual field given in Table 2.2 shall be
applied for the specified lamp luminances.
Note: The values given in Table 2.2 do not apply to up-lighters or to luminaires with a downward
component only mounted below normal eye level.
37
Figure 2.2 Shielding angle a
Table 2.2 Minimum shielding angles at specified lamp luminances
Lamp luminance / kcd·m–2 Minimum shielding angle a
20 to < 50 15°
50 to < 500 20°
≥500 30°
Whilst it is important to ensure that the lamp is shielded from direct view, it is also important to
ensure that any high luminance areas within the luminaire are equally well shielded from view.
2.1.5.4 Veiling reflections and reflected glare

High brightness reflections in the visual task can alter task visibility, usually detrimentally. Veiling reflections
and reflected glare can be prevented or minimised by the following measures:
z arrangement of work stations with respect to luminaires, windows and roof lights;
z surface finish (matt surfaces);
z luminance restriction of luminaires, windows and roof lights;
z bright ceiling and bright walls.
Veiling reflections are high luminance reflections which overlay the detail of the task. Such
reflections may be sharp-edged or vague in outline, but regardless of form they may affect task
performance and cause discomfort. Task performance will be affected because veiling reflections
usually reduce the contrast of a task, making task details difficult to see and may give rise to
discomfort.
Two conditions have to be met before veiling reflections occur:
z part of the task, task detail or background, or both, has to be glossy to some degree
z part of the interior, called the ‘offending zone’, which specularly reflects towards the observer
has to have a high luminance.
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The most common sources of veiling reflections are windows and luminaires. Generally

applicable methods of avoiding veiling reflections are to use matt materials in task areas, to
arrange the geometry of the viewing situation so that the luminance of the offending zone is
low or reduce the luminance by, for example, using curtains or blinds on windows. Figure 2.3
illustrates the visual problems caused by veiling reflections.
Figure 2.3 Veiling reflections
2.1.6 Lighting in the interior space

2.1.6.1 General
In addition to task lighting the volume of space occupied by people should be lit. This light is required to
highlight objects, reveal texture and improve the appearance of people within the space. The terms ‘mean
cylindrical illuminance’, ‘modelling’ and ‘directional lighting’ describe the lighting conditions.
The use of mean cylindrical illuminance in a lighting code is new, and it represents a big step
forward in recognising the importance of the visibility of objects, particularly people’s faces,
within a space. The calculation of cylindrical illuminance from a point source is discussed in
section 10.1.2 and the derivation of cylindrical illuminance from the illuminance on six faces of a
cube at the same point is given in section 13.4.
2.1.6.2 Mean cylindrical illuminance requirement in the activity space

Good visual communication and recognition of objects within a space require that the volume of space in which
people move or work shall be illuminated. This is satisfied by providing adequate mean cylindrical illuminance,
Ēz, in the space.
The maintained mean cylindrical illuminance (average vertical plane illuminance) in the activity and interior
areas shall be not less than 50 lx with Uo ≥ 0.10, on a horizontal plane at a specified height, for example
1.2 m for sitting people and 1.6 m for standing people above the floor.
Note: In areas, where good visual communication is important, especially in offices, meeting and teaching
areas, Ēz should be not less than 150 lx with Uo ≥ 0.10.
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2.1.6.3 Modelling
The general appearance of an interior is enhanced when its structural features, the people and objects within it
are lit so that form and texture are revealed clearly and pleasingly.
The lighting should not be too directional or it will produce harsh shadows, neither should it be too diffuse or the
modelling effect will be lost entirely, resulting in a very dull luminous environment. Multiple shadows caused by
directional lighting from more than one position should be avoided as this can result in a confused visual effect.
Modelling describes the balance between diffuse and directed light and should be considered.
Note 1: The ratio of cylindrical to horizontal illuminance at a point is an indicator of modelling. The grid
points for cylindrical and horizontal illuminances should coincide.
Note 2: For uniform arrangement of luminaires or roof lights a value between 0.30 and 0.60 is an indicator
of good modelling.
Note 3: Daylight is distributed predominantly horizontally from windows. The additional benefits of daylight
(see 2.1.12) can compensate for its effect on modelling values, and modelling values from daylight can be
extended from the range indicated.
The values indicated in Note 2 are purely intended for spaces where people’s faces are being lit
and other values may be needed elsewhere; for example, in applications such as retail and display
lighting, it is often desirable to go outside the range of modelling suggested in Note 2 above when
putting particular emphasis on to a given object.
2.1.6.4 Directional lighting of visual tasks

Lighting from a specific direction can reveal details within a visual task, increasing their visibility and making
the task easier to perform. Unintended veiling reflections and reflected glare should be avoided, see 2.1.5.4.
Harsh shadows that interfere with the visual task should be avoided. But some shadows help to increase the
visibility of the task.
2.1.7 Colour aspects

2.1.7.1 General
The colour qualities of a near-white lamp or transmitted daylight are characterised by two attributes:
z the colour appearance of the light;
z its colour rendering capabilities, which affect the colour appearance of objects and persons.
These two attributes shall be considered separately.
2.1.7.2 Colour appearance

The colour appearance of a lamp refers to the apparent colour (chromaticity) of the light emitted. It is quantified
by its correlated colour temperature (TCP).
Colour appearance of daylight varies throughout the day.
Colour appearance of artificial light can also be described as in Table 2.3.
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Note: Colour appearance does not uniquely specify the colour appearance of a light source. It

is possible for two sources with the same colour temperature to have different appearances, one
looking slightly purple and the other looking greenish. See section 16.2 for details on how to
characterise the colour properties of a light source.
Table 2.3 Lamp colour appearance groups
Colour appearance Correlated colour temperature TCP
Warm Below 3300 K
Intermediate 3300 to 5300 K
Cool Above 5300 K
The choice of colour appearance is a matter of psychology, aesthetics and what is considered to be natural.
The choice will depend on illuminance level, colours of the room and furniture, surrounding climate and the
application. In warm climates generally a cooler light colour appearance is preferred, whereas in cold climates a
warmer light colour appearance is preferred.
In section 2.2, for specific applications a restricted band of suitable colour temperatures is given. These are
applicable for daylighting as well as artificial lighting.
2.1.7.3 Colour rendering

For visual performance and the feeling of comfort and well being colours in the environment, of objects and of
human skin, shall be rendered naturally, correctly and in a way that makes people look attractive and healthy.
To provide an objective indication of the colour rendering properties of a light source the general colour rendering
index Ra is used. The maximum value of Ra is 100.
The minimum values of colour rendering index for distinct types of interiors (areas), tasks or activities are given
in the tables in section 2.2.
Safety colours according to BS ISO 3864-1 (ISO, 2009) shall always be recognisable as such.
Note 1: Colour rendering of light from a light source may be reduced by optics, glazing and coloured surfaces.
Note 2: For accurate rendition of colours of objects and human skin the appropriate individual special colour
rendering index (Ri) should be considered.
Full details of the basis of colour rendering are given in section 16.2.4. The Ra index used
above is based on eight colour samples and is often referred to as Ra8. Where colour quality is
particularly important, for example in art galleries, the Ra14 index is sometimes used. There are
limitations on how effective a single number can be at describing the colour rendering qualities
of a light source, as a source may be very good at rendering most colours but be very poor with
one particular colour. Thus for particular applications where the colour of certain objects is
critical it is recommended that a visual appraisal of the object under the light source is carried
out.
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2.1.8 Flicker and stroboscopic effects

Flicker causes distraction and can give rise to physiological effects such as headaches.
Stroboscopic effects can lead to dangerous situations by changing the perceived motion of rotating or reciprocating
machinery.
Lighting systems should be designed to avoid flicker and stroboscopic effects.
2.1.9 Lighting of work stations with Display Screen Equipment (DSE)

2.1.9.1 General
The lighting for the DSE work stations shall be appropriate for all tasks performed at the work station, e.g.
reading from the screen, reading printed text, writing on paper, keyboard work.
For these areas the lighting criteria and system shall be chosen in accordance with type of area, task or activity
from the schedule in section 2.2.
Reflections in the DSE and, in some circumstances, reflections from the keyboard can cause disability and
discomfort glare. It is therefore necessary to select, locate and arrange the luminaires to avoid high brightness
reflections.
The designer shall determine the offending mounting zone and shall choose equipment and plan mounting
positions which will cause no disturbing reflections.
In general, it is a much better strategy to arrange the luminaires around a work station in such a
way that it is unlikely that they cause reflections in a screen rather than relying on the luminance
limits set out in section 2.1.9.2. This is because by restricting the light at higher angles, there
is less light able to reach the walls of a room, and the space may start to appear dark. Also,
with restricted light at high angles, it may be difficult to achieve necessary mean cylindrical
illuminance for the space (see section 2.1.6.2).
Figure 2.4 shows a method of determining which luminaires may cause problems with
reflections in a screen.
Luminaire Ceiling
Limit of area seen
reflected in screen
Curvature of
top of screen
Figure 2.4 Typical geometry for
Tilt of
screen
eye, screen and luminaires
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2.1.9.2 Luminaire luminance limits with downward flux

Light can lower the contrast of the presentation on a DSE by:
z veiling reflection caused by the illuminance on the display’s surface and
z luminances from luminaires and bright surfaces reflecting in the display.
BS EN ISO 9241-307 (ISO, 2008a) gives requirements for the visual qualities of displays concerning
unwanted reflections.
This subclause describes luminance limits for luminaires which can be reflected in DSE for normal viewing
directions.
Table 2.4 gives the limits of the average luminaire luminance at elevation angles of 65° and above from the
downward vertical, radially around the luminaires, for work stations where display screens which are vertical or
inclined up to 15° tilt angle are used.
Note: Section 12.2.7 gives information on normalised luminance tables for luminaires that may
be used to check if a given luminaire complies with the requirements in Table 2.4.
Table 2.4 Average luminance limits of luminaires, which can be reflected in flat screens
Screen high state luminance High luminance Medium luminance

screen screen
L > 200 cd·m–2 L ≤ 200 cd·m–2
Case A
(positive polarity and normal ≤ 3000 cd·m–2 ≤ 1500 cd·m–2
requirements concerning colour and details
of the shown information, as used in office,
education, etc)
Case B
(negative polarity and/or higher ≤ 1500 cd·m–2 ≤ 1000 cd·m–2
requirements concerning colour and details
of the shown information, as used for CAD
colour inspection, etc)
Note: Screen high state luminance (see BS EN ISO 9241-302 (ISO, 2008b)) describes the maximum luminance of
the white part of the screen and this value is available from the manufacturer of the screen.
If a high luminance screen is intended to be operated at luminances below 200 cd·m–2 the conditions specified for
a medium luminance screen shall be considered.
Some tasks, activities or display screen technologies, particularly high gloss screens, require different lighting
treatment (e.g. lower luminance limits, special shading, individual dimming, etc).
In areas of industrial activities and crafts screens are sometimes protected by additional front glasses. The
unwanted reflections on these protection glasses have to be reduced by suitable methods (such as antireflection
treatment, tilting of the protection glass or by shutters).
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2.1.10 Maintenance factor

The lighting scheme should be designed with an overall maintenance factor (MF) calculated for the selected
lighting equipment, environment and specified maintenance schedule.
The recommended illuminance for each task is given as maintained illuminance. The maintenance factor
depends on the maintenance characteristics of the lamp and control gear, the luminaire, the environment and the
maintenance programme.
The lighting scheme should be designed with the overall MF for the selected lamp(s), luminaire(s), surface
reflectances, environment and specified maintenance schedule.
For daylight calculations, reduction of glazing transmittance due to dirt deposition should be taken into account.
The designer shall:
z state the MF and list all assumptions made in the derivation of the value,
z specify lighting equipment suitable for the application environment and prepare a comprehensive mainte-
nance schedule to include frequency of lamp replacement, luminaire, room and glazing cleaning intervals and
cleaning method.
The MF has a great impact on energy efficiency. The assumptions made in the derivation of the MF shall be
optimized in a way that leads to a high value. Guidance on the derivation of MF for artificial lighting systems
can be found in CIE 97-2005 (CIE, 2005).
Chapter 18 of this Code gives a comprehensive method for the evaluation of maintenance factor;
it is based on CIE 97: 2005 and other similar documents.
In selecting lighting equipment and a maintenance programme, the lighting designer should seek
to keep the overall maintenance as high as possible without imposing too onerous a maintenance
schedule on the building owner.
2.1.11 Energy efficiency requirements

Lighting should be designed to meet the lighting requirements of a particular task or space in an energy efficient
manner. It is important not to compromise the visual aspects of a lighting installation simply to reduce energy
consumption. Light levels as set in this European Standard are minimum average illuminance values and need
to be maintained.
Energy savings can be made by harvesting daylight, responding to occupancy patterns, improving maintenance
characteristics of the installation, and making full use of controls.
The amount of daylight varies throughout the day depending on climate conditions. In addition, in interiors
with side windows the available daylight decreases rapidly with the distance from the window. Supplementary
lighting may be needed to ensure the required illuminance levels at the work station are achieved and to balance
the luminance distribution within the room. Automatic or manual switching and/or dimming can be used to
ensure appropriate integration between artificial lighting and daylight.
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A procedure for the estimation of the energy requirements of a lighting installation is given in BS EN 15193

(BSI, 2007a). It gives a methodology for the calculation of a lighting energy numeric indicator (LENI),
representing the energy performance of lighting of buildings. This indicator may be used for single rooms on
a comparative basis only, as the benchmark values given in the BS EN 15193 are drawn up for a complete
building.
Providing energy efficient lighting is of utmost importance and using a metric like LENI, which
expresses the energy used by lighting in terms of kilowatt hours per year, is the best way to
characterise the energy performance of a lighting system. However, there are several other
metrics in use and some of them are used in documents such as the Building Regulations, thus
they must also be used. See Chapter 6 for more information.
2.1.12 Additional benefits of daylight

Daylight can supply all or part of the lighting for visual tasks, and therefore offers potential energy savings.
Additionally, it varies in level, direction and spectral composition with time and provides variable modelling and
luminance patterns, which is perceived as being beneficial for people in indoor working environments. Windows
are strongly favoured in work places for the daylight they deliver, and for the visual contact they provide with the
outside environment. However, it is also important to ensure windows do not cause visual or thermal discomfort,
or a loss of privacy.
There is more information on the use of daylight in Chapter 5.
2.1.13 Variability of light

Light is important to people’s health and wellbeing. Light affects the mood, emotion and mental alertness
of people. It can also support and adjust the circadian rhythms and influence people’s physiological and
psychological state. Up to date research indicates that these phenomena, in addition to the lighting design criteria
defined in BS EN 12464-1, can be provided by the so-called ‘non-image forming’ illuminances and colour
appearance of light. Varying lighting conditions in time by higher illuminance, luminance distribution and
wider range of colour temperature than specified in this European Standard with daylight and/or dedicated
artificial lighting solutions can stimulate people and enhance their wellbeing. The recommended bands of
variation are under consideration.
Whilst there may be beneficial effects due to changing the colour and level of light during the
course of a day, research in this area is very limited and the existence of these effects has yet to
be unequivocally demonstrated. Whilst it is clear that high levels of light (usually from daylight)
have an important role in the process of circadian entrainment, the biological effects of lower
levels of light normally associated with electric lighting are less clear.
2.2 Schedule of lighting requirements

2.2.1 Composition of the tables
Column 1 lists the reference number for each interior area, task or activity.
Column 2 lists those areas, tasks or activities for which specific requirements are given. If the particular interior
area, task area or activity area is not listed, the values given for a similar, comparable situation should be
adopted.
Column 3 gives the maintained illuminance Ēm on the reference surface (see 2.1.3) for the interior (area),
task or activity given in Column 2.
45
Note 1: The maintained illuminance in some circumstances may need to be increased (see 2.1.3.3).
Note 2: Lighting control can be required to achieve adequate flexibility for the variety of tasks performed.
Column 4 gives the maximum UGR limits (Unified Glare Rating limit, UGRL ) that are applicable to the
situation listed in Column 2.
Column 5 gives the minimum illuminance uniformity Uo on the reference surface for the maintained
illuminance given in Column 3.
Column 6 gives the minimum colour rendering indices (Ra) (see 2.1.7.3) for the situation listed in Column
2.
Column 7 gives specific requirements for the situations listed in Column 2.
The majority of the specific requirements in Column 7 are taken from BS EN 12464-1 (BSI,
2011a), however, there are a number of additional recommendations from the SLL also
given in this column. The requirements of BS EN 12464-1 are given italics whilst the SLL
recommendations are not.
2.2.2 Schedule of interior areas, tasks and activities

Table 2.5 – Traffic zones inside buildings
Table 2.6 – General areas inside buildings – Rest, sanitation and first aid rooms
Table 2.7 – General areas inside buildings – Control rooms
Table 2.8 – General areas inside buildings – Store rooms, cold stores
Table 2.9 – General areas inside buildings – Storage rack areas
Table 2.10 – Industrial activities and crafts – Agriculture
Table 2.11 – Industrial activities and crafts – Bakeries
Table 2.12 – Industrial activities and crafts – Cement, cement goods, concrete, bricks
Table 2.13 – Industrial activities and crafts – Ceramics, tiles, glass, glassware
Table 2.14 – Industrial activities and crafts – Chemical, plastics and rubber industry
Table 2.15 – Industrial activities and crafts – Electrical and electronic industry
Table 2.16 – Industrial activities and crafts – Food stuffs and luxury food industry
Table 2.17 – Industrial activities and crafts – Foundries and metal casting
Table 2.18 – Industrial activities and crafts – Hairdressers
Table 2.19 – Industrial activities and crafts – Jewellery manufacturing

46
Table 2.20 – Industrial activities and crafts – Laundries and dry cleaning

Table 2.21 – Industrial activities and crafts – Leather and leather goods
Table 2.22 – Industrial activities and crafts – Metal working and processing
Table 2.23 – Industrial activities and crafts – Paper and paper goods
Table 2.24 – Industrial activities and crafts – Power stations
Table 2.25 – Industrial activities and crafts – Printers
Table 2.26 – Industrial activities and crafts – Rolling mills, iron and steel works
Table 2.27 – Industrial activities and crafts – Textile manufacture and processing
Table 2.28 – Industrial activities and crafts – Vehicle construction and repair
Table 2.29 – Industrial activities and crafts – Wood working and processing
Table 2.30 – Offices
Table 2.31 – Retail premises
Table 2.32 – Places of public assembly – General areas
Table 2.33 – Places of public assembly – Restaurants and hotels
Table 2.34 – Places of public assembly – Theatres, concert halls, cinemas, places for entertainment
Table 2.35 – Places of public assembly – Trade fairs, exhibition halls
Table 2.36 – Places of public assembly – Museums
Table 2.37 – Places of public assembly – Libraries
Table 2.38 – Places of public assembly – Public car parks (indoor)
Table 2.39 – Educational premises – Nursery school, play school
Table 2.40 – Educational premises – Educational buildings
Table 2.41 – Health care premises – Rooms for general use
Table 2.42 – Health care premises – Staff rooms
Table 2.43 – Health care premises – Wards, maternity wards
Table 2.44 – Health care premises – Examination rooms (general)
47
Table 2.45 – Health care premises – Eye examination rooms

Table 2.46 – Health care premises – Ear examination rooms
Table 2.47 – Health care premises – Scanner rooms
Table 2.48 – Health care premises – Delivery rooms
Table 2.49 – Health care premises – Treatment rooms (general)
Table 2.50 – Health care premises – Operating areas
Table 2.51 – Health care premises – Intensive care unit
Table 2.52 – Health care premises – Dentists
Table 2.53 – Health care premises – Laboratories and pharmacies
Table 2.54 – Health care premises – Decontamination rooms
Table 2.55 – Health care premises – Autopsy rooms and mortuaries
Table 2.56 – Transportation areas – Airports
Table 2.57 – Transportation areas – Railway installations
48
Table 2.5 Traffic zones inside buildings
Ref No. Type of area, task or activity Ēm UGRL Uo Ra Specific requirements

/ lx
2.5.1 Circulation areas and corridors 100 28 0.40 40 • Illuminance at floor level
• Ra and UGR similar to adjacent areas
• 150 lx if there are vehicles on the route
• The lighting of exits and entrances shall provide a transition zone to
avoid sudden changes in illuminance between inside and outside by
day or night
• Care should be taken to avoid glare to drivers and pedestrians
2.5.2 Stairs, escalators, travelators 100 25 0.40 40 • Requires enhanced contrast on the steps
• For escalators below step lighting may be effective in
providing contrast between the steps and risers
• Increased illuminance may be necessary at the entrances and
exits of escalators and travelators
2.5.3 Elevators, lifts 100 25 0.40 40 Light level in front of the lift should be at least Ēm = 200 lx
2.5.4 Loading ramps/bays 150 25 0.40 40 Avoid glare to drivers of vehicles approaching the loading bay.
Light and mark clearly the edge of the loading bay
49
50
Table 2.6 General areas inside buildings – Rest, sanitation and first aid rooms

/ lx
2.6.1 Canteens, pantries 200 22 0.40 80 • The lighting should aim to provide a relaxed but interesting
atmosphere
• In food storage area luminaires should be capable of being
washed or hosed down in safety
2.6.2 Rest rooms 100 22 0.40 80 Lighting should be different in style from the work areas
2.6.3 Rooms for physical exercise 300 22 0.40 80
2.6.4 Cloakrooms, washrooms, bath- 200 25 0.40 80 • In each individual toilet if these are fully enclosed
rooms, toilets • In bathrooms luminaires must be suitable for damp and
humid situations
2.6.5 Sick bay 500 19 0.60 80
2.6.6 Rooms for medical attention 500 16 0.60 90 4000 K ≤ TCP ≤ 5000 K
Table 2.7 General areas inside buildings – Control rooms

/ lx
2.7.1 Plant rooms, switch gear rooms 200 25 0.40 60 • Localised lighting of control display and control desks may be
appropriate
• Care should be taken to avoid shadows and veiling reflections
on the instruments and VDT screens
2.7.2 Telex, post room, switchboard 500 19 0.60 80 In switchboard areas, avoid veiling reflections from controls. Too
high an illuminance may reduce the visibility of signal lights.
Supplementary local lighting may be desirable where directories
are used
Table 2.8 General areas inside buildings – Store rooms, cold stores

/ lx
2.8.1 Store and stockrooms 100 25 0.40 60 • 200 lx if continuously occupied

• If small items that are visually difficult to identify are stored
then 300 lx or supplementary local lighting may be needed
2.8.2 Dispatch packing handling areas 300 25 0.60 60
51
52
Table 2.9 General areas inside buildings – Storage rack areas

/ lx
2.9.1 Gangways: unmanned 20 – 0.40 40 • Illuminance at floor level

• Supplementary lighting may be required for maintenance
2.9.2 Gangways: manned 150 22 0.40 60 Illuminance at floor level
2.9.3 Control stations 150 22 0.60 80 Avoid glare to operator, local lighting should be considered
2.9.4 Storage rack face 200 – 0.40 60 Vertical illuminance, portable lighting may be used
Table 2.10 Industrial activities and crafts – Agriculture

/ lx
2.10.1 Loading and operating of goods, 200 25 0.40 80

handling equipment and machinery
2.10.2 Buildings for livestock 50 – 0.40 40
2.10.3 Sick animal pens; calving stalls 200 25 0.60 80 A lower illuminance is acceptable in the absence of the stockman
2.10.4 Feed preparation; dairy; utensil 200 25 0.60 60 Luminaires suitable for being hosed down may be required in
washing some areas
See Table 3.9 in section 3.2.3 for information on the requirements for outdoor agriculture.
Table 2.11 Industrial activities and crafts – Bakeries

/ lx
2.11.1 Preparation and baking 300 22 0.60 80
2.11.2 Finishing, glazing, decorating 500 22 0.70 80
Table 2.12 Industrial activities and crafts – Cement, cement goods, concrete, bricks

/ lx
2.12.1 Drying 50 28 0.40 20 Safety colours shall be recognisable
2.12.2 Preparation of materials; work on 200 28 0.40 40

kilns and mixers
2.12.3 General machine work 300 25 0.60 80
2.12.4 Rough forms 300 25 0.60 80
53
54
Table 2.13 Industrial activities and crafts – Ceramics, tiles, glass, glassware

/ lx
2.13.1 Drying 50 28 0.40 20 Safety colours shall be recognisable
2.13.2 Preparation, general machine work 300 25 0.60 80
2.13.3 Enamelling, rolling, pressing, shaping simple parts, glazing, 300 25 0.60 80
glass blowing
2.13.4 Grinding, engraving, glass polishing, shaping precision parts, 750 19 0.70 80
manufacture of glass instruments
2.13.5 Grinding of optical glass, crystal, hand grinding and engraving 750 16 0.70 80
2.13.6 Precision work e.g. decorative grinding, hand painting 1000 16 0.70 90 4000 K ≤ TCP ≤ 6500 K
2.13.7 Manufacture of synthetic precious stones 1500 16 0.70 90 4000 K ≤ TCP ≤ 6500 K
Table 2.14 Industrial activities and crafts – Chemical, plastics and rubber industry

/ lx
2.14.1 Remote-operated processing installations 50 – 0.40 20 • Safety colours shall be recognisable

• Supplementary local lighting may be needed for
maintenance work
2.14.2 Processing installations with limited 150 28 0.40 40

manual intervention
2.14.3 Constantly manned work stations in 300 25 0.60 80

processing installations
2.14.4 Precision measuring rooms, laboratories 500 19 0.60 80
2.14.5 Pharmaceutical production 500 22 0.60 80
2.14.6 Tyre production 500 22 0.60 80
2.14.7 Colour inspection 1000 16 0.70 90 4000 K ≤ TCP ≤ 6500 K
2.14.8 Cutting, finishing, inspection 750 19 0.70 80
55
56
Table 2.15 Industrial activities and crafts – Electrical and electronic industry

/ lx
2.15.1 Cable and wire manufacture 300 25 0.60 80 With large machines, some obstruction is likely, portable or local
lighting may be needed
2.15.2 Winding:
• large coils 300 25 0.60 80 With large machines, some obstruction is likely, portable or local
• medium-sized coils 500 22 0.60 80 lighting may be needed
• small coils 700 19 0.70 80
2.15.3 Coil impregnating 300 25 0.6 80 With large machines, some obstruction is likely, portable or local
2.15.4 Galvanising 300 25 0.6 80 With large machines, some obstruction is likely, portable or local
2.15.5 Assembly work:

• rough, e.g. large transformers 300 25 0.60 80 With large machines, some obstruction is likely, portable or local
• medium, e.g. switchboards 500 22 0.60 80 lighting may be needed
• fine, e.g. telephones, radios, 750 19 0.70 80
IT equipment (computers)
• precision, e.g. measuring equip-
ment, printed circuit boards 1000 16 0.70 80
2.15.6 Electronic workshops, testing, 1500 16 0.70 80 Local lighting may be appropriate
adjusting
Table 2.16 Industrial activities and crafts – Food stuffs and luxury food industry

/ lx
2.16.1 Work stations and zones in: 200 25 0.40 80

• breweries, malting floor,
• for washing, barrel filling, cleaning, sieving, peeling,
• cooking in preserve and chocolate factories,
• work stations and zones in sugar factories,
• for drying and fermenting raw tobacco, fermentation
cellar
2.16.2 Sorting and washing of products, milling, mixing, pack- 300 25 0.60 80
ing
2.16.3 Work stations and critical zones in slaughter houses, 500 25 0.60 80 • Damp conditions may be present and hosing
butchers, dairies, mills, on filtering floor in sugar down may be part of the cleaning process
refineries • Areas containing a dust explosion hazard may be
present, appropriate luminaires should be chosen
2.16.4 Cutting and sorting of fruit and vegetables 300 25 0.60 80
2.16.5 Manufacture of delicatessen foods, kitchen work, 500 22 0.60 80
manufacture of cigars and cigarettes
2.16.6 Inspection of glasses and bottles, product control, 500 22 0.60 80
trimming, sorting, decoration
2.16.7 Laboratories 500 19 0.60 80
General note: Luminaires should be constructed so that no part of the luminaire can fall into the foodstuffs, even when the luminaire is opened for lamp changing. The
luminaires should be capable of being washed or hosed down in safety. Lamps suitable for operation at low temperatures will be necessary for some food storage areas.
Lamps and luminaires suitable for hot and humid conditions may be required for some other areas.
57
58
Table 2.17 Industrial activities and crafts – Foundries and metal casting

/ lx
2.17.1 Man-sized underfloor tunnels, 50 – 0.40 20 Safety colours shall be recognisable

cellars, etc
2.17.2 Platforms 100 25 0.40 40
2.17.3 Sand preparation 200 25 0.40 80 If blast cleaning is used, luminaires should be positioned away
from the work area. Where metal castings are cleaned by abrasive
wheels or bands then the dust produced may present an
explosion hazard; luminaires should be chosen appropriately
2.17.4 Dressing room 200 25 0.40 80
2.17.5 Work stations at cupola and mixer 200 25 0.40 80
2.17.6 Casting bay 200 25 0.40 80
2.17.7 Shake out areas 200 25 0.40 80 If blast cleaning is used, luminaires should be positioned away
2.17.8 Machine moulding 200 25 0.40 80 If blast cleaning is used, luminaires should be positioned away
2.17.9 Hand and core moulding 300 25 0.60 80 Light distribution needs to be diffused and flexible to ensure
good lighting of deep moulds
2.17.10 Die casting 300 25 0.60 80
2.17.11 Model building 500 22 0.60 80 Light distribution needs to be diffused and flexible to ensure
good lighting of deep moulds
Table 2.18 Industrial activities and crafts – Hairdressers

/ lx
2.18.1 Hairdressing 500 19 0.60 90
Table 2.19 Industrial activities and crafts – Jewellery manufacturing

/ lx
2.19.1 Working with precious stones 1500 16 0.70 90 4000 K ≤ TCP ≤ 6500 K
2.19.2 Manufacture of jewellery 1000 16 0.70 90
2.19.3 Watch making (manual) 1500 16 0.70 80
2.19.4 Watch making (automatic) 500 19 0.60 80
Table 2.20 Industrial activities and crafts – Laundries and dry cleaning

/ lx
2.20.1 Goods in, marking and sorting 300 25 0.60 80

2.20.2 Washing and dry cleaning 300 25 0.60 80
2.20.3 Ironing, pressing 300 25 0.60 80
2.20.4 Inspection and repairs 750 19 0.70 80
General note: Luminaires may be subject to a warm humid atmosphere.
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60
Table 2.21 Industrial activities and crafts – Leather and leather goods

/ lx
2.21.1 Work on vats, barrels, pits 200 25 0.40 40
2.21.2 Fleshing, skiving, rubbing, tumbling of skins 300 25 0.40 80
2.21.3 Saddlery work, shoe manufacture: stitching, 500 22 0.60 80

sewing, polishing, shaping, cutting, punching
2.21.4 Sorting 500 22 0.60 90 4000 K ≤ TCP ≤ 6500 K
2.21.5 Leather dyeing (machine) 500 22 0.60 80
2.21.6 Quality control 1000 19 0.70 80
2.21.8 Shoe making 500 22 0.60 80
2.21.9 Glove making 500 22 0.60 80

Table 2.22 Industrial activities and crafts – Metal working and processing

/ lx
2.22.1 Open die forging 200 25 0.60 80
2.22.2 Drop forging 300 25 0.60 80
2.22.3 Welding 300 25 0.60 80 Care is necessary to prevent exposure of eyes and skin to
radiation. Welding screens will be used so considerable
obstruction is likely. Portable lighting may be useful
2.22.4 Rough and average machining: tolerances ≥ 0.1 mm 300 22 0.60 80
2.22.5 Precision machining; grinding: tolerances < 0.1 mm 500 19 0.70 80
2.22.6 Scribing; inspection 750 19 0.70 80 Care should be taken to avoid multiple shadows
2.22.7 Wire and pipe drawing shops; cold forming 300 25 0.60 80
2.22.8 Plate machining: 200 25 0.60 80 Some obstruction is likely. Care should be taken to
thickness ≥ 5 mm minimise stroboscopic effects on rotating machinery
2.22.9 Sheet metalwork: 300 22 0.60 80 Some obstruction is likely. Care should be taken to
thickness < 5 mm minimise stroboscopic effects on rotating machinery
2.22.10 Tool making; cutting equipment manufacture 750 19 0.70 80
2.22.11 Assembly:
• rough 200 25 0.60 80 Some obstruction is likely. Care should be taken to
• medium 300 25 0.60 80 minimise stroboscopic effects on rotating machinery
• fine 500 22 0.60 80
• precision 750 19 0.70 80
2.22.12 Galvanising 300 25 0.60 80
2.22.13 Surface preparation and painting 750 25 0.70 80
2.22.14 Tool, template and jig making, precision mechanics, 1000 19 0.70 80
micro-mechanics
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62
Table 2.23 Industrial activities and crafts – Paper and paper goods

/ lx
2.23.1 Edge runners, pulp mills 200 25 0.40 80
2.23.2 Paper manufacture and processing, paper and 300 25 0.60 80

corrugating machines, cardboard manufacture
2.23.3 Standard bookbinding work, e.g. folding, 500 22 0.60 80

sorting, gluing, cutting, embossing, sewing
Table 2.24 Industrial activities and crafts – Power stations

/ lx
2.24.1 Fuel supply plant 50 – 0.40 20 Safety colours shall be recognisable
2.24.2 Boiler house 100 28 0.40 40
2.24.3 Machine halls 200 25 0.40 80 Additional local lighting of instruments and
inspection points may be required
2.24.4 Side rooms, e.g. pump rooms, condenser 200 25 0.40 60 In areas such as ash handling plants, settling
rooms, etc; switchboards (inside buildings) pits and battery rooms there may corrosive and
hazardous atmospheres
2.24.5 Control rooms 500 16 0.70 80 1. Control panels are often vertical
2. Dimming may be required
3. DSE-work, see 2.1.9
See Table 3.15 in section 3.2.3 for information on the requirements for outdoor power, gas and heat plants
Table 2.25 Industrial activities and crafts – Printers

/ lx
2.25.1 Cutting, gilding, embossing, block engraving, work on 500 19 0.60 80

stones and platens, printing machines, matrix making
2.25.2 Paper sorting and hand printing 500 19 0.60 80
2.25.3 Type setting, retouching, lithography 1000 19 0.70 80 Local lighting may be appropriate
2.25.4 Colour inspection in multicoloured printing 1500 16 0.70 90 5000 K ≤ TCP ≤ 6500 K
2.25.5 Steel and copper engraving 2000 16 0.70 80 For directionality, see 2.1.6.4
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64
Table 2.26 Industrial activities and crafts – Rolling mills, iron and steel works

/ lx
2.26.1 Production plants without manual operation 50 – 0.40 20 • Safety colours shall be recognisable
• Supplementary lighting may be required for
maintenance work
2.26.2 Production plants with occasional manual 150 28 0.40 40 Supplementary lighting may be required for
operation maintenance work
2.26.3 Production plants with continuous 200 25 0.60 80

manual operation
2.26.4 Slab store 50 – 0.40 20 Safety colours shall be recognisable
2.26.5 Furnaces 200 25 0.40 20 Safety colours shall be recognisable
2.26.6 Mill train; coiler; shear line 300 25 0.60 40
2.26.7 Control platforms; control panels 300 22 0.60 80
2.26.8 Test, measurement and inspection 500 22 0.60 80
2.26.9 Underfloor man-sized tunnels; belt sections, 50 – 0.40 20 • Safety colours shall be recognisable
cellars, etc • Supplementary lighting may be required for
maintenance work
Table 2.27 Industrial activities and crafts – Textile manufacture and processing

/ lx
2.27.1 Work stations and zones in baths, bale opening 200 25 0.60 60
2.27.2 Carding, washing, ironing, devilling machine 300 22 0.60 80

work, drawing, combing, sizing, card cutting,
pre-spinning, jute and hemp spinning
2.27.3 Spinning, plying, reeling, winding 500 22 0.60 80 Prevent stroboscopic effects
2.27.4 Warping, weaving, braiding, knitting 500 22 0.60 80 Prevent stroboscopic effects
2.27.5 Sewing, fine knitting, taking up stitches 750 22 0.70 80
2.27.6 Manual design, drawing patterns 750 22 0.70 90
2.27.7 Finishing, dyeing 500 22 0.60 80
2.27.8 Drying room 100 28 0.40 60
2.27.9 Automatic fabric printing 500 25 0.60 80
2.27.10 Burling, picking, trimming 1000 19 0.70 80
2.27.11 Colour inspection; fabric control 1000 16 0.70 90 4000 K ≤ TCP ≤ 6500 K
2.27.12 Invisible mending 1500 19 0.70 90 4000 K ≤ TCP ≤ 6500 K
2.27.13 Hat manufacturing 500 22 0.60 80
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66
Table 2.28 Industrial activities and crafts – Vehicle construction and repair

/ lx
2.28.1 Body work and assembly 500 22 0.60 80
2.28.2 Painting, spraying chamber, polishing chamber 750 22 0.70 80
2.28.3 Painting: touch-up, inspection 1000 19 0.70 90 4000 K ≤ TCP ≤ 6500 K
2.28.4 Upholstery manufacture (manned) 1000 19 0.70 80
2.28.5 Final inspection 1000 19 0.70 80
2.28.6 General vehicle services, repair and testing 300 22 0.60 80 Consider local lighting
Table 2.29 Industrial activities and crafts – Wood working and processing

/ lx
2.29.1 Automatic processing e.g. drying, 50 28 0.40 40 Dust from sanding and similar operations may represent an
plywood manufacturing explosion hazard; luminaires should be chosen appropriately
2.29.2 Steam pits 150 28 0.40 40
2.29.3 Saw frame 300 25 0.60 60 Prevent stroboscopic effects
2.29.4 Work at joiner’s bench, gluing, assembly 300 25 0.60 80
2.29.5 Polishing, painting, fancy joinery 750 22 0.70 80 Dust from sanding and similar operations may represent an
2.29.6 Work on wood working machines, e.g. 500 19 0.60 80 • Prevent stroboscopic effects
turning, fluting, dressing, rebating, • Dust from sanding and similar operations may represent
grooving, cutting, sawing, sinking an explosion hazard; luminaires should be chosen appro-
priately
2.29.7 Selection of veneer woods 750 22 0.70 90 4000 K ≤ TCP ≤ 6500 K
2.29.8 Marquetry, inlay work 750 22 0.70 90 4000 K ≤ TCP ≤ 6500 K
2.29.9 Quality control, inspection 1000 19 0.70 90 4000 K ≤ TCP ≤ 6500 K
See Table 3.17 in section 3.2.3 for information on the requirements for outdoor wood working and saw mills.
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Table 2.30 Offices

/ lx
2.30.1 Filing, copying, etc 300 19 0.40 80
2.30.2 Writing, typing, reading, data processing 500 19 0.60 80 DSE work, see 2.1.9
2.30.3 Technical drawing 750 16 0.70 80
2.30.4 CAD work stations 500 19 0.60 80 DSE work, see 2.1.9
2.30.5 Conference and meeting rooms 500 19 0.60 80 Lighting should be controllable
2.30.6 Reception desk 300 22 0.60 80
2.30.7 Archives 200 25 0.40 80 For filing, the vertical surfaces are especially important
Table 2.31 Retail premises

/ lx
2.31.1 Sales area 300 22 0.40 80
2.31.2 Till area 500 19 0.60 80
2.31.3 Wrapper table 500 19 0.60 80

Table 2.32 Places of public assembly – General areas

/ lx
2.32.1 Entrance halls 100 22 0.40 80 UGR only if applicable
2.32.2 Cloakrooms 200 25 0.40 80
2.32.3 Lounges 200 22 0.40 80
2.32.4 Ticket offices 300 22 0.60 80
Table 2.33 Places of public assembly – Restaurants and hotels

/ lx
2.33.1 Reception/cashier desk, porters desk 300 22 0.60 80 Localised lighting may be appropriate
2.33.2 Kitchen 500 22 0.60 80 There should be a transition zone between kitchen and restaurant
2.33.3 Restaurant, dining room, function room – – – 80 The lighting should be designed to create the appropriate atmosphere
2.33.4 Self-service restaurant 200 22 0.40 80
2.33.5 Buffet 300 22 0.60 80
2.33.6 Conference rooms 500 19 0.60 80 Lighting should be controllable
2.33.7 Corridors 100 25 0.40 80 During night-time lower levels are acceptable
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70
Table 2.34 Places of public assembly – Theatres, concert halls, cinemas, places for entertainment

/ lx
2.34.1 Practice rooms 300 22 0.60 80
2.34.2 Dressing rooms 300 22 0.60 90 Lighting at mirrors for make-up shall be ‘glare-free’. Disability
glare should be avoided at mirrors for make-up
2.34.3 Seating areas – maintenance, cleaning 200 22 0.50 80 Illuminance at floor level
2.34.4 Stage area – rigging 300 25 0.40 80 Illuminance at floor level
2.34.5 Projection rooms 150 22 0.60 40 Lighting should be provided on the working side of the
projector. The lighting should not detract from the view
into the auditorium. Dimming facilities may be desirable
Table 2.35 Places of public assembly – Trade fairs, exhibition halls

/ lx
2.35.1 General lighting 300 22 0.40 80

Table 2.36 Places of public assembly – Museums

/ lx
2.36.1 Exhibits, insensitive to light Lighting is determined by the display requirements
2.36.2 Exhibits, sensitive to light 1. Lighting is determined by the display requirements

2. Protection against damaging radiation is paramount
Table 2.37 Places of public assembly – Libraries

/ lx
2.37.1 Bookshelves 200 19 0.40 80 The illuminance should be provided on the vertical face at the
bottom of the bookshelf
2.37.2 Reading area 500 19 0.60 80 • Local or localised lighting may be appropriate
• DSE work, see 2.1.9
2.37.3 Counters 500 19 0.60 80 • Local or localised lighting may be appropriate

• DSE work, see 2.1.9
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72
Table 2.38 Places of public assembly – Public car parks (indoor)

/ lx
2.38.1 In/out ramps (during the day) 300 25 0.40 40 1. Illuminances at floor level
2. Safety colours shall be recognisable
2.38.2 In/out ramps (at night) 75 25 0.40 40 1. Illuminances at floor level

2.38.3 Traffic lanes 75 25 0.40 40 1. Illuminances at floor level

2.38.4 Parking areas 75 – 0.40 40 1. Illuminances at floor level

3. A high vertical illuminance increases recognition of people’s
faces and therefore the feeling of safety
2.38.5 Ticket office 300 19 0.60 80 1. Reflections in the windows shall be avoided
2. Glare from outside shall be prevented
See Table 3.13 in section 3.2.3 for information on the requirements for outdoor car parks.
Table 2.39 Educational premises – Nursery school, play school

/ lx
2.39.1 Play room 300 22 0.40 80 High luminances should be avoided in viewing directions from below by
use of diffuse covers
2.39.2 Nursery 300 22 0.40 80 High luminances should be avoided in viewing directions from below by
use of diffuse covers
2.39.3 Handicraft room 300 19 0.60 80
Table 2.40 Educational premises – Educational buildings

/ lx
2.40.1 Classrooms, tutorial rooms 300 19 0.60 80 Lighting should be controllable
2.40.2 Classroom for evening classes and adults 500 19 0.60 80 Lighting should be controllable
education
2.40.3 Auditorium, lecture halls 500 19 0.60 80 Lighting should be controllable to accommodate various A/V needs
2.40.4 Black, green and white boards 500 19 0.70 80 Specular reflections shall be prevented. Presenter/teacher shall be
illuminated with suitable vertical illuminance
2.40.5 Demonstration table 500 19 0.70 80 In lecture halls 750 lx
2.40.6 Art rooms 500 19 0.60 80
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Table 2.40 Continued
/ lx
2.40.7 Art rooms in art schools 750 19 0.70 90 5000 K ≤ TCP ≤ 6500 K
2.40.8 Technical drawing rooms 750 16 0.70 80
2.40.9 Practical rooms and laboratories 500 19 0.60 80
2.40.10 Handicraft rooms 500 19 0.60 80
2.40.11 Teaching workshop 500 19 0.60 80
2.40.12 Music practice rooms 300 19 0.60 80
2.40.13 Computer practice rooms (menu driven) 300 19 0.60 80 DSE work, see 2.1.9
2.40.14 Language laboratory 300 19 0.60 80
2.40.15 Preparation rooms and workshops 500 22 0.60 80
2.40.16 Entrance halls 200 22 0.40 80
2.40.17 Circulation areas, corridors 100 25 0.40 80
2.40.18 Stairs 150 25 0.40 80
2.40.19 Student common rooms and assembly halls 200 22 0.40 80

/ lx
2.40.20 Teachers rooms 300 19 0.60 80
2.40.21 Library: bookshelves 200 19 0.60 80
2.40.22 Library: reading areas 500 19 0.60 80
2.40.23 Stock rooms for teaching materials 100 25 0.40 80
2.40.24 Sports halls, gymnasiums, swimming pools 300 22 0.60 80 See BS EN 12193 (BSI, 2007b) or SLL Lighting Guide 4:
Sports (SLL, 2006) for training conditions
2.40.25 School canteens 200 22 0.40 80
2.40.26 Kitchen 500 22 0.60 80
For more information see SLL Lighting Guide 5: Lighting for education (SLL, 2011).
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Table 2.41 Health care premises – Rooms for general use

/ lx
Too high luminances in the patients’ visual field shall be prevented
2.41.1 Waiting rooms 200 22 0.40 80
2.41.2 Corridors: during the day 100 22 0.40 80 Illuminance at floor level
2.41.3 Corridors: cleaning 100 22 0.40 80 Illuminance at floor level
2.41.4 Corridors: during the night 50 22 0.40 80 Illuminance at floor level
2.41.5 Corridors with multi-purpose use 200 22 0.60 80 Illuminance at task/activity level
2.41.6 Day rooms 200 22 0.60 80
2.41.7 Elevators, lifts for persons and visitors 100 22 0.60 80 Illuminance at floor level
2.41.8 Service lifts 200 22 0.60 80 Illuminance at floor level
For more information see SLL Lighting Guide 2: Hospitals and health care buildings (SLL, 2008).
Table 2.42 Health care premises – Staff rooms

/ lx
2.42.1 Staff office 500 19 0.60 80
2.42.2 Staff rooms 300 19 0.60 80
Table 2.43 Health care premises – Wards, maternity wards

/ lx
Too high luminances in the patients’ visual field shall be prevented
2.43.1 General lighting 100 19 0.40 80 Illuminance at floor level
2.43.2 Reading lighting 300 19 0.70 80
2.43.3 Simple examinations 300 19 0.60 80
2.43.4 Examination and treatment 1000 19 0.70 90 Examination luminaire may be required
2.43.5 Night lighting, observation lighting 5 – – 80
2.43.6 Bathrooms and toilets for patients 200 22 0.40 80
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Table 2.44 Health care premises – Examination rooms (general)

/ lx
2.44.1 General lighting 500 19 0.60 90 4000 K ≤ TCP ≤ 5000 K
Table 2.45 Health care premises – Eye examination rooms

/ lx
2.45.1 General lighting 500 19 0.60 90 4000 K ≤ TCP ≤ 5000 K
2.45.2 Examination of the outer eye 1000 – – 90 Examination luminaire may be required
2.45.3 Reading and colour vision tests with vision charts 500 16 0.70 90
Table 2.46 Health care premises – Ear examination rooms

/ lx
2.46.2 Ear examination 1000 – – 90 Examination luminaire may be required
Table 2.47 Health care premises – Scanner rooms

/ lx
2.47.2 Scanners with image enhancers and television systems 50 19 – 80 DSE work, see 2.1.9
Table 2.48 Health care premises – Delivery rooms

/ lx
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80
Table 2.49 Health care premises – Treatment rooms (general)

/ lx
2.49.1 Dialysis 500 19 0.60 80 Lighting should be controllable
2.49.2 Dermatology 500 19 0.60 90
2.49.3 Endoscopy rooms 300 19 0.60 80
2.49.4 Plaster rooms 500 19 0.60 80
2.49.5 Medical baths 300 19 0.60 80
2.49.6 Massage and radiotherapy 300 19 0.60 80
Table 2.50 Health care premises – Operating areas

/ lx
2.50.1 Pre-op and recovery rooms 500 19 0.60 90
2.50.2 Operating theatre 1000 19 0.60 90
2.50.3 Operating cavity – Ēm: 10 000 lx to 100 000 lx
Table 2.51 Health care premises – Intensive care unit

/ lx
2.51.1 General lighting 100 19 0.60 90 Illuminance at floor level
2.51.2 Simple examinations 300 19 0.60 90 Illuminance at bed level
2.51.3 Examination and treatment 1000 19 0.70 90 Illuminance at bed level
2.51.4 Night watch 20 19 – 90 Illuminance at floor level
Table 2.52 Health care premises – Dentists

/ lx
2.52.1 General lighting 500 19 0.60 90 Lighting should be glare-free for the patient
2.52.2 At the patient 1000 – 0.70 90
2.52.3 Operating cavity – – – – Specific requirements are given in BS EN ISO 9680 (ISO, 2007)
2.52.4 White teeth matching – – – – Specific requirements are given in BS EN ISO 9680 (ISO, 2007)
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Table 2.53 Health care premises – Laboratories and pharmacies

/ lx
Table 2.54 Health care premises – Decontamination rooms

/ lx
2.54.1 Sterilisation rooms 300 22 0.60 80 Luminaires may be subject to high humidity and temperatures as
well as an aggressive cleaning regime
2.54.2 Disinfection rooms 300 22 0.60 80 Luminaires may be subject to high humidity and temperatures as
well as an aggressive cleaning regime
Table 2.55 Health care premises – Autopsy rooms and mortuaries

/ lx
2.55.1 General lighting 500 19 0.60 90 Luminaires may be subject an aggressive cleaning regime
2.55.2 Autopsy table and dissecting table 5000 – – 90 Values higher than 5000 lx may be required
Table 2.56 Transportation areas – Airports

/ lx
2.56.1 Arrival and departure halls, baggage claim areas 200 22 0.40 80
2.56.2 Connecting areas 150 22 0.40 80
2.56.3 Information desks, check-in desks 500 19 0.70 80 DSE work, see 2.1.9
2.56.4 Customs and passport control desks 500 19 0.70 80 Facial recognition has to be provided
2.56.5 Waiting areas 200 22 0.40 80
2.56.6 Luggage store rooms 200 25 0.40 80
2.56.7 Security check areas 300 19 0.60 80 DSE work, see 2.1.9
2.56.8 Air traffic control tower 500 16 0.60 80 1. Lighting should be dimmable
2. DSE work, see 2.1.9
3. Glare from daylight shall be avoided
4. Reflections in windows, especially at night shall
be avoided
2.56.9 Testing and repair hangars 500 22 0.60 80
2.56.10 Engine test areas 500 22 0.60 80
2.56.11 Measuring areas in hangars 500 22 0.60 80
See Table 3.6 in section 3.2.3 for information on the requirements for outdoor areas of airports.
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Table 2.57 Transportation areas – Railway installations

/ lx
2.57.1 Fully enclosed platforms, small number of passengers 100 – 0.40 40 1. Special attention to the edge of the platform
2. Avoid glare for vehicle drivers
3. Illuminance at floor level
2.57.2 Fully enclosed platforms, large number of passengers 200 – 0.50 60 1. Special attention to the edge of the platform
2. Avoid glare for vehicle drivers
3. Illuminance at floor level
2.57.3 Passenger subways (underpasses), small number of 50 28 0.50 40 Illuminance at floor level
passengers
2.57.4 Passenger subways (underpasses), large number of 100 28 0.50 40 Illuminance at floor level
passengers
2.57.5 Ticket hall and concourse 200 28 0.50 40
2.57.6 Ticket and luggage offices and counters 300 19 0.50 80
2.57.7 Waiting rooms 200 22 0.40 80
2.57.8 Entrance halls, station halls 200 – 0.40 80
2.57.9 Switch and plant rooms 200 28 0.40 60 Safety colours must be recognisable
2.57.10 Access tunnels 50 – 0.40 20 Illuminance at floor level
2.57.11 Maintenance and servicing sheds 300 22 0.50 60
See Table 3.16 in section 3.2.3 for information on the requirements for outdoor areas associated with railways and tramways.
2.2.3 Verification procedures
2.2.3.1 General
Specified design criteria which are included in this section of the SLL Code shall be verified by the following
procedures.
In lighting design, calculations and measurements, certain assumptions including degree of accuracy have been
made. These shall be declared.
Reference should be made to Chapter 15 of this Code for measurement procedures and
properties of light measuring equipment.
The installation and the environment shall be checked against the design assumptions.
2.2.3.2 Illuminances
When verifying conformity to the illuminance requirements the measurement points shall coincide with any
design points or grids used. Verification shall be made to the criteria of the relevant surfaces.
For subsequent measurements, the same measurement points shall be used.
Verification of illuminances that relate to specific tasks shall be measured in the plane of the task.
Note: When verifying illuminances, account should be taken of the calibration of the light meters used, the
conformity of the lamps and luminaires to the published photometric data, and of the design assumptions made
about surface reflectance, etc, compared with the real values.
The average illuminance and uniformity shall be calculated and shall be not less than the values specified.
2.2.3.3 Unified glare rating

Authenticated UGR data produced by the tabular method shall be provided for the luminaire scheme by the
manufacturer of the luminaire. The spacing shall be declared for the UGR-tables provided.
Details of the use of glare tables are given in section 12.2.8, and section 12.3.5 gives details of how
the tables are generated.
2.2.3.4 Colour rendering and colour appearance

Authenticated colour rendering index Ra and correlated colour temperatures Tcp data shall be provided for
the lamps in the scheme by the manufacturer of the lamps. The lamps shall be checked against the design
specifications.
2.2.3.5 Luminaire luminance

The average luminance of the luminous parts of the luminaire shall be measured and/or calculated in the C-
plane (azimuth) at intervals of 15° starting at 0° and the γ-plane (elevation) for angles of 65°, 70°, 75°, 80°
and 85°. Normally the manufacturer of the luminaire shall provide these data based on maximum (lamp/
luminaire) output (see also sections 12.2.7 and 12.3.4).
Where controlled values of luminaire luminance are required, the values shall not exceed the limits
specified in Table 2.4.
2.2.3.6 Maintenance schedule

The maintenance schedule shall be provided and should be according to section 2.1.10.
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Chapter Three: Outdoor workplaces
Chapter 3: Outdoor workplaces

This chapter of the code is based on BS EN 12464-2: 2007: Light and lighting – Lighting of work
places – Part 2: Outdoor work places (BSI, 2007c). All of the text in this chapter that is in italics
and the tables of lighting requirements have been taken directly from the standard. The other
material in this chapter is advice on how best to apply the standard whilst at the same time
following what the Society of Light and Lighting regards to be good lighting practice. It should be
noted that this chapter does not include all of BS EN 12464-2 (BSI, 2007c); the scope, normative
references, terms and definitions together with the original bibliography and some calculations
have been omitted as they are either not appropriate to this document or they are covered
elsewhere in this Code. This section is broadly similar to the section on outdoor workplaces in the
2009 edition of the SLL Code; however, the format has been changed and some extra advice and
notes have been added.
3.1 Lighting design criteria

3.1.1 Luminous environment
For good lighting practice it is essential that, in addition to the required illuminance, qualitative and quantitative
needs are satisfied.
Lighting requirements are determined by the satisfaction of three basic human needs:
z visual comfort, where the workers have a feeling of well-being; in an indirect way also contributing to a high
productivity level
z visual performance, where the workers are able to perform their visual tasks, even under difficult
circumstances and during longer periods
z safety.
Main parameters determining the luminous environment are:
z luminance distribution
z illuminance
z glare
z directionality of light
z colour rendering and colour appearance of the light
z flicker.
Values for illuminance, glare rating and colour rendering are given in section 3.2.
The following sections give information on the above topics together with recommendations on
the control of spill light.
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3.1.2 Luminance distribution
The luminance distribution in the field of view controls the adaptation level of the eyes, which affects task
visibility.
A well balanced luminance distribution is needed to increase:
z visual acuity (sharpness of vision)
z contrast sensitivity (discrimination of small relative luminance differences)
z efficiency of the ocular functions (such as accommodation, convergence, pupillary contraction, eye movements,
etc).
The luminance distribution in the field of view also affects visual comfort. Sudden changes in luminance should
be avoided.
3.1.3 Illuminance
The illuminance and its distribution on the task area and the surrounding area have a great impact on how
quickly, safely and comfortably a person perceives and carries out the visual task.
All values of illuminances specified in the schedule (section 3.2) are maintained illuminances.
3.1.3.1 Illuminance on the task area

The illuminance values given in the schedule (section 3.2) are maintained illuminances over the task area on
the reference surface, which may be horizontal, vertical or inclined. The average illuminance for each task shall
not fall below the value given in the schedule, regardless of the age and condition of the installation.
Note: The values are valid for normal visual conditions and take into account the following factors:
z psycho-physiological aspects such as visual comfort and well-being
z requirements for visual tasks
z visual ergonomics
z practical experience
z safety
z economy.
The value of illuminance may be adjusted by at least one step in the scale of illuminances (see below), if the
visual conditions differ from the normal assumptions.
A factor of approximately 1.5 represents the smallest significant difference in subjective effect of illuminance. The
recommended scale of illuminance (in lx) is:
5–10–15–20–30–50–75–100–150–200–300–500–750–1000–1500–2000
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The required maintained illuminance should be increased, when:

z visual work is critical
z visual task or worker is moving
z errors are costly to rectify
z accuracy or higher productivity is of great importance
z the visual capacity of the worker is below normal
z task details are of unusually small size or low contrast
z the task is undertaken for an unusually long time.
The required maintained illuminance may be decreased when:
z task details are of an unusually large size or high contrast
z the task is undertaken for an unusually short time or on only rare occasions.
3.1.3.2 Illuminance of surroundings

The maintained illuminance of surrounding areas shall be related to the maintained illuminance of the task
area and should provide a well-balanced luminance distribution in the field of view. Large spatial variations in
illuminances around the task area may lead to visual stress and discomfort. The illuminance of the surrounding
areas may be lower than the task illuminance but shall be not less than the values given in Table 3.1.
Table 3.1 Relationship of illuminances of surrounding area to task area
Task illuminance Illuminance of surrounding areas

lx lx
≥500 100
300 75
200 50
150 30
50 ≤ Ēm ≤ 100 20
<50 No specification
In addition to the task illuminance the lighting shall provide adequate adaption luminance in accordance with
section 3.1.2.
Most areas that have a recommended task illuminance of less than 50 lx do not need to consider
light on the surrounding area, however, in situations where people may be working in these areas
for a long time, it may be necessary to consider providing light in the surrounding areas.
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3.1.3.3 Illuminance grid

Grid systems shall be created to indicate the points at which the illuminance values are calculated and verified.
Grid cells approximating to a square are preferred; the ratio of length to width of a grid cell shall be kept
between 0.5 and 2. (The same method of grid specification is used in other parts of this Code and
there is a worked example of how to apply the formulae given in section 15.2.2.) The maximum
grid size shall be:
p = 0.2 × 5log d (3.1)
where p ≤ 10 m
d is the longer dimension of the calculation area (m), however if the ratio of the longer to the shorter side is 2 or
more then d becomes the shorter dimension of the area, and p is the maximum grid cell size (m).
3.1.3.4 Uniformity and diversity

The task area shall be illuminated as uniformly as possible. The illuminance uniformity of the task area shall be
not less than the values given in section 3.2. The uniformity of the surroundings shall not be less than 0.10.
In some cases, e.g. railways, illuminance diversity is also an important quality criterion.
Note: See Chapter 19 – Glossary for definitions of the terms Uniformity and Diversity.
3.1.4 Glare
Glare is the sensation produced by bright areas within the field of view and may be experienced as either
discomfort glare or disability glare. Glare caused by reflections in specular surfaces is usually known as veiling
reflections or reflected glare. It is important to limit the glare to the users to avoid errors, fatigue and accidents.
Note: Special care is needed to avoid glare when the direction of view is above horizontal.
3.1.4.1 Glare rating

The glare directly from the luminaires of an outdoor lighting installation shall be determined using the CIE
Glare Rating (GR) method (CIE, 1994). The method is covered in detail in section 14.5 of this
Code.
Note: GR should be computed at grid positions as defined in section 3.1.3.3, at 45° interval radially about
the grid points with 0° direction parallel to the long side of the task area.
All assumptions made in the determination of GR shall be stated in the scheme documentation. The GR value
of the lighting installation shall not exceed the GRL value given in Section 3.2.
3.1.4.2 Veiling reflections and reflected glare

High brightness reflections in the visual task may alter task visibility, usually detrimentally. Veiling reflections
and reflected glare may be prevented or reduced by the following measures:
z appropriate arrangement of luminaires and work places
z surface finish (e.g. matt surfaces)
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z luminance restriction of luminaires

z increased luminous area of the luminaire.
Note: Veiling glare is often significantly worse when the surfaces being illuminated are wet.
3.1.5 Obtrusive light

To safeguard and enhance the night time environment it is necessary to control obtrusive light (also known as
light pollution), which can present physiological and ecological problems to surroundings and people.
The limits of obtrusive light for exterior lighting installations, to minimise problems for people, flora and fauna,
are given in Table 3.2 and for road users Table 3.3.
Table 3.2 Maximum obtrusive light permitted for exterior lighting installations
Environmental Light on Luminaire Upward Luminance

zone properties intensity light
Ev I ULR Lb Ls
lx cd % cd·m–2 cd·m–2
Pre Post Pre Post Building Signs

curfew (a) curfew curfew curfew
E1 2 0 (b) 2500 0 0 0 50
E2 5 1 7500 500 0.05 5 400
E3 10 2 10 000 1000 0.15 10 800
E4 25 5 25 000 2500 0.25 25 1000
(a)
In case no curfew regulations are available, the higher values shall not be exceeded and the lower values
should be taken as preferable limits.
(b)
If the luminaire is for public (road) lighting, then this value may be up to 1 lx.
Where:
E1 represents intrinsically dark areas, such as national parks or protected sites
E2 represents low district brightness areas, such as industrial or residential rural areas
E3 represents medium district brightness areas, such as industrial or residential suburbs
E4 represents high district brightness areas, such as town centres and commercial areas
Ev is the maximum value of vertical illuminance on properties in lx
I is the light intensity of each source in the potentially obtrusive direction in cd
ULR is the proportion of the flux of the luminaire(s) that is emitted above the horizontal, when the
luminaire(s) is (are) mounted in its (their) installed position and attitude, and given in %
Lb is the maximum average luminance of the facade of a building in cd·m–2
Ls is the maximum average luminance of signs in cd·m–2.
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Notes:

z Curfew – the time after which stricter requirements will apply; this is often a condition of use
of the lighting applied by the local authority.
z Light on properties – the values in Table 3.2 are maxima and need to take account of existing
light trespass at the point of measurement.
z Luminaire intensity – this applies to each luminaire in any potentially obtrusive direction.
z Luminance – this is the maximum luminance of any illuminated or self-luminous surface as
seen from any potentially obtrusive direction.
Table 3.3 Maximum values of threshold increment and veiling luminance from non-road
lighting installations
Light technical Road lighting classes a)

parameter
No road lighting ME5 ME4/ME3 ME2/ME1
Threshold increment 15% based on 15% based 15% based 15% based
(TI) b) c) adaptation on adaptation on adaptation on adaptation
luminance of luminance of luminance of luminance of
0.1 cd·m–2 1 cd·m–2 2 cd·m–2 5 cd·m–2
Veiling luminance 0.04 0.23 0.4 0.84

(Lv) d)
a)
Road lighting classes as given in BS EN 13201-2 (BSI, 2003a). See also section 4.2 of this Code.
b)
TI calculation as given in BS EN 13201-3. See also section 14.4 of this Code.
c)
Limits apply where users of transport systems are subject to a reduction in the ability to see essential information. Values
given are for relevant positions and for viewing directions in the path of travel.
d)
Veiling luminance may be used when assessing the impact on roads for which the average value of lumi-
nance is not known.
It is possible that in some circumstances, obtrusive light may be considered a statutory nuisance
as set out in section 102 of Chapter 16 of the Clean Neighbourhoods and Environment Act 2005
(HMSO, 2005). The act does make it clear under what conditions lighting becomes statutory
nuisance but it does list a number of situations that are exempt. Exemptions include airports,
harbour premises, railway premises, tramway premises, bus stations, public service vehicle
operating centres, goods vehicle operating centres, lighthouses and prisons.
3.1.6 Directional lighting

Directional lighting may be used to highlight objects, reveal texture and improve the appearance of people. This
is described by the term ‘modelling’. Directional lighting of a visual task may also affect its visibility.
3.1.6.1 Modelling
Modelling is the balance between diffuse and directional light. It is a valid criterion of lighting quality in
virtually all applications. The people and objects should be lit so that form and texture are revealed clearly and
pleasingly. This occurs when the light comes predominantly from one direction; the shadows so essential to good
modelling are then formed without confusion. The lighting should not be too directional or it will produce harsh
shadows.
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Note: In areas where it is common to have temporary objects, such as container depots and
truck parks, it is important to provide light from multiple high mounted points to ensure that
there are no large areas of shadow caused when the area is in use.
3.1.6.2 Directional lighting of visual tasks

Lighting from a specific direction may reveal details within a visual task, increasing their visibility and making
the task easier to perform. Veiling reflections and reflected glare should be avoided, see 3.1.4.2.
3.1.7 Colour aspects

The colour qualities of a near-white lamp are characterised by two attributes:
z the colour appearance of the lamp itself
z its colour rendering capabilities, which affect the colour appearance of objects and persons illuminated by the
lamp.
These two attributes shall be considered separately.
3.1.7.1 Colour appearance

The ‘colour appearance’ of a lamp refers to the apparent colour (chromaticity) of the light emitted. It is
quantified by its correlated colour temperature (TCP).
Colour appearance may also be described as in Table 3.4.
Note: Colour appearance does not uniquely specify the colour appearance of a light source. It
is possible for two sources with the same colour temperature to have different appearances, one
looking slightly purple and the other looking greenish. See section 16.2 for details on how to
characterise the colour properties of a light source.
Table 3.4 Lamp colour appearance groups
Colour appearance Correlated colour temperature TCP
Warm Below 3300 K
Intermediate 3300 to 5300 K
Cool Above 5300 K
The choice of colour appearance is a matter of psychology, aesthetics and what is considered to be natural.
3.1.7.2 Colour rendering

It is important for visual performance and the feeling of comfort and well being that colours in the environment,
of objects and of human skin are rendered naturally, correctly and in a way that makes people look attractive
and healthy.
To provide an objective indication of the colour rendering properties of a light source, the general colour rendering
index Ra has been introduced. The maximum value of Ra is 100. This figure decreases with decreasing colour
rendering quality.
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Safety colours shall always be recognisable as such and therefore light sources shall have colour rendering indices

≥ 20 (see also BS ISO 3864-1 (ISO, 2009)).
The minimum values of colour rendering index for distinct areas, tasks or activities are given in section 3.2.
3.1.8 Flicker and stroboscopic effects

Flicker causes distraction and may give rise to physiological effects such as headaches.
Stroboscopic effects can lead to dangerous situations by changing the perceived motion of rotating or reciprocating
machinery.
Lighting systems should be designed to avoid flicker and stroboscopic effects.
Note: This can usually be achieved by technical measures adjusted to the chosen lamp type (i.e. operating
discharge lamps at high frequencies).
3.1.9 Maintenance factor (MF)

The lighting scheme should be designed with a maintenance factor calculated for the selected lighting equipment,
space environment and specified maintenance schedule, as defined in CIE 154:2003 (CIE, 2003).
The recommended illuminance for each task is given as maintained illuminance. The maintenance factor
depends on the maintenance characteristics of the lamp and control gear, the luminaire, the environment and the
maintenance programme.
The designer shall:
z state the maintenance factor and list all assumptions made in the derivation of the value
z specify lighting equipment suitable for the application environment
z prepare a comprehensive maintenance schedule to include frequency of lamp replacement, luminaire cleaning
intervals and cleaning method.
Chapter 18 of this Code gives a comprehensive method for the evaluation of maintenance factor;
it is based on CIE 154: 2003 and other similar documents.
In selecting lighting equipment and a maintenance programme, the lighting designer should seek
to keep the overall maintenance as high as possible without imposing too onerous a maintenance
schedule on the site owner.
3.1.10 Energy considerations

A lighting installation should meet the lighting requirements of a particular area without waste of energy.
However, it is important not to compromise the visual aspects of a lighting installation simply to reduce energy
consumption. This requires the consideration of appropriate lighting systems, equipment and controls.
It is also important to ensure that lighting is only provided when necessary; if some activities are
only carried out for part of the night then the lighting should be dimmed or turned off when not
needed.
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3.1.11 Sustainability
Consideration should be given to the sustainability of the lighting installation. The selected lighting equipment
shall be fit for the purpose.
It is important that the luminaires used may have to stand up to potentially onerous conditions
from a mechanical point of view. This includes having the necessary strength to withstand wind
loading and vandal attack as well as being sealed to prevent the ingress of dust and moisture.
These matters are discussed in Chapter 4 of the SLL Lighting Handbook (SLL, 2009); details of the
tests necessary for luminaires are given in BS EN 60598-2-3 (BSI, 2003b) and BS EN 60598-2-5
(BSI, 1998).
3.1.12 Emergency lighting

Emergency lighting should be provided to operate in the event of failure of the supply to the normal lighting
system and conform to the relevant standards. In general, the emergency lighting must allow
people to get to a place of safety, usually off the site in question.
3.2 Schedule of lighting requirements

The lighting requirements for various areas, tasks and activities are given in the tables of section 3.2.3 (see also
BS EN 12193: 2007 (BSI, 2007b)).
Lighting recommendations with respect to safety and health of workers at work are given in section 3.2.4.
3.2.1 Composition of Tables 3.5 to 3.19

z Column 1 lists the reference number for each area, task or activity.
z Column 2 lists those areas, tasks or activities for which specific requirements are given. If the particular area,
task or activity is not listed, the values given for a similar, comparable situation should be adopted.
z Column 3 gives the maintained illuminance Ēm on the reference surface (see 3.1.3) for the area, task or
activity given in column 2.
Note: Lighting control may be required to achieve adequate flexibility for the variety of tasks performed.
z Column 4 gives the minimum illuminance uniformity Uo on the reference surface (see 3.1.3) for the area,
task or activity given in column 2.
z Column 5 gives the Glare Rating limits (GRL) where these are applicable to the situations listed in column
2 (see 3.1.4).
z Column 6 gives the minimum colour rendering indices (Ra) (see 3.1.7.2) for the situation listed in column
2.
z Column 7 contains advice and footnotes for exceptions and special applications for the situations listed in
column 2.
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3.2.2 Schedule of areas, tasks and activities
Table 3.5 General circulation areas at outdoor work places
Table 3.6 Airports
Table 3.7 Building sites
Table 3.8 Canals, locks and harbours
Table 3.9 Farms
Table 3.10 Fuel filling stations
Table 3.11 Industrial sites and storage areas
Table 3.12 Offshore gas and oil structures
Table 3.13 Parking areas
Table 3.14 Petrochemical and other hazardous industries
Table 3.15 Power, electricity, gas and heat plants
Table 3.16 Railways and tramways
Table 3.17 Saw mills
Table 3.18 Shipyards and docks
Table 3.19 Water and sewage plants
95
3.2.3 Lighting requirements for areas, tasks and activities
Table 3.5 General circulation areas at outdoor work places
Ref Type of area, task or activity Ēm Uo GRL Ra Remarks

No. / lx
3.5.1 Walkways exclusively for 5 0.25 50 20 Where there are other hazards pres-
pedestrians ent higher values of Ēm are required.
For example in water and sewerage
treatment works 20 lx, on building
sites 20–50 lx and in petroleum and
chemical works 50 lx
3.5.2 Traffic areas for slowly moving 10 0.40 50 20

vehicles (max. 10 km/h), e.g.
bicycles, trucks and excavators
3.5.3 Regular vehicle traffic 20 0.40 45 20 At shipyards and in docks, GRL may
(max. 40 km/h) be 50
3.5.4 Pedestrian passages, 50 0.40 50 20 For reading labels and signs:

vehicle turning, loading and Ēm 50 lx
unloading points
Table 3.6 Airports

No. / lx
In all areas 1. Direct light in the direction of the

control tower and landing aircraft
shall be avoided
2. Direct light emitted above horizontal
from floodlights should be restricted to
the minimum
3.6.1 Hangar apron 20 0.10 55 20
3.6.2 Terminal apron 30 0.20 50 40
3.6.3 Loading areas 50 0.20 50 40 For reading labels: Ēm 50 lx
3.6.4 Fuel depot 50 0.20 50 40
3.6.5 Aircraft maintenance stands 200 0.50 45 60
See Table 2.56 in Section 2.2.2 for information on the requirements for indoor areas of airports.
96
Table 3.7 Building sites

No. / lx
3.7.1 Clearance, excavation and loading 20 0.25 55 20
3.7.2 Construction areas, drain pipes mounting, 50 0.40 50 20

transport, auxiliary and storage tasks
3.7.3 Framework element mounting, light 100 0.40 45 40

reinforcement work, wooden mould and
framework mounting, electric piping and
cabling
3.7.4 Element jointing, demanding electrical, 200 0.50 45 40

machine and pipe mountings
Table 3.8 Canals, locks and harbours

No. / lx
3.8.1 Waiting quays at canals and locks 10 0.25 50 20
3.8.2 Gangways and passages exclusively for 10 0.25 50 20

pedestrians
3.8.3 Lock control and ballasting areas 20 0.25 55 20
3.8.4 Cargo handling, loading and unloading 30 0.25 55 20 For reading labels:
Ēm 50 lx
3.8.5 Passenger areas in passenger harbours 50 0.40 50 20
3.8.6 Coupling of hoses, pipes and ropes 50 0.40 50 20
3.8.7 Dangerous part of walkways and 50 0.40 45 20

driveways
Table 3.9 Farms

No. / lx
3.9.1 Farm yard 20 0.10 55 20
3.9.2 Equipment shed (open) 50 0.20 55 20
3.9.3 Animals sorting pen 50 0.20 50 40
See Table 2.10 in Section 2.2.2 for information on the requirements for indoor area agricultural
tasks.
97
Table 3.10 Fuel filling stations


No. / lx
3.10.1 Vehicle parking and storage areas 5 0.25 50 20
3.10.2 Entry and exit driveways: dark environment (i.e. 20 0.40 45 20

rural areas and suburbs)
3.10.3 Entry and exit driveways: light environment (i.e. 50 0.40 45 20

cities)
3.10.4 Air pressure and water checking points and other 150 0.40 45 20
service areas
3.10.5 Meter reading area 150 0.40 45 20
Table 3.11 Industrial sites and storage areas
Ref No. Type of area, task or activity Ēm Uo GRL Ra Remarks

/ lx
3.11.1 Short term handling of large units and raw 20 0.25 55 20

materials, loading and unloading of solid bulk
goods
3.11.2 Continuous handling of large units and raw 50 0.40 50 20

materials, loading and unloading of freight,
lifting and descending location for cranes, open
loading platforms
3.11.3 Reading of addresses, covered loading platforms, 100 0.50 45 20

use of tools, ordinary reinforcement and casting
tasks in concrete plants
3.11.4 Demanding electrical, machine and piping 200 0.50 45 60 Use local lighting
installations, inspection
See Tables 2.8 and 2.9 in Section 2.2.2 for information on the requirements for internal storage
areas.
98
Table 3.12 Offshore gas and oil structures

/ lx
3.12.1 Sea surface below the rig 30 0.25 50 20
3.12.2 Ladders, stairs, walkways 100 0.25 45 20 On treads
3.12.3 Boat landing areas /transport areas 100 0.25 50 20
3.12.4 Helideck 100 0.40 45 20 1. Direct light in the direction of

the control tower and landing
aircraft shall be avoided
2. Direct light emitted above
horizontal from floodlights
should be restricted to the
minimum
3.12.5 Derrick 100 0.50 45 40
3.12.6 Treatment areas 100 0.50 45 40
3.12.7 Pipe rack area/deck 150 0.50 45 40
3.12.8 Test station, shale shaker, wellhead 200 0.50 45 40
3.12.9 Pumping areas 200 0.50 45 20
3.12.10 Life boat areas 200 0.40 50 20
3.12.11 Drill floor and monkey board 300 0.50 40 40 Special attention to string entry is
needed
3.12.12 Mud room, sampling 300 0.50 40 40
3.12.13 Crude oil pumps 300 0.50 45 40
3.12.14 Plant areas 300 0.50 40 40
3.12.15 Rotary table 500 0.50 40 40
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Table 3.13 Parking areas


/ lx
3.13.1 Light traffic, e.g. parking areas of shops, 5 0.25 55 20

terraced and apartment houses; cycle
parks
3.13.2 Medium traffic, e.g. parking areas of 10 0.25 50 20

department stores, office buildings,
plants, sports and multipurpose building
complexes
3.13.3 Heavy traffic, e.g. parking areas of 20 0.25 50 20

schools, churches, major shopping
centres, major sports and multipurpose
building complexes
Note: All the illuminance values listed in the table above should be regarded as absolute
minima to be used in areas where there are no extra factors such as fear of crime that might
require the lighting level to be increased.
See Table 2.38 in Section 2.2.2 for information on the requirements for indoor car parks.
Table 3.14 Petrochemical and other hazardous industries

No. / lx
3.14.1 Handling of servicing tools, utilisation of 20 0.25 55 20

manually regulated valves, starting and
stopping motors, lighting of burners
3.14.2 Filling and emptying of container trucks 50 0.40 50 20

and wagons with risk free substances,
inspection of leakage, piping and packing
3.14.3 Filling and emptying of container trucks 100 0.40 45 40

and wagons with dangerous substances,
replacements of pump packing, general
service work, reading of instruments
3.14.4 Fuel loading and unloading sites 100 0.40 45 20
3.14.5 Repair of machines and electric devices 200 0.50 45 60 Use local lighting
100
Table 3.15 Power, electricity, gas and heat plants

No. / lx
3.15.1 Pedestrian movements within electrically 5 0.25 50 20

safe areas
3.15.2 Handling of servicing tools, coal 20 0.25 55 20
3.15.3 Overall inspection 50 0.40 50 20
3.15.4 General servicing work and reading of 100 0.40 45 40

instruments
3.15.5 Wind tunnels: servicing and maintenance 100 0.40 45 40
3.15.6 Repair of electric devices 200 0.50 45 60 Use local lighting
See Table 2.24 in Section 2.2.2 for information on the requirements for power stations.
Table 3.16 Railways and tramways

/ lx
Railway areas including light Avoid glare for vehicle drivers

railways, tramways, monorails,
miniature rails, metro, etc
3.16.1 Tracks in passenger station areas, 10 0.25 50 20 Ud ≥ 1/8

including stabling
3.16.2 Railway yards: flat marshalling, 10 0.40 50 20 Ud ≥ 1/5

retarder and classification yards
3.16.3 Hump areas 10 0.40 45 20 Ud ≥ 1/5
3.16.4 Freight track, short duration 10 0.25 50 20 Ud ≥ 1/8

operations
3.16.5 Open platforms, rural and local 15 0.25 50 20 1. Special attention to the
trains, small number of passengers edge of the platform
2. Ud ≥ 1/8
3.16.6 Walkways 20 0.40 50 20
3.16.7 Level crossings 20 0.40 45 20
3.16.8 Open platforms, suburban and 20 0.40 45 20 1. Special attention to the

regional trains with large number edge of the platform
of passengers or inter-city services 2. Ud ≥ 1/5
with small number of passengers
101


/ lx
3.16.9 Freight track, continuous operation 20 0.40 50 20 Ud ≥ 1/5
3.16.10 Open platforms in freight areas 20 0.40 50 20 Ud ≥ 1/5
3.16.11 Servicing trains and locomotives 20 0.40 50 40 Ud ≥ 1/5
3.16.12 Railway yards handling areas 30 0.40 50 20 Ud ≥ 1/5
3.16.13 Coupling area 30 0.40 45 20 Ud ≥ 1/5
3.16.14 Stairs, small and medium-size 50 0.40 45 40

stations
3.16.15 Open platforms, inter-city services 50 0.40 45 20 1. Special attention to the

edge of the platform
2. Ud ≥ 1/5
3.16.16 Covered platforms, suburban or 50 0.40 45 40 1. Special attention to the

regional trains or inter-city services edge of the platform
with small number of passengers 2. Ud ≥ 1/5
3.16.17 Covered platforms in freight areas, 50 0.40 45 20 Ud ≥ 1/5

short duration operations
3.16.18 Covered platforms, inter-city 100 0.50 45 40 1. Special attention to the

services edge of the platform
2. Ud ≥ 1/3
3.16.19 Stairs, large stations 100 0.50 45 40 0
3.16.20 Covered platforms in freight areas, 100 0.50 45 40 Ud ≥ 1/5

continuous operation
3.16.21 Inspection pit 100 0.50 40 40 Use low-glare local lighting
Note: Diversity (Ud) is the ratio of minimum illuminance to maximum illuminance.
See Table 2.57 in Section 2.2.2 for information on the requirements for the indoor parts of
railway stations.
102
Table 3.17 Saw mills

No. / lx
3.17.1 Timber handling on land and in water, 20 0.25 55 20

sawdust and chip conveyors
3.17.2 Sorting of timber on land or in water, 50 0.40 50 20

timber unloading points and sawn timber
loading points, mechanical lifting to
timber conveyor, stacking
3.17.3 Reading of addresses and markings of 100 0.40 45 40

sawn timber
3.17.4 Grading and packaging 200 0.50 45 40
3.17.5 Feeding into stripping and chopping 300 0.50 45 40

machines
See Table 2.29 in Section 2.2.2 for information on the requirements for wood working and
processing.
Table 3.18 Shipyards and docks

No. / lx
3.18.1 General lighting of shipyard area, storage 20 0.25 55 40

areas for prefabricated goods
3.18.2 Short term handling of large units 20 0.25 55 20
3.18.3 Cleaning of ship hull 50 0.25 50 20
3.18.4 Painting and welding of ship hull 100 0.40 45 60
3.18.5 Mounting of electrical and mechanical 200 0.50 45 60

components
103
Table 3.19 Water and sewage plants


No. / lx
3.19.1 Handling of service tools, utilisation of manually 50 0.40 45 20

operated valves, starting and stopping of motors,
piping packing and raking plants
3.19.2 Handling of chemicals, inspection of leakage, 100 0.40 45 40

changing of pumps, general servicing work, read-
ing of instruments
3.19.3 Repair of motors and electric devices 200 0.50 45 60
3.2.4 Lighting requirements for safety and security

The values in Table 3.20 provide guidance on the minimum lighting requirements to ensure
safety and security. They are intended for use in areas when none of the tasks listed in the tables
of section 3.2.3 are being carried out.
Table 3.20 Lighting requirements for safety and security
Risk level Ēm Uo GRL Ra Remarks

/ lx
Very low risks, i.e. 5 0.25 55 20

• Storage areas with occasional traffic in industrial yards
• Coal fields in power plants
• Timber storage, sawdust and wood chip fields in saw mills
• Occasionally used service passages and stairs, waste water
cleaning and aeration tanks, filter and sludge digestion tanks
in water and sewage plants
Low risks, i.e. 10 0.40 50 20 In harbours,

• General lighting in harbours Uo may be
• Areas of risk free process and occasionally used platforms and 0.25
stairs in petrochemical and other hazardous industries
• Sawn timber storage areas in saw mills
Medium risks, i.e. 20 0.40 50 20 In shipyards

• Vehicle storage areas and container terminals with frequent and docks, Uo
traffic in harbours, industrial yards and storage areas may be 0.25
• Vehicle storage areas and conveyors in petrochemical and other
hazardous industries
• Oil stores in power plants
• General lighting and storage areas for prefabricated goods in
shipyards and docks
• Regularly used stairs, basins and filters of clean water plants
in water and sewage plants
104
Risk level Ēm Uo GRL Ra Remarks

/ lx
High risks, i.e. 50 0.40 45 20 At building

• Element mould, timber and steel storage, building foundation sites and in
hole and working areas on sides of the hole at building sites saw mills, GRL
• Fire, explosion, poison and radiation risk areas in harbours, may be 50
industrial yards and storage areas
• Oil stores, cooling towers, boilers compressors, pumping
plants, valves, manifolds, operating platforms, regularly used
stairs, crossing points of conveyors, electric switch-yards in
petrochemical and other hazardous industries
• Switch yards in power plants
• Crossing points of conveyors, fire risk areas in saw mills
3.3 Verification procedures

Verification of the lighting installation shall be by measurement, calculation or inspection of data (see Chapters
15, 14 and 12).
3.3.1 Illuminance
Verification of illuminances and uniformities that relate to specific tasks shall be measured in the plane of the
task and the measurement points chosen shall coincide with the design points or grid used.
Note: When verifying illuminance, account should be taken of the calibration of the light meters used, the
conformity of the lamps and luminaires to the published photometric data, and of the design assumptions made
about surface reflectances, etc, compared with the real values.
The average illuminance and uniformity shall be not less than the values given in section 3.2 and Table 3.1,
respectively.
3.3.2 Glare rating

Verification shall be by inspection of the design data and parameters provided for the scheme. All assumptions
shall be declared.
3.3.3 Colour Rendering Index

Authenticated Ra data shall be provided for the lamps in the scheme by the manufacturer of the lamps. The
lamps shall conform to the requirements.
The lamps shall be as specified in the design.
3.3.4 Obtrusive light

Calculated values for Ev, I, ULR, Lb, Ls and TI shall be provided by the scheme designer.
Verification of Ev, Lb, and Ls shall be made by measurement taking into account all design assumptions.
105
Chapter Four: Road lighting
Chapter 4: Road lighting

There are a number of standards that are important in road lighting. The recommendations of
this section are based on these standards but not all material from the standards is covered. The
following bullet points discuss the various standards for road lighting and the way they relate to
road lighting is covered in this Code.
z BS EN 13201-2 (BSI, 2003a) – this standard defines the lighting characteristics of a number of
lighting classes for roads. The classes that are recommended by BS 5489-1 are included in this
section of the Code.
z BS EN 13201-3 (BSI, 2003c) – this standard defines the way that the various luminous
characteristics recommended in the tables of BS EN 13201-2 must be calculated. The main
calculation methods defined in the standard are given in Chapter 14 Outdoor lighting calculations.
z BS EN 13201-4 (BSI, 2003d) – this standard covers the measurement of road lighting. The
key points of this measurement process are covered in section 15.2.4 of this Code, however,
reference to the standard is recommended before any measurement is carried out.
z BS 5489-1 (BSI, 2003e) – this standard provides advice on selecting the most appropriate type
of lighting for a given section of road. It explains the general principle of street lighting, and
gives advice on the location and maintenance of street lighting equipment. Recommendations
on the selection of lighting classes taken from this standard are included in this section of the
Code.
4.1 Classification of roads

Road lighting may be divided into three classes:
z traffic routes where the needs of the driver are dominant
z subsidiary roads where the lighting is primarily intended for pedestrians and cyclists; and
urban centres, where the lighting is designed to do what can be done for public safety and
security, while also providing an attractive night-time environment
z areas where conflict between streams of traffic or traffic and pedestrians may be a problem.
The selection of lighting classes for traffic routes, subsidiary roads and conflict areas is covered in
the following sections.
4.1.1 Traffic routes

The primary function of the lighting of traffic routes is to make other vehicles or obstructions
on the road visible. Road lighting does this by producing a difference between the luminance of
the vehicle or obstruction and the luminance of its immediate background, the road surface. This
difference is achieved by increasing the luminance of the road surface above that of the vehicle so
that the vehicle is seen in silhouette against the road surface. The following lighting criteria are
used to define the lighting on traffic routes:
z Average road surface luminance: The luminance of the road surface averaged over the
carriageway (cd/m2).
106
z Overall luminance uniformity (Uo): The ratio of the lowest luminance at any point on the

carriageway to the average luminance of the carriageway.
z Longitudinal luminance uniformity (Ul ): The ratio of the lowest to the highest luminance
found along a line along the centre of a driving lane. For the whole carriageway, this is the
lowest longitudinal luminance uniformity found for the driving lanes of the carriageway.
z Threshold increment: A measure of the loss of visibility caused by disability glare from the
road lighting luminaires.
z Surround Ratio (SR): average illuminance on strips just outside the edges of the carriageway
in proportion to the average illuminance on strips just inside the edges. People and objects
adjacent to the carriageway need to be seen by the driver; lighting of the area adjacent to the
carriageway should conform to the surround ratio.
For more information on how the above terms are defined and their values calculated, see
Chapter 14. The ME classes set values for the above list of parameters and thus provide the
lighting criteria for the different types of main road that need to be lit.
Traffic routes are predominantly lit using ME classes, selection of the class is based on the type of
road, the average daily traffic flow (ADT), the speed of vehicles, the type of vehicles in the traffic
and the frequency of conflict areas and pedestrians. Table 4.1 specifies the different classes and
identifies the recommended lighting criteria. Details of the recommended lighting criteria for dry
roads are given. These are the lighting criteria usually adopted in the UK.
Table 4.1 Lighting classes for traffic routes
Hierarchy Type of road/general Detailed description ADT Lighting

description description class
Motorway Limited access Main carriageway in complex < 40 000 ME1

interchange areas
> 40 000 ME1
Main carriageway with interchanges < 40 000 ME2

at < 3 km
> 40 000 ME1
Main carriageways with interchanges < 40 000 ME2

> 3 km
> 40 000 ME2
Emergency lanes ME4a
Strategic Trunk roads and some Single carriageway < 15 000 ME3a
route main A roads between
primary destinations > 15 000 ME2
Dual carriageway < 15 000 ME3a
> 15 000 ME2
107
Hierarchy Type of road/general Detailed description ADT Lighting

description description class
Main Major urban network Single carriageway < 15 000 ME3a

distributor and inter-primary
links, short to medium > 15 000 ME2
distance traffic
Dual carriageway < 15 000 ME3a
> 15 000 ME2
Secondary Classified road (B or C Rural areas (Environmental zones 1 < 7000 ME4a
distributor road) and unclassified or 2). These roads link larger villages
urban bus route, car- and HGV generators to the strategic 7000–15 000 ME3b
rying local traffic with and main distributor network
frontage access and
> 15 000 ME3a
frequent junctions
Urban areas (Environmental zone < 7000 ME3c

3). These roads have 30 mph speed
limits and very high levels of 7000–15 000 ME3b
pedestrian activity with some cross-
ing facilities including zebra cross-
> 15 000 ME2
ings. On-street parking is generally
unrestricted except for safety reasons
Link road Road linking the main Rural areas (Environmental zones Any ME5
and secondary distri- 1 or 2). These roads link smaller
bution network with villages to the distributor network.
frontage access and They are of varying width and not
frequent junctions always capable of carrying two-way
traffic
Urban areas (Environmental zone Any ME4b

3). These roads are residential or or S2
industrial interconnecting roads
with 30 mph speed limits, random Any with
pedestrian movements and high
uncontrolled parking S1
pedestrian or
cyclist traffic
Notes:
1. See Table 4.3 in section 4.1.3 for conflict areas.
2. The guidance on lighting class selection for motorways and traffic routes uses average daily traffic (ADT), which is the
normal concept in traffic planning, and is usually known. Peak traffic is generally taken to be 10% and 12% of ADT
in rural and urban areas, respectively. If hourly flows are known, and the peak hour traffic is significantly greater than
12%, the peak traffic should be taken into account when selecting the lighting class.
3. Traffic flow can vary significantly during the night, and the use of different lighting levels at some periods may be
considered. For this purpose, a detailed analysis of traffic flow is carried out, to assess the hourly flow through the night.
4. Where lighting levels are reduced at certain periods, any lower levels selected can use the values from appropriate lower
ME classes, but retain the Uo and Ul values of the ME class selected for the peak period. This in practice means that it
is only possible to reduce the lighting by dimming each of the lanterns and not by switching off alternate lanterns.
108
4.1.2 Subsidiary roads
Subsidiary roads consist of access roads and residential roads and associated pedestrian areas,
footpaths and cycle tracks. The main function of lighting of subsidiary roads and the areas
associated with them is to enable pedestrians and cyclists to orientate themselves and to detect
vehicular and other hazards, and to discourage crime against people and property. The lighting
in such areas can provide some help to drivers but it is unlikely to be sufficient for revealing
objects on the road without the use of headlamps. The main purpose of lighting footpaths and
cycle tracks separated from roads is to show the direction the route takes, to enable cyclists and
pedestrians to orientate themselves, to detect the presence of other cyclists, pedestrians and
hazards, and to discourage crime against people and property.
Illuminance on the horizontal is used as the lighting criterion for subsidiary roads and associated
areas. The lighting class to be used is determined by the traffic flow, the environmental zone,
the level of crime and the colour rendering of the light source used. In the table below, low
traffic flow refers to areas where traffic is typical of a residential road and solely associated with
adjoining properties. Normal traffic flow refers to areas where traffic flow is equivalent to a
housing estate access road. High traffic flow refers to areas where traffic usage is high and can be
associated with local amenities such as clubs, shopping facilities and public houses. The crime
rates should be considered relative to the local area. The environmental zones (E1 to E4) are as
defined in section 3.1.5 on obtrusive light. The divide in CIE general colour rendering index
(CRI) at 60 means that the use of low pressure sodium or high pressure sodium light sources
calls for a higher illuminance than fluorescent and metal halide light sources. The S-class may be
increased one step where there are traffic calming measures.
Table 4.2 may be used to select the appropriate class of lighting for a given road.
Table 4.2 Lighting classes for subsidiary roads
Crime rate CRI Low Normal Normal High High

traffic flow traffic flow traffic flow traffic flow traffic flow
E1 or E2 E1 or E2 E3 or E4 E1 or E2 E3 or E4
Low <60 S5 S4 S3 S3 S2
Low >60 S6 S5 S4 S4 S3
Moderate <60 S4 S3 S2 – S1
Moderate >60 S3 S4 S3 – S2
High <60 S2 S2 S1 – S1
High >60 S3 S3 S2 – S2
Note: It is recommended that the actual overall uniformity of illuminance Uo be at least 0.25.
To control glare on subsidiary roads, it is recommended that the luminaires used should meet the
requirements of class G1 or higher. See section 4.2.4.
109
4.1.3 Conflict areas

A conflict area is one in which traffic flows merge or cross, e.g. at intersections or roundabouts,
or where vehicles and other road users, are in close proximity, e.g. on a shopping street or at a
pedestrian crossing. Lighting for conflict areas is intended for drivers rather than pedestrians. The
criteria used to define lighting for conflict areas are based on the illuminance on the road surface
rather than road surface luminance. This is because drivers’ viewing distances may be less than
the 60 m assumed for traffic routes and there are likely to be multiple directions of view. The
criteria used for the lighting of conflict areas are:
z Average road surface illuminance: the illuminance of the road surface averaged over the
carriageway (lx).
z Overall illuminance uniformity (Uo): the ratio of the lowest illuminance at any point on the
carriageway to the average illuminance of the carriageway.
These recommendations can be applied to all parts of the conflict area or only to the carriageway
when separate recommendations are used for pedestrians or cyclists. The CE classes are used for
conflict areas, the class chosen has to be matched to the lighting of the traffic routes approaching
the conflict area. Table 4.3 below shows lighting classes of comparable level.
Table 4.3 Lighting classes of comparable level
ME class CE class S class

(traffic routes) (conflict areas) (subsidiary roads)
– CE0 –
ME1 CE1 –
ME2 CE2 –
ME3 CE3 S1
ME4 CE4 S2
ME5 CE5 S3
ME6 – S4
However, it is common to make the level of the conflict area one step higher than the
surrounding road network. When using a CE class on a junction of traffic routes, it is normal to
pick the class based on the ME class. Table 4.4 shows the normal class selection used based on the
highest ME class of any of the approach roads.
110
Table 4.4 Lighting classes for conflict areas at junctions of traffic routes

Traffic route lighting class Conflict area lighting class
ME1 CE0
ME2 CE1
ME3 CE2
ME4 CE3
ME5 CE4
In any conflict area, glare should be at least as well controlled as on the approach roads, as the
conflict area situation increases the visual demands on the driver. In order to limit glare, an
appropriate installed intensity (G) class should be selected, normally classes G4, G5 and G6 are
appropriate. See section 4.2.4 for details of the G classes.
Table 4.5 Lighting classes for town and city centres
Type of traffic Lighting class
Normal traffic High traffic

flow flow
E3a E4a E3a E4a
Pedestrian only CE3 CE2 CE2 CE1
Mixed vehicle and pedestrian with separate footways CE2 CE1 CE1 CE1
Mixed vehicle and pedestrian on same surface CE2 CE1 CE1 CE1
a
The environmental zones (E1 to E4) are as defined in section 3.1.5 on obtrusive light.
The selection of lighting class for a specific city or town centre road type may be varied up or
down from the classes indicated in Table 4.5, taking account of:
z vehicular traffic use
z pedestrian and cyclist use
z on street parking
z amenities such as shops, public houses, etc
z level of crime
z CCTV requirements.
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4.2 Lighting classes

This section gives tables of the lighting parameters required for the different lighting classes.
4.2.1 ME classes
ME classes are mainly used on traffic routes; the requirements of the ME classes are given in
Table 4.6
Table 4.6 ME series of lighting classes
Luminance of the road surface of the carriageway Disability Lighting of

for the dry road surface condition glare surroundings
L / cd/m2 Uo Ul TI / %a SRb
(minimum (minimum) (minimum) (maximum) (minimum)

maintained)
ME1 2 0.4 0.7 10 0.5
ME2 1.5 0.4 0.7 10 0.5
ME3a 1 0.4 0.7 15 0.5
ME3b 1 0.4 0.6 15 0.5
ME3c 1 0.4 0.5 15 0.5
ME4a 0.75 0.4 0.6 15 0.5
ME4b 0.75 0.4 0.5 15 0.5
ME5 0.5 0.35 0.4 15 0.5
ME6 0.3 0.35 0.4 15 No requirement
a
An increase of 5 percentage points in threshold increment (TI) can be permitted where low luminance light sources are used
(see note 5).
b
This criterion can be applied only where there are no traffic areas with their own requirements adjacent to the carriageway;
examples of such areas include cycle paths and service roads.
Notes:
1. The road surface luminance is the result of the illumination of the road surface, the reflection
properties of the road surface and the geometric conditions of observation.
2. The average luminance (L) reflects the general luminance level at which the driver performs.
At the low level of lighting used for road lighting, performance improves with luminance in
terms of increasing contrast sensitivity, increasing visual acuity and amelioration of glare.
112
3. The overall uniformity (Uo) measures in a general way the variation of luminances and

indicates how well the road surface serves as a background for road markings, objects and
other road users.
4. The longitudinal uniformity (Ul) provides a measure of the conspicuity of the repeated pattern
of bright and dark patches on the road. It relates to visual conditions on long uninterrupted
sections of road.
5. The threshold increment (TI) indicates that, although road lighting improves visual
conditions, it also causes disability glare to a degree depending on the type of luminaires,
lamps and geometric situation. Low pressure sodium lamps and fluorescent tubes are normally
considered to be low luminance lamps. For these lamps, and luminaires providing less or
equivalent luminance, footnote a of Table 4.6 permits higher values.
6. Lighting confined to the carriageway is inadequate for revealing the immediate surrounds of
the road and revealing road users at the kerb. The requirements for the surround ratio (SR)
apply only where there are no traffic areas with their own requirements adjacent to the
carriageway, including footways, cycle ways or emergency lanes.
4.2.2 S classes
The S classes are mainly used on subsidiary roads and they are defined in Table 4.7.
Table 4.7 The S lighting classes
Class Horizontal illuminance
Eav / lx a Emin / lx
(minimum maintained) (maintained)
S1 15 5
S2 10 3
S3 7.5 1.5
S4 5 1
S5 3 0.6
S6 2 0.6
S7 Performance not determined Performance not determined
a
To provide for uniformity, the actual value of the maintained average illuminance may not exceed 1.5 times the
minimum Eav value indicated for the class, and ideally should not exceed four times the Emin value.
4.2.3 CE classes
CE classes specify the lighting used in conflict zones and they are defined in Table 4.8.
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Table 4.8 The CE lighting classes

Class Horizontal illuminance
Eav / lx Uo
(minimum maintained) (minimum)
CE0 50 0.4
CE1 30 0.4
CE2 20 0.4
CE3 15 0.4
CE4 10 0.4
CE5 7.5 0.4
4.2.4 G classes
In some situations, it can be necessary to restrict disability glare from installations where the
threshold increment (TI) cannot be calculated.
Table 4.9 gives installed luminous intensity classes G1, G2, G3, G4, G5 and G6 from which a
class can be chosen to meet the appropriate requirements for restriction of disability glare and/or
the control of obtrusive light.
Table 4.9 Luminous intensity (G) classes
Class Maximum luminous intensity / Other requirements

cd/klm
at 70° a at 80° a at 90° a
G1 200 50 None
G2 150 30 None
G3 100 20 None
G4 500 100 10 Luminous intensities above 95° a to be zero
a
Any direction forming the specified angle from the downward vertical, with the luminaire installed for use.
Note: The values of luminous intensity in Table 4.9 are all normalised intensity values for the
luminaires used and are thus expressed in terms of candelas per kilo lumen.
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Chapter Five: Daylight
Chapter 5: Daylight
Daylighting gives to a building a unique variety and interest. An interior which looks gloomy,
or which does not have a view to the outside when this could reasonably be expected, will be
considered unsatisfactory by its users. Unfortunately the introduction of daylight into buildings
without consideration of its impact on the users can have negative consequences. A short
walk around any city will reveal numerous well-glazed office buildings where the blinds on
many windows are permanently closed. Such behaviour demonstrates the existence of a failed
daylighting design for at least some people within the building. Nonetheless, unless there is
a good reason why there should be no daylight in the building, daylighting should always be
encouraged.
This section of the code is based on some of the key recommendations of BS 8206-2 (BSI, 2008)
on daylight. However, the recommendations here are of a general nature and reference should
be made to Chapter 7 of the SLL Lighting Handbook (SLL, 2009) for more practical advice and
SLL Lighting Guide 10 (SLL, 1999) for more details on the application of daylight. Some of the
calculation methods defined in BS 8206-2 are covered in Chapter 17 of this Code.
5.1 Daylight and health

Most of the health benefits that are derived from daylight can also be obtained with electric
lighting (using lamps with an appropriate spectrum). However, as most of the benefits come
from long term exposure to relatively high levels of light, it is usually not practical to provide the
necessary light from electrical sources.
5.1.1 Regulation of the circadian system

The role of the circadian system (which controls daily and seasonal body rhythms) is to link the
functions of the body (e.g. the sleep/wake cycle, and changes in core body temperature and in
hormone secretion) with the external day/night cycle. Disruption to this system (from lack of
light, for example) can cause problems such as depression and poor sleep quality which could
lead to more serious problems. Therefore, it is important that occupants of buildings, particularly
those of limited mobility in, for example, hospitals and nursing homes, and people who might
be unable to go outside much, are given access to high levels of daylight, particularly in the
mornings, to assist the entrainment of circadian rhythms. Therefore, buildings used by such
people should have spaces with high levels of daylight, such as conservatories, which are readily
accessible to them.
5.1.2 Mood
Mood can be modified by lighting. The dynamic nature of daylight is strongly favoured by
building occupants. Adequate access to daylight can have a positive impact on mood, especially in
situations where people are static for long periods of time, for example, in a school or a hospital
ward.
5.1.3 Seasonal affective disorder (SAD)

A small percentage of people suffer a seasonal mood disorder known as seasonal affective disorder
(SAD) with a further number suffering a mild form known as sub-syndromal SAD (S-SAD).
Symptoms include depression, lack of energy, increased need for sleep and increased appetite and
weight gain, occurring in the winter, when there is little daylight with symptoms lessening in the
summer when there is more daylight. Such symptoms can be reduced by exposure to daylight.
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5.1.4 Ultraviolet (UV) radiation

The ultraviolet (UV) radiation in sunlight can be damaging to the skin. However, with people
now spending many daylight hours inside buildings, there is the danger of vitamin D deficiency
caused by insufficient exposure to UV radiation. A vitamin D deficiency leads to rickets in
children and softening of the bones in adults.
Exposure to sunlight, even through glass, can kill many types of viruses and bacteria and so can
be of great value in winter when there is a high incidence of respiratory infections.
5.2 Windows and view

Unless an activity requires the exclusion of daylight, a view out-of-doors should be provided
irrespective of its quality.
All occupants of a building should have the opportunity for the refreshment and relaxation
afforded by a change of scene and focus. Even a limited view to the outside can be valuable. If an
external view cannot be provided, occupants should have an internal view possessing some of the
qualities of a view out-of-doors, for example, into an atrium.
5.2.1 Analysis of view

In planning the position of windows, the following factors are important.
z Most people like a view of a natural scene: trees, grass, plants and open space.
z In densely built-up areas, a view of the natural scene may not be available. When only
buildings, sky and street can be seen, it is especially desirable that the view is dynamic, i.e.
including the activities of people outside and the changing weather, however, a static view is
usually better than none.
z A specific close view may be essential, particularly for security and supervision of the space
around buildings.
Most unrestricted views have three ‘layers’, as follows:
z upper (distant), being the sky and its boundary with the natural or man-made scene
z middle, being the natural or man-made objects themselves
z lower (close), being the nearby ground.
Views which incorporate all three ‘layers’ are the most completely satisfying. The role of the size
and shape of windows in determining the elements of a view is illustrated in Figure 5.1.
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(a)
(b)
(c)
Figure 5.1 Views from windows of different shapes and sizes. (a) Large window providing a
view containing all three layers; (b) Smaller window of horizontal proportions providing a view
with some sky; (c) Smaller window of vertical proportions showing all three layers but with a
restricted view
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5.2.2 Size and proportion of windows

The size and proportion of windows should depend on the type of view, the size of the internal
space, and the position and mobility of occupants. A variety of window shapes and sizes is
illustrated in Figure 5.1. Some circumstances may suggest a tall window which allows occupants
anywhere to enjoy the full vertical span of the view. A narrow horizontal window will only offer
a similar prospect to those close to it; a narrow vertical window is also restrictive yet will admit a
deeper penetration of daylight. For a given area of window, the more exaggerated the horizontal
or vertical proportions, the more restricted will be the position of occupants who can experience
the views. A view of the immediate foreground will be experienced normally only by those close
to the window.
Unless a view of the sky is to be deliberately excluded (and the penetration of daylight severely
limited), window heads should be above standing eye height. Sills, normally, should be below the
eye level of people seated. Special consideration should be given to window heights in buildings
such as nurseries, schools, hospitals and care homes, especially if the windows may be opened.
The most limited views occur in a deep room when windows are confined to one wall only.
Table 5.1 gives guidance on minimum window area for a satisfactory view when fenestration is
restricted to one wall; higher proportions are recommended. The table gives total glazed area of
the room as a percentage of the internal window wall area. When there are windows in two or
more walls, the total area of glazing should not be less than the area that would be recommended
if the windows were restricted to any one wall. The openings should be distributed to give views
from all occupied areas of the room.
Table 5.1 Minimum glazed area for view when windows are restricted to one wall
Depth of room from outside wall Glazed area as percentage of window wall as seen
(max) / m from inside (min) / %
<8 20
≥8 ≤11 25
>11 ≤14 30
>14 35
Note: Windows which are primarily designed for view may not provide adequate task illumination.
When windows are confined to one wall only, it is recommended that the total width of the
windows should be at least 35 per cent of the length of the wall.
5.3 Daylight and room brightness

The value of daylight goes beyond the illumination of tasks. A daylit room varies in brightness
with time, colours are rendered well and architectural form and surface texture can be enhanced
by the direction of illumination. Above all, windows give information to the people in a building
about their surroundings. Weather and the time of day can be inferred from the changing light.
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The user’s perception of the character of a daylit interior (often described in terms such as ‘bright

and well-lit’, or ‘gloomy’) is related to the brightness of all the visible surfaces. This overall
luminance depends on the quantity of light admitted and the reflectance of interior surfaces.
The reflected light within the room can be as important as the direct illumination.
Sunlight and skylight are both important in general room lighting, but they differ greatly in their
qualities. Skylight provides a diffuse illuminance as the source area is the entire sky, whereas,
sunlight comes from a single point and thus the light gives areas of high luminance and hard
shadows. The criteria for each should be satisfied. Sunlight gives patches of high illuminance and
strong contrasts; adequate skylight ensures that there is not excessive contrast between one area
of the room and another, or between the interior and the view outside.
If the total glazed area cannot be made large enough for adequate general daylight, supplementary
electric lighting is needed to enhance the general room brightness in addition to any need there
may be for task illumination.
5.3.1 Sunlight
Sunlight should be admitted unless it is likely to cause thermal or visual discomfort to the users,
or deterioration of materials.
Provided that the entry of sunlight is properly controlled, it is generally welcome in most
buildings in the UK. Sunlight may be controlled in a number of different ways, each of which
block sunlight from reaching areas where it is not wanted, see SLL Lighting Guide 10 (SLL,
1999) for more information. Dissatisfaction can arise as much from the permanent exclusion
of sunlight as from its excess. However, uncontrolled sunlight is unacceptable in most types of
building. Good control is particularly important in working interiors and other rooms where
the occupants are unable to move around freely. Generally, sunlight should not fall on visual
tasks or directly on people at work. It should, on the other hand, be used to enhance the overall
brightness of interiors with patches of high illuminance.
Considerations of sunlight should influence the form of the building from the early stages of
design, because incorrect decisions about the orientation of rooms or the geometrical shape
of the building may preclude the admission of sunlight or cause excessive overshadowing of
surroundings. The orientation of windows should take into account the periods of occupancy
and any preferences for sunlight at particular times of day. It is also necessary to consider the
thermal performance of the building when considering sunlight. Whilst in the winter sunlight
can make an important contribution to heating a room, in the summer, it may well cause
excessive heat gain.
5.3.2 Skylight
The general illumination from skylight should be such that there is not excessive contrast
between the interior and the view outside.
The interior of a room will appear gloomy not only if the total quantity of light entering is
too small but also if its distribution is poor. In addition, high contrast between the surfaces
surrounding windows (or rooflights) and the sky can cause glare.
The average daylight factor, the ratio of internal illuminance due to daylight to unobstructed
external illuminance (see section 17.1) is used as the measure of general illumination from
skylight. It is considered good practice to ensure that rooms in dwellings and in most other
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buildings have a predominantly daylit appearance. In order to achieve this, the average daylight
factor should be at least 2 per cent.
In dwellings there are recommendations for minimum average daylight factors in different
rooms; these are given in Table 5.2.
Table 5.2 Minimum average daylight factor
Room type Minimum average daylight factor / %
Bedrooms 1.0
Living rooms 1.5
Kitchens 2.0
Levels of daylight greater than those listed in Table 5.2 may be beneficial in many situations and
if a daylight factor of 5 per cent is achieved in a space then it is commonly found that electric
lighting is not needed during the day time.
The uniformity of daylight is important and SLL Lighting Guide 10 (SLL, 1999) gives methods
to determine whether the uniformity of daylight in a space will be considered unsatisfactory.
5.3.3 Contrast between the interior and the view outside

Glare from windows can arise from excessive contrast between the luminance of the visible
sky and the luminance of the interior surfaces within the field of view. The window walls, the
window reveals, and the interior surfaces adjacent to rooflights should be of high reflectance
(white or light-coloured). Walls generally should not be glossy.
In addition, glare from the sky and bright external surfaces can be reduced by:
z providing additional illumination on the window wall from other windows
z reducing the luminance of the sky as seen from the interior with translucent blinds, curtains
or tinted/solar-control glazing; if adequate illumination can be provided by other sources, it
should be noted that some translucent blinds may give a perception of glare if sunlight falls on
them
z splaying window reveals, to give a larger area of intermediate brightness between the exterior
view and the window wall.
The aim should be to achieve a subtle gradation of luminance from the darker parts of the room
to the visible sky.
Glare from direct sunlight, or from sunlight reflected in glossy external surfaces, should be
controlled with shading devices.
The use of tinted glazing will reduce the amount of daylight entering and can affect colour
perception. External colours might appear distorted, especially when the view outside is seen
simultaneously through different types of glass. The perception of internal colours can be altered,
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unknown to the viewer, when the main source of light is a window of tinted glazing. Care should

be taken in the use of tinted glazing materials when safety or task performance requires good
colour recognition. Some heavily tinted glazings can affect the view out of a building. It has been
found that if the transmittance of the glass falls below 25 per cent, a significant proportion of the
people using the building find the view out unacceptable.
5.4 Daylight for task lighting

When there are visual tasks to be carried out, the principles of lighting design using daylight are
the same as those for electric lighting: it is necessary both to achieve a given level of illumination
and to take account of the circumstances that determine its quality.
Daylight has the following characteristics as a task illuminant.
z A constant illuminance on the task cannot be maintained. When the sky becomes brighter, the
interior illuminance increases; and, although control is possible with louvres, blinds and other
methods, fluctuations cannot be avoided. Conversely, in poor weather and at the ends of the
working day, daylighting needs to be supplemented with electric lighting.
z The direction of light from windows, which act as large diffuse light sources to the side of a
worker, gives good three-dimensional modelling. Rooflights, which give a greater downward
component, have a modelling effect similar to that from large ceiling-mounted luminaires.
z The spectral distribution of daylight varies significantly during the course of a day, but the
colour rendering is usually considered to be excellent.
z Daylight when it is conducted into a space via a light pipe may provide sufficient illuminance
for movement through the space but is generally not sufficient to provide enough light for
more complex tasks.
Details of the lighting requirements of various tasks in indoor workplaces are given in Chapter 2.
The quantity of illumination is not the sole criterion of good task lighting. There are two aspects
of task daylighting which need particular attention: glare and specular reflection, see section 5.6.
5.4.1 Glare
Windows may fill a greater part of a worker’s field of view than electric light fittings. Distraction,
a poor luminance balance between task and background, and discomfort glare can all occur if the
visual task is viewed directly against the bright sky. Although a view outside should be provided,
it is usually better if the glazing is at the side of workers, rather than directly facing them.
There is no standard procedure for calculating discomfort glare from skylight. Sky luminance can
be very high, and the size of the apparent source is large; so by the criteria adopted for electric
lighting most windows cause glare. It should be reduced by ensuring that the sky is not in the
immediate field of view with the task.
Highly reflective sunlit external surfaces are more likely to add vitality to a scene than constitute
an objectionable glare source. This stimulus will be welcomed in all but the most demanding
visual situations. However, glare from the sun, viewed directly or specularly reflected, can
be unacceptable in a working environment. If the sun or its mirrored image is likely to lie
within 45° of the direction of view, then shading devices should be used, see section 5.6. Low
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transmittance glazing is unlikely to attenuate the beam sufficiently to eliminate glare; diffusing
glazing materials, in scattering the beam, may cause the window or rooflight itself to become an
unacceptably bright source of light.
5.4.2 Specular reflection

The visibility of tasks can be seriously impaired by bright reflections of the sky in glossy surfaces.
With windows, troublesome reflections occur predominantly in vertical surfaces. With rooflights,
horizontal task areas are the most seriously affected. However, openings of either type can affect
surfaces of all orientations if the geometry is incorrect. Special attention should be given to the
avoidance of reflections of windows in display screens, whiteboards, and pictures in galleries, and
it is preferable that these surfaces do not face a window directly.
5.5 Electric lighting used in conjunction with daylight

Electric lighting has two distinct functions in a daylit building, which are:
z to enhance the overall appearance of the room, by improving the distribution of illuminance
and by reducing the luminance contrast between the interior and the view outside
z to achieve satisfactory illuminance on visual tasks.
These two functions correspond with the recommendations about room brightness and task
illumination in daylight, described in section 5.3 and section 5.4 as well as sections of Chapter 2.
5.5.1 Balance of daylight and electric light

Unless the purpose of the windows is only to provide a view, daylight should appear to the users
to be dominant in the interior. This is normally achieved when the average daylight factor is
2 per cent or more, even though the horizontal illuminance from electric lighting may be greater
than the daylight illuminance in places.
The design of electric lighting should be such that occupants are aware of the natural gradation
of daylight across interior surfaces and of changes in the light outside. In spaces that have a
significant amount of daylight during the day, consideration should be given to an automatic
control system that dims the electric lighting when there is sufficient daylight.
5.5.2 Modelling
The sideways component of light from windows is important in the enhancement of modelling.
It is apparent in the articulation of mouldings and in the highlights and shadows of three-
dimensional features. The electric lighting should be designed with the daylighting to achieve
optimum modelling, reinforcing the directionality where the natural illumination is too diffuse,
and providing infill lighting where windows alone would give harsh modelling. See also section
2.1.6.3.
5.5.3 Contrast between exterior and interior

When the general level of inter-reflected light is low, or the surfaces surrounding a window or
rooflight are of low reflectance, there will be a high luminance contrast with the view outside.
The brighter the view, the higher should be the luminance of the room surfaces which frame the
view. Often the best solution is to increase the reflectance of the surfaces surrounding a window
rather than use electric lighting.
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5.5.4 Colour appearance of lamps
The sky varies in colour with time and position in the sky. These variations are considerable
and no electric lamp matches continuously the colour appearance of daylight. For instance, the
appearance of a lamp with a colour temperature close to that of light from a clear sky at midday
may seem excessively blue as evening approaches. Sunlight reflected into a room from vegetation
or brightly coloured surfaces outside can have a noticeable hue and can affect the colour
appearance of lamps.
Apparent discrepancies between the colour of electric light and of daylight may be reduced by:
z using lamps of cool or intermediate class correlated colour temperature (see Table 2.3)
z screening lamps from the view of occupants (see section 2.1.5.3).
5.5.5 Changes of lighting at dusk

An interior with some supplementary lighting yet which is primarily daylit will change in
character when, late in the day, the electric lighting becomes predominant. As dusk approaches,
additional electric illumination is often needed, both to increase task illuminance near the
windows and to improve the general brightness of the room, but not for reducing sky glare.
5.6 Sunlight shading

It is essential that the admission of sunlight be controlled in all work spaces and other interiors
where the thermal or visual consequences might lead to personal discomfort or cause materials
to undergo unacceptable deterioration. In general, the best control of sunlight penetration is
achieved by careful planning of the orientation and disposition of rooms and their windows.
All fenestration in positions where sunlight could cause discomfort or damage should be
provided with shading. For some interiors, it is acceptable if sunlight is restricted during the
warmer months by shading the apertures with elements such as balconies or overhanging
roofs, or by fixed louvres or screens. It may be possible to arrange fixed shading devices or
install daylight redirecting systems so that daylight is redistributed to better effect, but fixed
devices generally reduce the skylight admitted and glazed areas may need to be increased. The
effectiveness of fixed shading devices will depend on window orientation. Internal shading
devices, such as blinds, may provide a means to control glare caused by low winter sun, but will
not provide an effective means of reducing unwanted thermal gain at other times of the year.
For a full discussion of shading and glazing options, see SLL Lighting Guide 10 (SLL, 1999).
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Chapter Six: Energy
Chapter 6: Energy
The objective of any lighting installation is to meet all of the lighting needs of the people using
the area being lit whilst consuming a minimum of energy. This point is critical and any attempt
to save energy by skimping on the lighting is doomed to failure if a space is poorly lit. In such a
situation, people using the space are likely to perform less well and thus the productivity of the
whole space is compromised; this reduces the energy effectiveness of the space.
This chapter reviews the steps necessary to ensure that lighting is as efficient as possible and then
looks at the requirements of regulations and standards to see how far they support the objective
of minimising energy use.
Section 6.1 gives some simple advice on energy efficient lighting. Section 6.2 discusses some
of the standards and regulations that cover lighting energy. In particular, it covers the building
regulations (see section 6.2.1) which must be applied in almost all lighting schemes. The
European standard BS EN 15193 is discussed in section 6.2.2; this is important as the standard
defines the metric that best describes the energy used by lighting and gives methods by which it
can be calculated.
6.1 Simple guidance for energy efficient lighting

The basis of energy efficient lighting is to provide the right amount of light, in the right place, at
the right time with the right lighting equipment. The following sections look at these four points
in more detail.
6.1.1 The right amount of light

It is always necessary to provide the correct amount of light for a particular task or activity.
Guidance on the choice of lighting level is given in Chapters 2, 3 and 4 of this Code. It is often
the case that the task at a given place may change with time as may the preference of the person
using that space. Thus it is often a good idea to provide lighting that can be adjusted by the user.
This has the double benefit of saving energy by not overlighting some tasks and improving user
satisfaction by giving some degree of local control.
6.1.2 Light in the right place

The lighting requirements of Chapters 2 and 3 give values for the required illuminances for given
tasks. The area over which most tasks occur is relatively small and so there is in general no reason
to provide lighting suitable for the task outside the area where it will be carried out. For indoor
work spaces, the situation is slightly more complex as for a given task area, it is also necessary
to light the immediate surrounding area and the background area. The situation is further
complicated by the need to provide light on the walls and ceiling, together with providing a given
level of cylindrical illuminance. The situation is complicated even more by the fact that multiple
tasks may be done in the same area.
Consider the situation in an office; assume the task is writing, typing, reading, data processing; the
required illuminance value (from Table 2.30) is 500 lx over the task area. In general, the task
area will be on the desks in the office; the area immediately surrounding (a band 0.5 m wide)
the desks will need to be lit to 300 lx (see Table 2.1) and the rest of the area may be used as a
circulation space so a level of 100 lx may be appropriate. In addition, as visual communication in
offices is very important, there is an additional requirement to provide a cylindrical illuminance
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of 150 lx. Furthermore, it is also necessary to provide some light on the wall and ceilings (see
Chapter Six: Energy

section 2.1.2.3). Faced with this long list of requirements, it may be tempting for the lighting
designer to just put 500 lx everywhere on a plane parallel to the floor at desk height safe in the
knowledge that all requirements will be met or exceeded. However, this approach is highly
wasteful and may well result in an unnecessary increase in energy consumption of over 50 per
cent. The correct approach is to provide a basic level of lighting to the space to meet 100 lx for
circulation and 150 lx for visual communication, then add some localised lighting for the
desk-based tasks and rely on spill light to provide the illuminance for the immediate surrounding
area. This task/ambient approach may make the lighting design process more complex but it is
necessary to ensure energy efficiency.
6.1.3 Light at the right time

Clearly there is no point providing electric lighting when it is not needed. It is therefore
important for lights to be switched off or dimmed when no one is using them or there is enough
daylight available. It is often the best solution to provide some form of automatic control system
to ensure light is only provided when necessary, however, care is need to ensure such systems
are accepted by the users of the lit space. Lighting control systems may provide a wide range of
functions; the ones that are important from an energy point of view are discussed below.
Inside buildings, users usually appreciate some form of manual control of the lighting; however,
in shared spaces with a single lighting system there is the potential for conflict as different people
may have different preferred levels of light; this may well lead to the control not being fully used
and thus a default setting of the lights full on may be adopted. Thus the solution of localised
lighting topping up a general ambient lighting scheme, as discussed in section 6.1.2, may well be
a good solution, as individual users will have some level of control over their lighting.
In general to improve energy savings, the control system should be configured to be turned on by
manual control and to be turned off automatically. In such situations the lights may be switched
on or off by users and even dimmed up and down, but when there is no one in the room, the
lights are switched off automatically and when there is enough daylight available, the lights are
automatically dimmed.
In some areas, such as hotel corridors and loading docks in warehouses, there may be problems
with manual on and auto off switching. In such areas, there are a number of options such as time
clock switching, turning on the lighting only when the area is in use. Presence/absence detection
is when the lighting comes on automatically when someone enters the space and goes off after
they leave, but in some applications, for example hotel corridors, the short delay between the
person entering the space and lights coming on may not be acceptable, so it may be necessary to
have a low level of lighting on at all times and have full lighting come on when the space is in
use.
6.1.4 The right lighting equipment

Lighting equipment comprises lamps, luminaires and control systems. The choices of lighting
equipment must be first driven by the lighting needs of a given installation, for example, there is
no point selecting a very efficient lamp for a job if the colour of the light that it produces is not
suitable for the application in which it is to be used. There is a vast range of lamps and luminaires
available so there will nearly always be a range of equipment that is able to do a given lighting job.
All other factors being equal, the most efficient equipment should be selected.
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It is also important to consider the controllability of lighting equipment; a dimmable luminaire

Chapter Six: Energy
might be marginally less efficient at full output than a luminaire that may only be switched on
and off, however, when the full output is not needed, the dimming luminaire may provide the
amount of light needed and use less energy than a luminaire that is not dimmable.
Consideration of maintenance is also important. Some lighting equipment, for example,

up-lighters, may get dirty very quickly and thus it is important for them to be easily accessible
so that they can be cleaned frequently. Occasionally it may be necessary to mount luminaires
in places that are relatively inaccessible; here it will be necessary to select lamps and luminaires
where the luminous output reduces slowly with time. Chapter 18 discusses how maintenance
factors may be calculated; it is important to ensure that the maintenance factor for a scheme is as
high as possible, however, the maintenance regime necessary for a given maintenance factor must
be realistically achievable by the owner of the lighting scheme; for example, no factory owner is
going to shut down a plant so that they can access their high bay lighting units to clean and
re-lamp them every 6 months.
As the light produced by a lighting system drops with time, it is usual practice to provide too
much light when the scheme is new or has just been maintained. This over lighting is wasteful.
The situation may be improved by using a control system that dims the lights initially and slowly
increases the amount of energy they use so that the system maintains a constant illuminance on
the required task. Such systems are often called ‘constant illuminance systems’, and are often
used in conjunction with daylight dimming systems.
To ensure the best performance from a lighting system, the users and the owners must
understand how to use and maintain it. For simple systems which are just switched on and off,
this is generally not too much of a problem. However, with more complex control systems, the
user interface to the lighting control system must be easy to understand and use. Moreover,
the building owner needs to have enough information on the lighting installation for the
maintenance of the equipment and to permit modifications to the lighting as the use of the
installation evolves during its life.
6.2 Energy regulations, and standards

There are two sets of regulations and standards for energy use by indoor lighting relevant to the
UK. As yet, there are no comprehensive published guides to energy use in outdoor lighting but
building regulations cover some aspects of outdoor lighting.
Perhaps the set of regulations that has the largest impact is Part L of the building regulations; its
impact is because it has the force of law behind it, not because it is a good regulation. BS EN
15193: 2007: Energy performance of buildings. Energy requirements for lighting (BSI, 2007a) provides
a standardised method of calculating the energy used by lighting in terms of kilowatt hours per
square metre per year; this metric follows actual energy consumption and thus is a good way to
discuss energy use. The standard also gives a series of benchmark values for different buildings;
however, this part of the standard is not particularly useful as the target values given are quite
high and very easy to achieve.
There are a number of schemes, voluntary and mandatory, to encourage energy saving and good
practice; these are discussed in section 6.2.5.
126
Chapter Six: Energy
6.2.1 Building regulations
The building regulations apply to fixed lighting within a building, thus light fittings that are
plugged in may not be included within their scope. The exact definition of fixed lighting is not
given in the building regulations. Whilst it is fairly clear that permanently wired luminaires
screwed to the structure of the buildings are fixed, there are a whole range of lighting installations
that may not be included. A good example of a type of installation where there is uncertainty is
track lighting.
The application of the building regulations in the UK is complex as there are a number of parts
to the documents and the regulations only cover England and Wales although there are parallel
regulations in Scotland and Northern Ireland. The following sections summarise the documents
to be used.
England and Wales

z Approved Document L1A – Conservation of fuel and power (New dwellings)
z Approved Document L1B – Conservation of fuel and power (Existing dwellings)
z Approved Document L2A – Conservation of fuel and power (New buildings other than dwellings)
z Approved Document L2B – Conservation of fuel and power (Existing buildings other than dwellings).
The lighting requirements can be found in the sections indicated and the requirements are
limited to fixed internal or external lighting but not including emergency escape lighting or
specialist process and temporary or plug in lighting. The lighting requirements appear in the
compliance documents which have the same legal standing as the Regulations. There are two
compliance documents:
z Domestic Buildings Services Compliance Guide: 2010 Edition
z Non-Domestic Buildings Services Compliance Guide: 2010 Edition
Scotland
z Domestic Technical Handbook 2010
z Non-domestic Technical Handbook 2010
Northern Ireland
z Department of Finance and Personnel Technical Booklet F1: 2006 (domestic)
z Department of Finance and Personnel Technical Booklet F2: 2006 (non-domestic)
As the requirements in Northern Ireland have not changed in since 2006, they are little behind
the regulations in the rest of the UK and are thus less onerous. This section does not cover the
NI regulations; however, compliance with the regulations mentioned in this section should in
most cases exceed the NI requirements.
The building regulations are divided between dwellings and other types of buildings. They also
treat refurbishment differently to new build; however, most of the requirements for lighting are
the same.
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Chapter Six: Energy
6.2.2 Dwellings
The Building Regulations mention adequate daylight levels in domestic premises and limiting
solar gain in section 4.27 of Approved Document L1A. The Building Regulations do not specify
minimum daylight requirements; however, they mention reducing window area, for thermal
reasons. This produces conflicting impacts on predicted CO2 emissions: reduced solar gain but
increased use of electric lighting. As a general guide, if the window area is much less than 20 per
cent of the total floor area, some parts of the dwelling may experience poor levels of daylight,
resulting in increased use of electric lighting.
For electric lighting in and around new and existing refurbished buildings, the requirements are
given in Table 6.1.
Table 6.1 Recommended standards for fixed internal and external lighting for dwellings
Lighting New and replacement systems Supplementary information
Fixed a. In the areas affected by the building work, Light fittings may be either:
internal provide low energy light fittings (fixed • dedicated fittings which will
lighting lights or lighting units) that number not have separate control gear and
less than three per four of all the light will take only low energy lamps
fittings in the main dwelling spaces of (e.g. pin-based fluorescent or
those areas (excluding infrequently compact fluorescent lamps); or
accessed spaces used for storage, such as • standard fittings supplied with
cupboards and wardrobes) low energy lamps with inte-
b. Low energy light fittings should have grated control gear (e.g. bayonet
lamps with the luminous efficacy greater or Edison screw base compact
than 45 lamp lumens per circuit watt and fluorescent lamps)
total output greater than 400 lamp lumens
c. Light fittings whose supplied power is less Light fittings with GLS tungsten
than five circuit watts are excluded from filament lamps or tungsten halogen
the overall count of the total number of lamps would not meet the standard
light fittings The energy saving trust publication
GI 020, Low energy domestic light-
ing, gives guidance on identifying
suitable locations for fixed energy
efficient lighting
Fixed Where fixed external lighting is installed,

external provide light fittings with the following
lighting characteristics:
a. either:
i. the lamp capacity not greater than 100
lamp watts per light fitting; and
ii. all lamps automatically controlled so
as to switch off after the area lit by the
fitting becomes unoccupied; and
iii. all lamps automatically controlled
so as to switch off when daylight is
sufficient
b. or
i. lamp efficacy greater than 45 lumen
per circuit watt; and
ii. all lamps automatically controlled
so as to switch off when daylight is
sufficient; and
iii. light fittings controllable manually by
occupants
128
In the 2010 Scottish Domestic Technical Handbook (DTH), the following additional guidance is
Chapter Six: Energy

given:
z All fixed light fittings and lamps provided to corridors, stairs and other circulation areas should
be low energy type, controls to such lighting to enable safe use of the areas in question are
identified in DTH Section 4.6.
z The dwelling should have an electric lighting system providing at least one lighting point to
every circulation space, kitchen, bathroom, toilet and other space having floor area of 2 m2 or
more.
z Any lighting point serving a stair should have the controlling switch at, or in immediate
vicinity of, the stair landing on each story. DTH Section 4.6.2 recommends that common
areas should have artificial lighting capable of providing a uniform lighting level, at floor
level, of not less than 100 lx on stair flights and landings and 50 lx elsewhere within
circulation areas. Lighting should not present sources of glare and should avoid creation of
areas of strong shadow that may cause confusion or mis-step. A means of automatic control
should be provided to ensure that lighting is operable during the hours of darkness.
These additional requirements in Scotland are important, as they stop some switching strategies
such as the landlord’s switch; they also force some minimum level of lighting.
6.2.3 Non-domestic buildings

For new build, there is a requirement that the building energy rating (BER) be calculated using a
calculation tool that follows the rule of the national calculation method (NCM; see http://www.
ncm.bre.co.uk). This calculation is done for all aspects of the building and daylight and electric
lighting are just minor elements in this calculation. One of the most common tools used to do
this calculation is called SBEM (Simplified Building Energy Model; see http://www.bre.co.uk/
page.jsp?id=706).
Because these tools have to cover all aspects of building design, they do not cover lighting
particularly well. In general, they do not consider actual lighting designs but make crude
assumptions about the amount of light needed and the efficiency of a given lighting technology
in a room and make assumptions about given lighting levels being provided throughout entire
spaces.
There are also restrictions on the energy efficiency of the lighting equipment used for both new
build and refurbished existing buildings. Table 6.2 gives the recommended minimum lighting
efficacy as taken from Table 44 of Non-Domestic Buildings Services Compliance Guide (2010 edition).
129
Table 6.2 Recommended minimum lighting efficacy

Chapter Six: Energy
Lighting Lighting efficacy
General lighting in The average initial efficacy should be not less than 55 luminaire
office, industrial and lumens per circuit-watt
storage areas In calculating the average luminaire lumens per circuit-watt, the
circuit-watts for each luminaire may first be multiplied by the
control factors in Table 6.3
General lighting in The average initial efficacy should be not less than 55 lamp
other types of space lumens per circuit-watt
Display lighting The average initial efficacy should be not less than 22 lamp
lumens per circuit-watt
If lighting control systems are used in office, industrial and storage areas, then it is possible to use
less efficient light fittings; the amount that the efficacy can be reduced is given in Table 6.3 which
shows the control factors and minimum permitted average luminaire lumens per circuit-watt.
The table is based on Table 45 of Non-Domestic Buildings Services Compliance Guide (2010 edition).
Table 6.3 Control factors and minimum permitted average luminaire lumens per circuit-watt
Light output control Control Minimum efficacy /

factor luminaire lumens
per circuit-watt
a. The luminaire is in a daylit space and its light output 0.90 49.5
is controlled by photoelectric switching or dimming
control, with or without override
b. The luminaire is in a space that is likely to be 0.90 49.5

unoccupied for a significant number of operating
hours, and where a sensor switches off the lighting
in the absence of occupants but switching on is done
manually except where this would be unsafe
c. Circumstances a. and b. combined 0.85 46.8
d. None of the above 1.00 55
Note that, as the above table applies to office, industrial and storage areas, there are a number
of areas when automatic switching could be applied where it is not possible to use lamps with a
luminous efficacy of less than 55 lumens per circuit-watt.
6.2.4 BS EN 15193
BS EN 15193: 2007 (BSI, 2007a) was developed to help support the European Directive on the
Energy Performance of Buildings 2002/91/EC (EC (2002)). It is one of a set of standards that
cover all aspects of energy consumption in buildings.
130
The standard introduces the concept of the Lighting Energy Numeric Indicator (LENI) which
Chapter Six: Energy

is used to express the total amount of energy used by a lighting system per square metre per year.
The standard then goes on to describe how this value may be calculated or measured. Figure 6.1
gives a schematic of how the process works.
Lighting Energy Requirements
Calculated Metered
Metered
Comprehensive Quick method
method method
Any period
Refined data Default

data
Annual based Annual based
Monthly based
Hourly based
Figure 6.1 Methods for determining energy use in BS EN 15193: 2007
The quick calculation method makes many simplifications and assumptions but the standard
is set up so that, for a given situation, the quick method will nearly always result in a higher
estimation of energy use. The section on metering gives general advice on how to use metering
to measure energy consumed by lighting.
The basic process of calculation depends on the following variables:
A Useful area
floor area inside the outer walls excluding non-habitable cellars and un-illuminated
spaces, measured in m2
FC Constant illuminance factor
factor relating to the usage of the total installed power when constant illuminance
control is in operation in the room or zone
FD Daylight dependency factor
factor relating the usage of the total installed lighting power to daylight availability in
the room or zone
FO Occupancy dependency factor
factor relating the usage of the total installed lighting power to occupancy period in the
room or zone
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Pem Total installed charging power of the emergency lighting luminaires in the
Chapter Six: Energy
room or zone
input charging power of all emergency lighting luminaires in the room or zone,
measured in watts
Pn Total installed lighting power in the room or zone
power of all luminaires in the room or zone, measured in watts
Ppc Total installed parasitic power of the controls in the room or zone
input power of all control systems in luminaires in the room or zone when the lamps
are not operating, measured in watts
tD Daylight time usage
operating hours during the daylight time, measured in hours
tem Emergency lighting charge time
operating hours during which the emergency lighting batteries are being charged,
measured in hours
tN Non-daylight time usage
operating hours during the non-daylight time, measured in hours
ty Standard year time
time taken for one standard year to pass, taken as 8760 h
WL,t Energy consumption used for illumination
energy consumed in period t, by the luminaire when the lamps are operating to fulfil
the illumination function and purpose in the building, measured in kW h
WP,t Luminaire parasitic energy consumption
parasitic energy consumed in period t, by the charging circuit of emergency lighting
luminaire and by the standby control system controlling the luminaires when the lamps
are not operating, measured in kW h
Wt Total lighting energy used
energy consumed in period t, by the sum of the luminaires when the lamps are
operating, plus the parasitic loads when the lamps are not operating, in a room or zone,
measured in kW h
The total energy required to provide lighting for a period may be estimated using equation 6.1:
Wt = WL,t + WP,t [kW.h] (6.1)
WL,t may be estimated using equation 6.2:
WL,t =
∑ (P
n × FC ) × ( tD × FO × FD ) + ( tN × FO )
[kW.h ] (6.2)
1000
WP,t may be estimated using equation 6.3:
∑ {P }
×  ty − ( tD + tN ) + ( Pem × tem )
[kW.h ]
pc
WP,t = (6.3)
1000
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When the time period in equation 6.1 is set to one year, then W, the annual estimate of
Chapter Six: Energy

energy use is equal to Wt and the Lighting Energy Numeric Indicator may be calculated using
equation 6.4:
W
LENI = kW.h.m −2 .yr −1  (6.4)
A
Using the quick method of calculation, the time is always one year and default values for tD, tN,
Fc, FD, FO, Pem and Ppc are taken from Table 6.4. Moreover, for the quick calculation, equations 6.2
and 6.3 simplify to give equations 6.5 and 6.6:
( Pn × FC ) × (tD × FO × FD ) + (tN × FO )

WL,t =
1000
[kW.h ] (6.5)
WP,t =
{P pc }
×  ty − ( td + tn ) + ( Pem × te )
[kW.h ] (6.6)
1000
Table 6.4 Factors for the quick method calculation
Pem per Ppc per tD tN FC FO FD

sq. m sq. m
(kW·h· (kW·h· (h) (h) No With Manual Auto Manual Auto

m–2·yr–1) m–2·yr–1) CTE* CTE*
Office 1 5 2250 250 1 0.9 1 0.9 1 0.9
Education 1 5 1800 200 1 0.9 1 0.9 1 0.8
Hospital 1 5 3000 2000 1 0.9 0.9 0.8 1 0.8
Hotel 1 5 3000 2000 1 0.9 0.7 0.7 1 1
Restaurant 1 5 1250 1250 1 0.9 1 1 1 –
Sports 1 5 2000 2000 1 0.9 1 1 1 0.9
Retail 1 5 3000 2000 1 0.9 1 1 1 –
Industry 1 5 2500 1500 1 0.9 1 1 1 0.9
*CTE = constant illuminance control.
For the comprehensive calculation, it is necessary to apply equations 6.2 and 6.3 doing a much
more detailed analysis of the building in question to determine the factors used and if needed,
summing the results over different time periods. The process is quite complex. The calculation
process is given in the European standard and it has been implemented in commonly available
lighting software.
The metering method of calculating the LENI value for a given installation involves measuring
the amount of energy used over the course of a year and dividing by the area being illuminated.
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Chapter Six: Energy
6.2.5 Schemes to support energy efficient lighting

To support good practice, there are a number of schemes to recognise good performance.
Display Energy Certificates (DEC) (http://www.communities.gov.uk/documents/

planningandbuilding/pdf/20.pdf) are required in buildings occupied by public authorities
and institutions that provide services to the public, have a floor area of over 1000 m2 and are
frequently visited by the public; they cover all energy use in the building of which lighting is
one part. The energy rating on the certificate is based on energy consumed over the course
of a year so for the lighting element, it is effectively the same as the metered method of
BS EN 15193: 2007.
BREEAM (Building Research Establishment’s Environmental Assessment Method) (http://www.

breeam.org) is an assessment of a number of features of a building. In each area of assessment,
there are a number of points available, then based on the percentage of the points available, a
building is assessed into the categories given in Table 6.5.
Table 6.5 BREEAM rating benchmarks
BREEAM rating Percentage score
Outstanding ≥85
Excellent ≥70
Very good ≥55
Good ≥45
Pass ≥30
Unclassified <30
In the BREEAM assessment system, there are quite a few points available for lighting, including
daylighting, however, the assessment is not purely about minimising energy consumption but
also covers meeting the correct light requirements.
There is also a similar system to BREEAM set up in the USA called LEED (Leadership in Energy
and Environmental Design) (http://www.usgbc.org/DisplayPage.aspx?CMSPageID=1988) and
it is run by the US Green Building council. Whilst LEED is less used in the UK than BREEAM
as both are voluntary schemes, it is possible that clients can ask for a LEED assessment on UK
buildings.
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Chapter Seven: Construction (Design and Management) Regulations
Chapter 7: Construction (Design and Management)
Regulations
The Construction (Design and Management) Regulations (HMSO, 2007), often referred to as
the CDM regulations, place a number of duties upon people involved in construction, with the
aim of improving health and safety during construction and maintenance.
Note: This chapter attempts to broadly set out the requirements of the Construction (Design
and Management) Regulations 2007 (HMSO, 2007) and the effects particularly relevant to the
lighting. It does not address every detail of the Regulations and the accompanying Approved
Code of Practice (ACoP) L144: Managing health and safety in construction (HSE, 2007).
Therefore, this guidance must be used with caution, and reference made to the Approved Code
of Practice, as well as the regulations themselves.
For simplicity in reading, this chapter together with the regulations and ACoP has been split
into four sections that cover sections 1 to 4 of the regulations. Section 5 of the regulations is not
covered here as it does not directly impact upon lighting.
7.1 Introduction
The CDM regulations apply equally across all of the UK and in a few other places such as the
Channel Islands. In the introduction, many terms are defined; the following are selected abridged
definitions.
Client
A person who in the course or furtherance of a business seeks or accepts the services of another
to carry out the project for him, or carry out the project himself.
CDM co-ordinator
The person appointed as the CDM co-ordinator if the project is notifiable. This applies to projects
that are likely to last more than 30 days or require more than 500 person days to complete.
The duties of the CDM co-ordinator are given in section 7.3.4.
Construction site
Includes any place where construction work is being carried out or to which the construction
workers have access.
Construction work
The carrying out of building, civil engineering and construction. The term includes alteration,
fitting out, commissioning, repair and maintenance.
Contractor
Any person (potentially this could also be a client) who, in the course or furtherance of a
business, carries out or manages construction work.
Design
Includes drawings, design details, specification and bill of quantities (including specification of
equipment) relating to a structure, and calculations prepared for the purpose of a design.
135
Designer
Any person who prepares or modifies a design or instructs someone else under his control to do
so.
Hazard
Something (e.g. an object, a property of a substance, a phenomenon or an activity) that can cause
adverse effects. For example:
z Water on a staircase is a hazard, because you could slip on it, fall and hurt yourself.
z Loud noise is a hazard because it can cause hearing loss.
z Breathing in asbestos dust is a hazard because it can cause cancer.
Place of work
Any place which is used by any person at work for the purposes of construction work or for the
purposes of any associated activity.
Principal contractor
The person appointed to perform certain specified duties as set out in section 7.3.
Risk
A risk is the likelihood that a hazard will actually cause its adverse effects, together with a
measure of the effect. It is a two-part concept and you have to have both parts to make sense of it.
Likelihoods can be expressed as probabilities (e.g. ‘one in a thousand’), frequencies (e.g. ‘1000
cases per year’) or in a qualitative way (e.g. ‘negligible’, ‘significant’, etc). The effect can be
described in many different ways. For example:
z The annual risk of a worker in Great Britain experiencing a fatal accident [effect] at work
[hazard] is less than one in 100 000 [likelihood].
z About 1500 workers each year [likelihood] in Great Britain suffer a non-fatal major injury
[effect] from contact with moving machinery [hazard].
z The lifetime risk of an employee developing asthma [effect] from exposure to substance X
[hazard] is significant [likelihood].
7.2 General management duties

Competence
The regulations state that no one should appoint or engage a CDM co-ordinator, designer,
principal contractor or contractor unless they have taken reasonable steps to ensure the person
being appointed or engaged is competent. Moreover, no one should accept such an appointment
unless they are competent. The need for competence also extends to construction workers where
workers must not be instructed to carry out any duties unless they are competent to perform
them or they are under the direct supervision of a competent person.
This need for competence can give rise to problems in establishing whether a person has the
necessary skills to do the job. This need to establish competency has given rise to many competency
schemes organised by a whole variety of bodies which register people as competent after they have
136
met certain criteria such as attending training and maintaining certain records of work. There

are no such schemes currently dedicated to lighting, however, there are some within the electri-
cal industry that impinge on lighting; for example, the Highway Electrical Registration Scheme
(see http://www.highwayelectrical.org.uk/HERS/) covers the area of street lighting. Such schemes
need to be used with care as lighting is such a diverse discipline that competence in one area does
not necessarily mean the ability to work in another. Thus someone employing a person to work
on a lighting project has to use judgement to select a person who is able to carry out the work.
The key question in selecting a person for a job is whether or not they are able to carry out their
duties listed below in this section and, if the project is notifiable, the additional duties listed in
section 7.3 as well. In making a decision, there are a number of factors that may guide a person
who wishes to employ a lighting person; these factors include the education and experience of
the person and if they belong to any of the professional bodies for the lighting industry. There are
currently four such bodies active in the UK, and they are:
z The Society of Light and Lighting (SLL; http://www.sll.org.uk)
z The Institution of Lighting Professionals (ILP; http://www.theilp.org.uk)
z The International Association of Lighting Designers (IALD; http://www.iald.org/home.asp)
z The Professional Lighting Designers Association (PLDA; http://www.pld-a.org)
Full membership of one of these bodies means that the person has been reviewed by fellow
professionals and they have been assessed to be suitably qualified and experienced to design
lighting. Moreover, all of the bodies have codes of conduct or rules which if broken could lead to
them losing their membership status; thus any member who took on work for which they were
not competent would risk losing their membership.
Co-operation
Everybody connected with a project or who has particular duties placed on them by the CDM
regulations should seek co-operation with and in turn provide co-operation to permit all parties
to perform their required duties. In addition, everybody has a duty to report anything they are
aware of that may endanger the health and safety of themselves or anyone else working on the
project.
Co-ordination
Everybody (clients, designers, contractors and principal contractors) working on a construction
project must co-ordinate their activities with each other, as far as reasonably possible, to ensure
the health and safety of people carrying out the construction work and those affected by the
work.
7.2.1 Duties of clients

There are two sets of duties of clients; one associated with the management of the project, the
other associated with information on the project.
Duties in relation to arrangements for managing projects

Every client shall take reasonable steps to ensure that the arrangements made for managing the
project (including the allocation of sufficient time and other resources) by persons with a duty
under these Regulations (including the client himself) are suitable to ensure that:
137
z the construction work can be carried out so far as is reasonably practicable without risk to the
health and safety of any person
z any structure designed for use as a workplace has been designed taking account of the
provisions of the Workplace (Health, Safety and Welfare) Regulations 1992 (HMSO, 1992)
which relate to the design of, and materials used in, the structure.
The client needs to take reasonable steps that the above measures are maintained and reviewed
throughout the project and that all persons involved in the construction are aware of the current
arrangements.
Duties in relation to information

The client must ensure that all designers and contractors involved in the projects must have
access to the pre-construction information, listed below, that is relevant to their part of the
project:
z any information about or affecting the site or the construction work
z any information concerning the proposed use of the structure as a workplace
z the minimum amount of time before the construction phase which will be allowed to the
contractors appointed by the client for planning and preparation for construction work
z any information in any existing health and safety file.
7.2.2 Duties of designers

No designer should start work on a project if the client is unaware of his duties under the CDM
regulations.
Every designer must take reasonable steps when preparing or modifying a design to avoid
foreseeable risks to the health and safety of any person:
z carrying out construction work
z liable to be affected by such construction work
z cleaning any window or any transparent or translucent wall, ceiling or roof in or on a structure
z maintaining the permanent fixtures and fittings of a structure
z using a structure designed as a workplace.
In addressing the above issues, the designer should eliminate risks that give rise to hazards and
reduce the risks from any remaining hazards.
The designer must provide his design with sufficient information to assist the client, other
designers and contractors in the construction and maintenance of the building.
7.2.3 Duties of contractors

No contractor should start work on a project if the client is unaware of his duties under the
CDM regulations. The contractor must plan, manage and monitor construction work carried
138
out by him or under his control to ensure that it is done without risks to health and safety. Every

sub-contractor needs to be informed of the time available for planning before commencement of
work.
Every contractor must provide any construction workers under his control with information and
training, including:
z suitable site induction, where not provided by any principal contractor
z information on the risks to their health and safety; identified by his risk assessment under
regulation 3 of the Management of Health and Safety at Work Regulations 1999 (HMSO,
1999), or arising out of the conduct by another contractor of his undertaking and of which he
is or ought reasonably to be aware
z information about measures which have been identified by the contractor in consequence of
the risk assessment as being needed to take to meet statutory health and safety requirements
z any site rules
z the procedures to be followed in the event of serious and imminent danger to such workers
z the identity of the persons nominated to implement those procedures.
The above requirements are in line with those in Regulation 13.2.b of Health and Safety at Work
Regulations 1999 (see http://www.legislation.gov.uk/uksi/1999/3242/regulation/13/made).
Work should not start on a construction site unless reasonable steps have been taken to prevent
unauthorised persons gaining access to the site.
7.3 Additional duties if the project is notifiable

A project becomes notifiable if it is likely to last more than 30 days or require more than 500
person days to complete. When a project becomes notifiable, there are some additional duties
placed upon the client, contractors and designers. There are also two other roles that come into
play; those of principal contractor and CDM co-ordinator.
7.3.1 Additional duties of the client

The client must appoint a CDM co-ordinator and a principal contractor as soon as practical and
these posts must be filled for the duration of the construction project; however, it is permitted for
the people filling these roles to change during the life of a project. The client must also pass all
information listed in section 7.2.1 to the CDM co-ordinator. The client must also ensure that
the principal contractor has prepared a construction phase plan (as described in 7.3.5) before
permitting construction to start.
7.3.2 Additional duties of designers

When a project is notifiable, designers should not commence work, apart from initial design
work, on a project unless a CDM co-ordinator has been appointed. Furthermore, the designers
should provide the CDM co-ordinator with sufficient information to allow the performance of
his duties as described in section 7.3.4.
139
7.3.3 Additional duties of contractors

When a project is notifiable, a contractor must not start work on a project unless both the CDM
co-ordinator and the principal contractor have been appointed by the client and the project
notification has been sent by the CDM co-ordinator to the Health and Safety Executive.
Contractors must provide the principal contractor with information that
z might affect the health and safety of construction workers and others
z might justify a review of the construction phase plan
z has been identified for inclusion in the health and safety file.
Contractors must:
z in complying with their duties given in section 7.2.3 take all reasonable steps to ensure that the
construction work is carried out in accordance with the construction phase plan
z take appropriate action to ensure health and safety where it is not possible to comply with the
construction phase plan in any particular case
z notify the principal contractor of any significant finding which requires the construction phase
plan to be altered or added to.
7.3.4 Duties of the CDM co-ordinator

The main duties of the CDM co-ordinator are listed below
z give advice and assistance to the client on undertaking the measures he needs to take to comply
with the CDM regulations during the project and in particular advising on the required
management duties
z ensure that arrangements are made and implemented for the co-ordination of health and safety
measures during planning and preparation for the construction phase of the project
z liaise with the principal contractor on the health and safety file, construction phase plan and
any design development that affect planning and management of the construction work
z collect the pre-construction information and disseminate it to the designers and contractors
z ensure that designers perform their duties (see sections 7.2.2 and 7.3.2)
z ensure co-operation between the designers and the principal contractor
z prepare and maintain the health and safety file containing information which may be needed
to ensure any subsequent work on the building may be carried out safely
z pass the health and safety file to the client at the end of the project.
The CDM co-ordinator has the additional duty of notifying the project. This notification is
usually to the Health and Safety Executive (http://www.hse.gov.uk), but for certain transport
related projects may be to the Office of Rail Regulation (http://www.rail-reg.gov.uk).
140
7.3.5 Duties of the principal contractor
The principal contractor has three sets of duties: first, general site requirements, next to the
construction phase plan and lastly, co-operation and consultation with the workers.
General duties cover planning and managing the construction plan so the construction is without
health and safety risks. It covers:
z co-operation and co-ordination between persons concerned in the project
z liaison with the CDM co-ordinator to ensure he is able to perform his duties
z ensure that welfare facilities are provided throughout the construction phase
z if needed, draw up health and safety rules for the construction site
z give directions to the contractors to ensure they are able to carry out their duties
z ensure that every contractor is informed of the minimum amount of time which will be
allowed to him for planning and preparation before he begins construction work and ensure
he has sufficient time to enable him to prepare properly for that work
z where necessary, consult a contractor before finalising such part of the construction phase plan
as is relevant to the work to be performed by him
z identify to each contractor the information relating to the contractor’s activity which is likely
to be required by the CDM co-ordinator for inclusion in the health and safety file
z take reasonable steps to prevent access by unauthorised persons to the construction site.
The principal contractor is responsible for the construction phase plan and it is his duty to
prepare the plan before construction work starts and from time to time, to review and revise the
plan. The objective of the plan is to ensure that the project is planned, managed and monitored
so that construction work may proceed in a way that is, as far as possible, free from risks to health
and safety.
The principal contractor has duties that require him to consult and co-operate with the
workforce. He must maintain arrangements that promote communication and co-operation with
the workforce to ensure the safety and welfare of the workers, and must consult with the workers
or their representatives on any issue that may affect their health, safety or welfare. The principal
contractor must ensure that the workers or their representatives can inspect and copy any
information relating to the planning or management of the project. There is a restricted set of
reasons why the principal contractor may not show information to the workforce.
7.4 Duties relating to health and safety on construction sites

The CDM regulations provide a lot of detailed information about measures necessary to ensure
that construction sites are safe places of work. Some of the advice is general relating to all sites,
some advice is particular to specific elements of work. In this section, only the parts that impact
on lighting are discussed.
141
7.4.1 Electricity distribution

When there is a risk from power cables, one of the following should be used:
z they shall be directed away from the area of risk
z the power shall be isolated and, where necessary, earthed.
If neither of these is reasonably practical, suitable warning notices and barriers suitable for
excluding work equipment should be placed around the area. Other procedures that provide an
equal level of safety may be used.
7.4.2 Emergency routes and exits

It is necessary to provide emergency routes with emergency lighting; see SLL Lighting Guide 12
(SLL, 2004) for more information.
7.4.3 Lighting
The CDM regulations require: Every place of work and approach thereto and every traffic route shall be
provided with suitable and sufficient lighting, which shall be, so far as is reasonably practicable, by natural light.
This leaves open the question as to what is deemed to be suitable and sufficient. A good starting
guide to the lighting on construction sites is given in Table 3.7.
There are requirements for the colour quality of such lighting and these are usually met by the
colour rendering requirements listed in Table 3.7.
There is also a requirement that suitable and sufficient secondary lighting shall be provided in any place
where there would be a risk to the health or safety of any person in the event of failure of primary artificial light-
ing; this type of lighting is discussed in SLL Lighting Guide 12 (SLL, 2004) where it is called High
Risk Area lighting.
142
Chapter Eight: Basic energy and light
Chapter 8: Basic energy and light
Light is a form of energy that may be transmitted through space without the need of any material
or substance to help propagate it. Such energy transfer is known as radiation. There are various
forms of radiation, some such as nuclear a and b radiation is a stream of particles, whilst light and
other forms of electromagnetic radiation are propagated by waves. Light is generally considered
to be electromagnetic radiation with a wavelength in the range 380 to 780 nm, where a nano-
metre (nm) is 10–9 m. However, in certain respects, light behaves like a stream of particles, called
photons. This dual nature of light is quite complex and an in-depth knowledge of quantum
mechanics is needed before attempting a more detailed description. Thus, in this chapter, most
of the description of light will look at the wave properties of light and one section will look at the
quantum properties where light behaves like a stream of particles. This dual wave particle nature
is true for all electromagnetic radiation. The key point that separates light from the rest of the
electromagnetic spectrum is the fact that the human eye is sensitive to it. Figure 8.1 show how
light relates to the rest of the electromagnetic spectrum.
Violet Blue Green Yellow Red
380 400 500 600 700 760

Wavelength (nm)
Visible
light
Gamma rays X-rays Ultraviolet Infrared Radio
10-14 10-12 10-10 10-8 10-6 10-4 10-2 1 102 104

Wavelength (m)
Figure 8.1 Light as part of the electromagnetic spectrum
8.1 Properties of electromagnetic waves

Like all electromagnetic radiation, light travels through a vacuum in straight lines1 at a speed of
approximately 3×108 m·s–1. In any medium such as glass, air or water, the speed will be lower
by a factor known as the refractive index of the medium. As with any wave, electromagnetic
radiation may be characterised by its wavelength (l) and its frequency (n). Frequency, wavelength
and velocity (v) are related by equation 8.1
v = n×l (8.1)
1
This is true for all practical terrestrial purposes, however, under certain circumstances light may bend.
This topic is covered in the general theory of relativity, see Einstein, Albert (1916) ‘Die Grundlage der
allgemeinen Relativitätstheorie’, Annalen der Physik 49.
143
As light travels from one medium to another, thus changing speed, the frequency stays the same
but the wavelength changes. At the boundary between two different media having different
refractive indices (see Figure 8.2), light is split into two paths, and the directions of these new
rays are discussed below.
Incident ray Reflected ray
h1 h1 Refractive
Medium 1 index n1
Medium 2 Refractive
index n2
h2
Refracted ray
Figure 8.2 Reflection and refraction at a boundary between two media
Laws of specular reflection

At a surface that is smooth when compared with the wavelength of the incident radiation,
specular reflection may occur. The following relations hold between the incident ray and the
reflected ray:
z The incident ray, the reflected ray and the normal to the surface at the point of reflection all lie
in the same plane.
z The incident ray and the reflected ray make equal angles with the normal to the surface and
are on opposite sides of it.
The proportion of light reflected at the surface is a function of the angle between the rays and the
normal to the surface and the difference in refractive index between the two media. The amount
of reflected light may be calculated using Frensel’s equations.2
Laws of refraction
Light incident on a smooth surface suffers a change of direction when passing into the second
medium that is governed by the following rules:
z The incident ray, the refracted ray and the normal to the surface at the point of reflection all lie
in the same plane.
2
Frensel’s equations may be found in almost any optical text book, for example, Optics by Hecht and
Zajac, published by Addison Wesley (1974) (ISBN-10 0201028352).
144
z Snell’s law relates the angle of the incident ray to the normal to the angle of the refracted ray to

the normal; this is expressed in equation 8.2:
n1 sin h1 = n2 sin h2 (8.2)
where n1 is the refractive index of the first material, n2 is the refractive index of the second
material, h1 is the angle between the normal to the surface and the incident ray and h2 is the
angle between the normal to the surface and the refracted ray; h1 and h2 lie on opposite sides of
the normal.
These laws of refraction apply to most substances such as glass, liquids and plastics, however, for
certain crystals and other materials under strain, these rules are not followed exactly.
Total reflection
When light passes from a high refractive index medium to a low one, such as from glass to air,
a refracted ray is only possible if the incident angle (h1) is smaller than a value that will give a
refraction angle (h2) of less than 90°; this critical angle (hc) is given by equation 8.3
n2
hc = sin −1   (8.3)
 n1 
If the angle of the incident ray is greater than the critical angle, then all of the light is reflected;
this is known as total internal reflection. This effect has a practical application in a number of
devices, the best known of which is fibre optics.
Dispersion
In general, the refractive index of a substance is a function of frequency of the light. This means
that different colours of light may be refracted in slightly different directions. For a range of
common materials, the refractive index for blue light is higher than that for red. This means that
the change in direction for blue light is greater.
Absorption and scattering

When light passes through a perfect vacuum, there is no loss of energy from the beam, although
a diverging beam will spread out with distance. However, in other media, it may be possible for
the light to interact with the material it is passing through and this causes losses to the beam by
absorption and scattering.
Absorption is caused by the energy in the light being converted into other forms of energy by
interaction with the material. If the material is homogeneous, then for a given wavelength of light
in a parallel beam, the rate of loss follows an exponential curve as given by equation 8.4:
i = i0 e − ax (8.4)
where i0 is the initial intensity of the beam, i the intensity of the beam after passing through
distance x of the medium and a is the linear absorption coefficient.
Scattering is caused by multiple random reflections and refractions in non homogeneous materials.
Examples of where obvious scattering occurs include fog, cloud and smoke in air and suspended
particles in water. Scattering may be wavelength selective due to refraction in the scattering
media; a good example of this is the atmosphere which scatters blue light more than red light;
this gives rise to the blue sky and the red sunset due to scattering by water droplets and dust in
the atmosphere.
145
Diffuse reflection and transmission

When light hits a surface which has irregularities that are greater than the wavelength of the
light, then the light is no longer reflected or refracted in a single direction but it is spread out
in all directions. The degree of scattering is a function of the surface properties and, in general,
any pattern of reflected or transmitted light may be created. If the surface is such that the light is
completely scattered then the surface is known as a perfect or Lambertian diffuser. A key property
of a perfect diffuser is that it has the same luminance in all directions no matter which direction it
is illuminated from. With a perfect diffuser, the luminance of the surface (L) is a function of the
illuminance (E) and the reflectance (s). The relationship is given in equation 8.5:
Es
L= (8.5)
p
Polarisation
Electromagnetic waves may be thought of as waves of an oscillating electric field in a plane
normal to the direction of propagation of the wave. For any given wave, there is a plane that
contains the direction of propagation and the oscillation of the electric field. Most light sources
emit light where the orientation of the planes of polarisation is random; such light is described as
unpolarised. It is possible to select light with a single orientation of the plane of polarisation from
unpolarised light using a number of methods, the most used of which are polarising crystals.
The resultant light is said to be polarised. The way light of different polarisations is reflected in
some specular reflections is different and so it is sometimes possible to use polarisation to remove
reflected glare.
Interference and diffraction

The wave nature of light means that it is possible for wave related phenomena to occur, however,
due to the short wavelength of light it is only in special circumstances that such phenomena are
apparent.
Interference may be seen when a screen is illuminated by two coherent sources of light. This is
typically achieved by passing the light through two narrow slits or reflecting light off a multi
element reflector. To make the pattern of interference as large as possible, it is necessary to
make the slits as close together as possible. There are a number of devices that make use of this
principle including the diffraction gratings in monochrometer and dichroic filters, and the
iridescence on the reflectors in some luminaires is also caused by interference.
Diffraction is the bending of light round the edge of obstacles. The diffraction effects are generally
too small to see but are occasionally visible when using a gobo projector over a very long distance.
Diffraction is an important problem when designing optical instruments.
Quantum phenomena
The wave properties satisfactorily explain why light propagates; however, they do not explain the
processes by which light is radiated and absorbed. It has been shown that when light is emitted
or absorbed, the energy gain or loss is always a discrete amount. This finite amount of energy is
known as a quantum. It may therefore be assumed that light is made up of a series of particles,
known as photons, which have wave like properties but whenever energy is exchanged, they
behave as particles. The energy carried by each photon (Q) is given by equation 8.6:
Q= hn (8.6)
where n is the frequency of the radiation and h is Plank’s constant (6.626068×10–34 m2·kg·s–1).
146
8.2 Evaluating energy as light
The eye is not equally sensitive to all wavelengths of light and thus we need to apply a weight-
ing function to the energy at each wavelength so that we can evaluate electromagnetic radiation
as light. Because the human visual response varies at different light levels and from person to
person, photometry requires the definition of representative standard observers. The CIE system
of physical photometry specifies procedures for the quantitative evaluation of optical radiation
in terms of the spectral luminous efficiency functions of two such standard observers. One,
V(l), represents photopic vision and the other, V′(l), scotopic vision. Photopic vision occurs
at luminances over 3 cd·m–2 and scotopic vision happens at luminances below 0.001 cd·m–2. At
luminances between these two values, a more complex set of visual responses occurs known as
mesopic vision. To make matters even more complex, the visual sensitivity varies across the field
of vision, the peripheral field having a larger response at the blue end of the spectrum than the
central part of the visual field. Thus, there are a plethora of possible visual response functions.
However, the one that is used the vast majority of the time is V(l) for photopic vision and
when using such terms as lumens, lux and candelas, it is always the photopic spectral efficiency
function that has been used to calculate the amount of light present. When using photometric
quantities based on any other spectral sensitivity function, it is normal to preface the unit being
used by the name of the function used. Thus, occasionally, you may see terms such as scotopic
candelas.
V(l), for photopic vision and V′(l), for scotopic vision are the only two spectral sensitivity
functions defined by an international standard (ISO, 2005).
The luminous flux associated with electromagnetic radiation may be calculated using equation
8.7 for the photopic condition and equation 8.8 for the scotopic condition.
∞
Wv = K m ∫ We,l ⋅ V ( l ) dl (8.7)
0 ∞
W 'v = K 'm ∫ We,l ⋅ V ' (l ) dl (8.8)

0
where Wv and W′v are the photopic and scotopic luminous flux, respectively, Km and K′m are
constants with values of 683.002 and 1700.005, respectively and V(l) and V′(l) are values
obtained from the values given in Tables 8.1 and 8.2, respectively.
147
Table 8.1 Values of the spectral luminous efficiency function for photopic vision V(l)
Wavelength Spectral Wavelength Spectral Wavelength Spectral

/ nm luminous / nm luminous / nm luminous
efficiency efficiency efficiency
360 0.0000039170 401 0.0004337147 442 0.0256102400
361 0.0000043936 402 0.0004730240 443 0.0269585700
362 0.0000049296 403 0.0005178760 444 0.0283512500
363 0.0000055321 404 0.0005722187 445 0.0298000000
364 0.0000062082 405 0.0006400000 446 0.0313108300
365 0.0000069650 406 0.0007245600 447 0.0328836800
366 0.0000078132 407 0.0008255000 448 0.0345211200
367 0.0000087673 408 0.0009411600 449 0.0362257100
368 0.0000098398 409 0.0010698800 450 0.0380000000
369 0.0000110432 410 0.0012100000 451 0.0398466700
370 0.0000123900 411 0.0013620910 452 0.0417680000
371 0.0000138864 412 0.0015307520 453 0.0437660000
372 0.0000155573 413 0.0017203680 454 0.0458426700
373 0.0000174430 414 0.0019353230 455 0.0480000000
374 0.0000195838 415 0.0021800000 456 0.0502436800
375 0.0000220200 416 0.0024548000 457 0.0525730400
376 0.0000248397 417 0.0027640000 458 0.0549805600
377 0.0000280413 418 0.0031178000 459 0.0574587200
378 0.0000315310 419 0.0035264000 460 0.0600000000
379 0.0000352152 420 0.0040000000 461 0.0626019700
380 0.0000390000 421 0.0045462400 462 0.0652775200
381 0.0000428264 422 0.0051593200 463 0.0680420800
382 0.0000469146 423 0.0058292800 464 0.0709110900
383 0.0000515896 424 0.0065461600 465 0.0739000000
384 0.0000571764 425 0.0073000000 466 0.0770160000
385 0.0000640000 426 0.0080865070 467 0.0802664000
386 0.0000723442 427 0.0089087200 468 0.0836668000
387 0.0000822122 428 0.0097676800 469 0.0872328000
388 0.0000935082 429 0.0106644300 470 0.0909800000
389 0.0001061361 430 0.0116000000 471 0.0949175500
390 0.0001200000 431 0.0125731700 472 0.0990458400
391 0.0001349840 432 0.0135827200 473 0.1033674000
392 0.0001514920 433 0.0146296800 474 0.1078846000
393 0.0001702080 434 0.0157150900 475 0.1126000000
394 0.0001918160 435 0.0168400000 476 0.1175320000
395 0.0002170000 436 0.0180073600 477 0.1226744000
396 0.0002469067 437 0.0192144800 478 0.1279928000
397 0.0002812400 438 0.0204539200 479 0.1334528000
398 0.0003185200 439 0.0217182400 480 0.1390200000
399 0.0003572667 440 0.0230000000 481 0.1446764000
400 0.0003960000 441 0.0242946100 482 0.1504693000
148
Table 8.1 Continued

483 0.1564619000 524 0.7778368000 565 0.9786000000
484 0.1627177000 525 0.7932000000 566 0.9740837000
485 0.1693000000 526 0.8081104000 567 0.9691712000
486 0.1762431000 527 0.8224962000 568 0.9638568000
487 0.1835581000 528 0.8363068000 569 0.9581349000
488 0.1912735000 529 0.8494916000 570 0.9520000000
489 0.1994180000 530 0.8620000000 571 0.9454504000
490 0.2080200000 531 0.8738108000 572 0.9384992000
491 0.2171199000 532 0.8849624000 573 0.9311628000
492 0.2267345000 533 0.8954936000 574 0.9234576000
493 0.2368571000 534 0.9054432000 575 0.9154000000
494 0.2474812000 535 0.9148501000 576 0.9070064000
495 0.2586000000 536 0.9237348000 577 0.8982772000
496 0.2701849000 537 0.9320924000 578 0.8892048000
497 0.2822939000 538 0.9399226000 579 0.8797816000
498 0.2950505000 539 0.9472252000 580 0.8700000000
499 0.3085780000 540 0.9540000000 581 0.8598613000
500 0.3230000000 541 0.9602561000 582 0.8493920000
501 0.3384021000 542 0.9660074000 583 0.8386220000
502 0.3546858000 543 0.9712606000 584 0.8275813000
503 0.3716986000 544 0.9760225000 585 0.8163000000
504 0.3892875000 545 0.9803000000 586 0.8047947000
505 0.4073000000 546 0.9840924000 587 0.7930820000
506 0.4256299000 547 0.9874182000 588 0.7811920000
507 0.4443096000 548 0.9903128000 589 0.7691547000
508 0.4633944000 549 0.9928116000 590 0.7570000000
509 0.4829395000 550 0.9949501000 591 0.7447541000
510 0.5030000000 551 0.9967108000 592 0.7324224000
511 0.5235693000 552 0.9980983000 593 0.7200036000
512 0.5445120000 553 0.9991120000 594 0.7074965000
513 0.5656900000 554 0.9997482000 595 0.6949000000
514 0.5869653000 555 1.0000000000 596 0.6822192000
515 0.6082000000 556 0.9998567000 597 0.6694716000
516 0.6293456000 557 0.9993046000 598 0.6566744000
517 0.6503068000 558 0.9983255000 599 0.6438448000
518 0.6708752000 559 0.9968987000 600 0.6310000000
519 0.6908424000 560 0.9950000000 601 0.6181555000
520 0.7100000000 561 0.9926005000 602 0.6053144000
521 0.7281852000 562 0.9897426000 603 0.5924756000
522 0.7454636000 563 0.9864444000 604 0.5796379000
523 0.7619694000 564 0.9827241000 605 0.5668000000
149
Table 8.1 Continued


606 0.5539611000 647 0.1250248000 688 0.0095333110
607 0.5411372000 648 0.1187792000 689 0.0088461570
608 0.5283528000 649 0.1127691000 690 0.0082100000
609 0.5156323000 650 0.1070000000 691 0.0076237810
610 0.5030000000 651 0.1014762000 692 0.0070854240
611 0.4904688000 652 0.0961886400 693 0.0065914760
612 0.4780304000 653 0.0911229600 694 0.0061384850
613 0.4656776000 654 0.0862648500 695 0.0057230000
614 0.4534032000 655 0.0816000000 696 0.0053430590
615 0.4412000000 656 0.0771206400 697 0.0049957960
616 0.4290800000 657 0.0728255200 698 0.0046764040
617 0.4170360000 658 0.0687100800 699 0.0043800750
618 0.4050320000 659 0.0647697600 700 0.0041020000
619 0.3930320000 660 0.0610000000 701 0.0038384530
620 0.3810000000 661 0.0573962100 702 0.0035890990
621 0.3689184000 662 0.0539550400 703 0.0033542190
622 0.3568272000 663 0.0506737600 704 0.0031340930
623 0.3447768000 664 0.0475496500 705 0.0029290000
624 0.3328176000 665 0.0445800000 706 0.0027381390
625 0.3210000000 666 0.0417587200 707 0.0025598760
626 0.3093381000 667 0.0390849600 708 0.0023932440
627 0.2978504000 668 0.0365638400 709 0.0022372750
628 0.2865936000 669 0.0342004800 710 0.0020910000
629 0.2756245000 670 0.0320000000 711 0.0019535870
630 0.2650000000 671 0.0299626100 712 0.0018245800
631 0.2547632000 672 0.0280766400 713 0.0017035800
632 0.2448896000 673 0.0263293600 714 0.0015901870
633 0.2353344000 674 0.0247080500 715 0.0014840000
634 0.2260528000 675 0.0232000000 716 0.0013844960
635 0.2170000000 676 0.0218007700 717 0.0012912680
636 0.2081616000 677 0.0205011200 718 0.0012040920
637 0.1995488000 678 0.0192810800 719 0.0011227440
638 0.1911552000 679 0.0181206900 720 0.0010470000
639 0.1829744000 680 0.0170000000 721 0.0009765896
640 0.1750000000 681 0.0159037900 722 0.0009111088
641 0.1672235000 682 0.0148371800 723 0.0008501332
642 0.1596464000 683 0.0138106800 724 0.0007932384
643 0.1522776000 684 0.0128347800 725 0.0007400000
644 0.1451259000 685 0.0119200000 726 0.0006900827
645 0.1382000000 686 0.0110683100 727 0.0006433100
646 0.1315003000 687 0.0102733900 728 0.0005994960
150
Table 8.1 Continued

729 0.0005584547 763 0.0000487184 797 0.0000045697
730 0.0005200000 764 0.0000454475 798 0.0000042602
731 0.0004839136 765 0.0000424000 799 0.0000039717
732 0.0004500528 766 0.0000395610 800 0.0000037029
733 0.0004183452 767 0.0000369151 801 0.0000034522
734 0.0003887184 768 0.0000344487 802 0.0000032183
735 0.0003611000 769 0.0000321482 803 0.0000030003
736 0.0003353835 770 0.0000300000 804 0.0000027971
737 0.0003114404 771 0.0000279913 805 0.0000026078
738 0.0002891656 772 0.0000261136 806 0.0000024312
739 0.0002684539 773 0.0000243602 807 0.0000022665
740 0.0002492000 774 0.0000227246 808 0.0000021130
741 0.0002313019 775 0.0000212000 809 0.0000019699
742 0.0002146856 776 0.0000197786 810 0.0000018366
743 0.0001992884 777 0.0000184529 811 0.0000017122
744 0.0001850475 778 0.0000172169 812 0.0000015962
745 0.0001719000 779 0.0000160646 813 0.0000014881
746 0.0001597781 780 0.0000149900 814 0.0000013873
747 0.0001486044 781 0.0000139873 815 0.0000012934
748 0.0001383016 782 0.0000130516 816 0.0000012058
749 0.0001287925 783 0.0000121782 817 0.0000011241
750 0.0001200000 784 0.0000113625 818 0.0000010480
751 0.0001118595 785 0.0000106000 819 0.0000009771
752 0.0001043224 786 0.0000098859 820 0.0000009109
753 0.0000973356 787 0.0000092173 821 0.0000008493
754 0.0000908459 788 0.0000085924 822 0.0000007917
755 0.0000848000 789 0.0000080091 823 0.0000007381
756 0.0000791467 790 0.0000074657 824 0.0000006881
757 0.0000738580 791 0.0000069596 825 0.0000006415
758 0.0000689160 792 0.0000064880 826 0.0000005981
759 0.0000643027 793 0.0000060487 827 0.0000005576
760 0.0000600000 794 0.0000056394 828 0.0000005198
761 0.0000559819 795 0.0000052578 829 0.0000004846
762 0.0000522256 796 0.0000049018 830 0.0000004518
151
Table 8.2 Values of the spectral luminous efficiency function for scotopic vision V′(l)

380 0.0005890000 421 0.1052000000 462 0.5880000000
381 0.0006650000 422 0.1141000000 463 0.5990000000
382 0.0007520000 423 0.1235000000 464 0.6100000000
383 0.0008540000 424 0.1334000000 465 0.6200000000
384 0.0009720000 425 0.1436000000 466 0.6310000000
385 0.0011080000 426 0.1541000000 467 0.6420000000
386 0.0012680000 427 0.1651000000 468 0.6530000000
387 0.0014530000 428 0.1764000000 469 0.6640000000
388 0.0016680000 429 0.1879000000 470 0.6760000000
389 0.0019180000 430 0.1998000000 471 0.6870000000
390 0.0022090000 431 0.2119000000 472 0.6990000000
391 0.0025470000 432 0.2243000000 473 0.7100000000
392 0.0029390000 433 0.2369000000 474 0.7220000000
393 0.0033940000 434 0.2496000000 475 0.7340000000
394 0.0039210000 435 0.2625000000 476 0.7450000000
395 0.0045300000 436 0.2755000000 477 0.7570000000
396 0.0052400000 437 0.2886000000 478 0.7690000000
397 0.0060500000 438 0.3017000000 479 0.7810000000
398 0.0069800000 439 0.3149000000 480 0.7930000000
399 0.0080600000 440 0.3281000000 481 0.8050000000
400 0.0092900000 441 0.3412000000 482 0.8170000000
401 0.0107000000 442 0.3543000000 483 0.8280000000
402 0.0123100000 443 0.3673000000 484 0.8400000000
403 0.0141300000 444 0.3803000000 485 0.8510000000
404 0.0161900000 445 0.3931000000 486 0.8620000000
405 0.0185200000 446 0.4060000000 487 0.8730000000
406 0.0211300000 447 0.4180000000 488 0.8840000000
407 0.0240500000 448 0.4310000000 489 0.8940000000
408 0.0273000000 449 0.4430000000 490 0.9040000000
409 0.0308900000 450 0.4550000000 491 0.9140000000
410 0.0348400000 451 0.4670000000 492 0.9230000000
411 0.0391600000 452 0.4790000000 493 0.9320000000
412 0.0439000000 453 0.4900000000 494 0.9410000000
413 0.0490000000 454 0.5020000000 495 0.9490000000
414 0.0545000000 455 0.5130000000 496 0.9570000000
415 0.0604000000 456 0.5240000000 497 0.9640000000
416 0.0668000000 457 0.5350000000 498 0.9700000000
417 0.0736000000 458 0.5460000000 499 0.9760000000
418 0.0808000000 459 0.5570000000 500 0.9820000000
419 0.0885000000 460 0.5670000000 501 0.9860000000
420 0.0966000000 461 0.5780000000 502 0.9900000000
152
Table 8.2 Continued

503 0.9940000000 544 0.5810000000 585 0.0899000000
504 0.9970000000 545 0.5640000000 586 0.0845000000
505 0.9980000000 546 0.5480000000 587 0.0793000000
506 1.0000000000 547 0.5310000000 588 0.0745000000
507 1.0000000000 548 0.5140000000 589 0.0699000000
508 1.0000000000 549 0.4970000000 590 0.0655000000
509 0.9980000000 550 0.4810000000 591 0.0613000000
510 0.9970000000 551 0.4650000000 592 0.0574000000
511 0.9940000000 552 0.4480000000 593 0.0537000000
512 0.9900000000 553 0.4330000000 594 0.0502000000
513 0.9860000000 554 0.4170000000 595 0.0469000000
514 0.9810000000 555 0.4020000000 596 0.0438000000
515 0.9750000000 556 0.3864000000 597 0.0409000000
516 0.9680000000 557 0.3715000000 598 0.0381600000
517 0.9610000000 558 0.3569000000 599 0.0355800000
518 0.9530000000 559 0.3427000000 600 0.0331500000
519 0.9440000000 560 0.3288000000 601 0.0308700000
520 0.9350000000 561 0.3151000000 602 0.0287400000
521 0.9250000000 562 0.3018000000 603 0.0267400000
522 0.9150000000 563 0.2888000000 604 0.0248700000
523 0.9040000000 564 0.2762000000 605 0.0231200000
524 0.8920000000 565 0.2639000000 606 0.0214700000
525 0.8800000000 566 0.2519000000 607 0.0199400000
526 0.8670000000 567 0.2403000000 608 0.0185100000
527 0.8540000000 568 0.2291000000 609 0.0171800000
528 0.8400000000 569 0.2182000000 610 0.0159300000
529 0.8260000000 570 0.2076000000 611 0.0147700000
530 0.8110000000 571 0.1974000000 612 0.0136900000
531 0.7960000000 572 0.1876000000 613 0.0126900000
532 0.7810000000 573 0.1782000000 614 0.0117500000
533 0.7650000000 574 0.1690000000 615 0.0108800000
534 0.7490000000 575 0.1602000000 616 0.0100700000
535 0.7330000000 576 0.1517000000 617 0.0093200000
536 0.7170000000 577 0.1436000000 618 0.0086200000
537 0.7000000000 578 0.1358000000 619 0.0079700000
538 0.6830000000 579 0.1284000000 620 0.0073700000
539 0.6670000000 580 0.1212000000 621 0.0068200000
540 0.6500000000 581 0.1143000000 622 0.0063000000
541 0.6330000000 582 0.1078000000 623 0.0058200000
542 0.6160000000 583 0.1015000000 624 0.0053800000
543 0.5990000000 584 0.0956000000 625 0.0049700000
153
Table 8.2 Continued


626 0.0045900000 667 0.0001848000 708 0.0000104300
627 0.0042400000 668 0.0001716000 709 0.0000097600
628 0.0039130000 669 0.0001593000 710 0.0000091400
629 0.0036130000 670 0.0001480000 711 0.0000085600
630 0.0033350000 671 0.0001375000 712 0.0000080200
631 0.0030790000 672 0.0001277000 713 0.0000075100
632 0.0028420000 673 0.0001187000 714 0.0000070400
633 0.0026230000 674 0.0001104000 715 0.0000066000
634 0.0024210000 675 0.0001026000 716 0.0000061800
635 0.0022350000 676 0.0000954000 717 0.0000058000
636 0.0020620000 677 0.0000888000 718 0.0000054400
637 0.0019030000 678 0.0000826000 719 0.0000051000
638 0.0017570000 679 0.0000769000 720 0.0000047800
639 0.0016210000 680 0.0000715000 721 0.0000044900
640 0.0014970000 681 0.0000666000 722 0.0000042100
641 0.0013820000 682 0.0000620000 723 0.0000039510
642 0.0012760000 683 0.0000578000 724 0.0000037090
643 0.0011780000 684 0.0000538000 725 0.0000034820
644 0.0010880000 685 0.0000501000 726 0.0000032700
645 0.0010050000 686 0.0000467000 727 0.0000030700
646 0.0009280000 687 0.0000436000 728 0.0000028840
647 0.0008570000 688 0.0000406000 729 0.0000027100
648 0.0007920000 689 0.0000378900 730 0.0000025460
649 0.0007320000 690 0.0000353300 731 0.0000023930
650 0.0006770000 691 0.0000329500 732 0.0000022500
651 0.0006260000 692 0.0000307500 733 0.0000021150
652 0.0005790000 693 0.0000287000 734 0.0000019890
653 0.0005360000 694 0.0000267900 735 0.0000018700
654 0.0004960000 695 0.0000250100 736 0.0000017590
655 0.0004590000 696 0.0000233600 737 0.0000016550
656 0.0004250000 697 0.0000218200 738 0.0000015570
657 0.0003935000 698 0.0000203800 739 0.0000014660
658 0.0003645000 699 0.0000190500 740 0.0000013790
659 0.0003377000 700 0.0000178000 741 0.0000012990
660 0.0003129000 701 0.0000166400 742 0.0000012230
661 0.0002901000 702 0.0000155600 743 0.0000011510
662 0.0002689000 703 0.0000145400 744 0.0000010840
663 0.0002493000 704 0.0000136000 745 0.0000010220
644 0.0002313000 705 0.0000127300 746 0.0000009620
665 0.0002146000 706 0.0000119100 747 0.0000009070
666 0.0001991000 707 0.0000111400 748 0.0000008550
154
Table 8.2 Continued

749 0.0000008060 760 0.0000004250 771 0.0000002282
750 0.0000007600 761 0.0000004010 772 0.0000002159
751 0.0000007160 762 0.0000003790 773 0.0000002042
752 0.0000006750 763 0.0000003580 774 0.0000001932
753 0.0000006370 764 0.0000003382 775 0.0000001829
754 0.0000006010 765 0.0000003196 776 0.0000001731
755 0.0000005670 766 0.0000003021 777 0.0000001638
756 0.0000005350 767 0.0000002855 778 0.0000001551
757 0.0000005050 768 0.0000002699 779 0.0000001468
758 0.0000004770 769 0.0000002552 780 0.0000001390
759 0.0000004500 770 0.0000002413
155
Chapter Nine: Luminous flux, intensity, illuminance, luminance and their interrelationships
Chapter 9: Luminous flux, intensity, illuminance,

luminance and their interrelationships
Luminous flux, intensity, illuminance and luminance are all metrics that we use to describe the
amount of light in different situations. They all depend on the basic notion of what a lumen is,
but also on the geometry of the way they are applied. The basis of all lighting calculations
depends on the way that the basic units of light are defined and their geometric interrelation-
ships. This chapter looks first at the fundamental definitions of the four units of light and then at
some of the interrelationships and methods of light calculation.
9.1 Definitions of the units

9.1.1 Flux
The formal definition of flux is:
Luminous flux: Quantity derived from radiant flux (radiant power) by evaluating the radiation
according to the spectral sensitivity of the human eye (as defined by the CIE standard photometric
observer). It is the light power emitted by a source or received by a surface.
The unit of flux is the lumen.
The lumen is calculated using the radiant energy of a source that has been multiplied by a
spectral sensitivity function. Details of this are given in section 8.1.
Flux is often used to compare the outputs of lamps and where some idea of the total amount of
light is needed without reference to a particular direction of light flow or a particular surface
being illuminated.
9.1.2 Intensity
The formal definition of intensity is:
Luminous intensity (of a point source in a given direction) (I): Luminous flux per unit solid angle in
the direction in question, i.e. the luminous flux on a small surface, divided by the solid angle that the
surface subtends at the source.
The unit of intensity is the candela which is equal to one lumen per steradian.
This brings in the concept of solid angle and more particularly, unit solid angle. A unit solid angle
is called a steradian. A steradian is the measure for a solid angle, enclosing the part of the surface
of a sphere, with the centre at its apex, with an area equal to the radius of the sphere squared.
There are therefore 4π steradians in a sphere (Figure 9.1).
r2 Figure 9.1 The steradian

3
156
9.1.3 Illuminance
The formal definition of illuminance is:
Illuminance (at a point of a surface) (E): Quotient of the luminous flux, incident on an element of the
surface containing the point, by the area of that element.
The unit of illuminance is the lux which is equivalent to one lumen per square metre.
Note that illuminance is the light falling onto a surface; this surface may be an actual surface but
may also be a virtual surface in space. As this surface has an orientation, then illuminance has
direction and is thus sometimes treated as a vector. It is also sometimes necessary to consider the
amount of light falling onto curved surfaces and methods exist for the calculation of cylindrical,
semi-cylindrical, spherical and semi-spherical illuminance.
9.1.4 Luminance
The formal definition of luminance is:
Luminance (L): Luminous flux per unit solid angle transmitted by an elementary beam passing
through the given point and propagating in the given direction, divided by the area of a section of that
beam normal to the direction of the beam and containing the given point.
It can also be defined as:
a. The luminous intensity of the light emitted or reflected in a given direction from an element of the
surface, divided by the area of the element projected in the same direction.
b. The illuminance produced by the beam of light on a surface normal to its direction, divided by the
solid angle of the source as seen from the illuminated surface.
The unit of luminance is candelas per square metre.
The definition of luminance brings in the concept of area normal to the direction of propagation;
this is sometimes called the projected area of a surface. It is important to understand that area
normal to propagation of an object will vary with direction of view. Figure 9.2 shows the various
areas for a pyramid.
Figure 9.2 Areas normal to

the direction of propagation
for a pyramid
157
Luminance is used as it represents a measurable physical quantity that relates to the perceived
sensations of brightness and lightness. However, the relationship between luminance and bright-
ness and lightness is very complex but the general rule is that if you increase the luminance of an
object or area of a space then if the luminances of all other objects in the field of view are kept the
same, the object or area will appear brighter or lighter.
9.2 Interrelationships between the units

Most lighting calculations are based on the relationship between the four units defined in section
9.1.
9.2.1 Flux and intensity

Intensity is flux per unit steradian so provided that the solid angle over which a flux is distributed
is known then intensity can be calculated and likewise the flux associated with a given intensity
can be calculated if the solid angle associated with it is known. If the distribution of intensity
from a light source is regular, then such calculations are simple. If it is more complex, then it is
necessary to divide up the beam of light into smaller zones and treat each separately.
Consider a light source of flux (W) that radiates light equally in all directions, then the intensity
(I) in any direction will be given by equation 9.1:
W (9.1)
I=
4p
The other special case is that of a Lambertian radiator. A Lambertian radiator is a perfect diffuser,
it has equal luminance in all directions and thus the intensity in any direction (Ih) is a function of
the intensity normal to the surface (I0); the relationship is given in equation 9.2:
Ih = I0 cos h (9.2)
where h is the angle between the normal to the surface and the direction of the intensity in
question. This is illustrated in Figure 9.3.
I0
Ih
Figure 9.3 A Lambertian light
source
158
For a Lambertian source, it can be shown that the intensity at the normal (I0) is related to the total
flux emitted (W) by equation 9.3:
W
I0 = (9.3)
p
For more complex light distributions, say a typical luminaire, it is normal to measure the
intensity in a number of locations within an angular web around the light source. Each reading
of intensity may be regarded as the best estimate of intensity for the solid angle that is bounded
by half of the angular distance to each of the adjacent measurement points. Thus it is possible to
calculate the solid angle associated with each intensity value and so the flux associated with it may
be calculated. The total flux from the light source may be estimated by summing all of the values
obtained in this way. This topic is covered in greater detail in section 12.3.1.
9.2.2 Intensity and illuminance

One of the most used principles in lighting calculation relates intensity and illuminance and is
known as the inverse square law. It may be derived in the following way.
Considering the light from a source towards a point as a small beam, the luminous flux (W)
contained in this beam is given by the average intensity (I) of the beam multiplied by the solid
angle (v) containing the beam. From the definitions in section 9.1, we have equation 9.4:
W=Iv (9.4)
As the surface of the solid angle is at right angles to the radius of the sphere, the illuminance on a
surface at right angles to the direction of the incident light may be derived by equation 9.5:
W Iv I Area I
E= = = × 2 = 2 (9.5)
Area Area Area R R
where Area is the area over which the surface is illuminated and R is the distance from the source
to the point of illumination.
Note: The intensity used in this calculation relates to the flux contained in a very small solid
angle and the illuminance calculated using the inverse square law will be that at a point, not that
over a large area. The section of the sphere forming the solid angle will be very small and can be
considered to be a flat surface. It should also be noted that this formula should, strictly speaking
be used with point sources. However, in most cases, provided the size of the maximum dimen-
sion of the source is less than a fifth of the distance from the source to the point of illumination,
the errors involved in any calculations will be very small.
In practice, the direction of light onto a surface is not often normal to the plane and in this
circumstance, the area of the plane receiving the flux will be increased as shown in Figure 9.4.
The illuminance on plane ‘abcd’ will be less than that on plane ‘ABCD’ because the flux on both
areas is the same but the area is increased.
159
Light flux
C
D
h
B
d
A
a c
Figure 9.4 Illuminance on an inclined plane
The area of ‘ABCD’ is equal to the area of ‘abcd’ multiplied by cos h, thus the illuminance on an
inclined plane may be calculated using equation 9.6
I cosh
E= (9.6)
D2
where h is the angle between the incident light and the normal to the surface.
160
Chapter Ten: Direct lighting
Chaper 10: Direct lighting
This chapter explores some of the techniques used for predicting the illuminance due to various
light sources.
10.1 Illuminance from point sources

In Chapter 9 in the discussion of photometric quantities, it was assumed in the discussion of flux
and intensity that the source of light was a point. In practice, all light sources have a finite size
and so the formulae start to break down. However, for most practical purposes, it can be shown
that if the distance between the source and the point being illuminated is at least five times the
maximum dimension of the light source then point source formulae may be used and the errors
that arise are generally small enough to be neglected.
10.1.1 Planar illuminance

In Chapter 9, the equation for planar illuminance was derived:
I cosh
E= (10.1)
D2
where E is the illuminance, I is the intensity from the source to the point where the illuminance
is evaluated, θ is the angle between the normal to the plane being illuminated and the line joining
the point of illumination to the light source. D is the distance between the point of illumination
and the source.
This formula may be developed to make it more useful. Consider the calculation of illuminance
across a horizontal plane due to a single light source; see Figure 10.1. The distance D will vary
with the point considered on the horizontal plane. The calculation may be simplified so that
height H (which is fixed) may be used instead of D.
Note in this case b = c

D
Ic
H
Io
Figure 10.1 Calculation of illuminance across a horizontal plane due to a single light source
In this case, the illuminance at the point is given by equation 10.2:

161
I c cos b
E= (10.2)
D2
where Iγ is the intensity towards the point, b is the angle between the direction of the intensity
and the perpendicular to the plane and D is the distance between the source and the illuminated
point. Given that angles b and c are the same, we can rewrite equation 10.2 in the steps set out in
equation 10.3:
I c cos c I c cos c I c cos 3 c
E= = = (10.3)
D2 2
H2
( H cos c)
10.1.2 Cylindrical illuminance
Cylindrical illuminance is a useful metric as it can be used to give an impression as to how visible
an object might be when placed at a certain point in space. It is used as a metric in workplaces to
control lighting to ensure that people’s heads are visible.
It should be noted that the definition of the term cylindrical illuminance relates to the amount
of light falling onto the curved surface of an infinitely small cylinder and does not include light
falling onto the ends of the cylinder.
h
D
Figure 10.2 Cylindrical illuminance
For cylindrical illuminance, Figure 10.2 gives the geometry of the situation and equation 10.4
gives the cylindrical illuminance (Ecyl) at point P:
I sin h
Ecyl = (10.4)
D2 p
where Ecyl is the cylindrical illuminance at point P, I is the luminous intensity of the source in the
direction of the point P, h is the angle between the direction of light incidence and the direction
of the axis of the cylinder and D is the distance between the light source and the point.
10.1.3 Semi-cylindrical illuminance

Semi-cylindrical illuminance has been found to be a good parameter for describing the visibility
of people’s faces under street lighting conditions. For semi-cylindrical calculations, the situation
is slightly more complex than for cylindrical calculations as the direction of view has to be taken
into account. Figure 10.3 shows the layout.
162
D
c
Ip
Figure 10.3 Semi-cylindrical illuminance
Semi-cylindrical illuminance may be calculated with equation 10.5:

IP
ESC = (1 + cosa)sinc (10.5)
p D2
where ESC is the semi-cylindrical illuminance at point P, Ip is the luminous intensity of the source
in the direction of the point P, a is the angle between the direction of light incidence and the
direction of observation on which the semi-cylinder stands and c is the angle between the
direction of light incidence and the normal on the semi-cylindrical plane.
10.1.4 Spherical illuminance

Average spherical illuminance at a point is a useful metric to describe the average amount of light
falling on a point in space; it is sometimes known as the scalar illuminance and it is used as the
basis of a calculation of how strong a modelling effect at that point is.
Average spherical illuminance is quite simple to calculate using equation 10.6:

I
Esph = (10.6)
4 D2
where Esph is the spherical illuminance, I is the intensity from the source in the direction of the
sphere and D is the distance from the source to the sphere.
10.1.5 Hemispherical illuminance

Hemispherical illuminance is used as a metric for assessing the performance of roads using
the A-classes as defined in BS EN 13201-2 (BSI, 2003a). Note that the use of A classes is not
recommended in the UK by BS 5489-1 (BSI, 2003e), however, it is used in some other European
countries.
163
Hemispherical illuminance is the ratio of luminous flux incident on an infinitely small

semi-sphere to the area of that semi-sphere. The orientation of the semi-sphere is defined by the
normal to the base. Hemispherical illuminance may be calculated using equation 10.7.
D n
Ip
Figure 10.4 Hemispherical illuminance

IP
EHSP = (1 + cos a) (10.7)
4 D2
where EHSP is the hemispherical illuminance at point P, IP is the luminous intensity from the
source in the direction of point P, D is the distance from the source to point P and a is the angle
between the normal to the base of the hemisphere and the incident light.
10.2 Non-point sources

Traditionally, there have been a number of calculation methods that deal with line and area
sources, and some of these methods are given below. However, all of these techniques are
limited in their application and care has to be taken to ensure they are applied correctly. Since
computers have become widely available, the most used and generally applicable technique for
dealing with large sources has become recursive source sub division, where sources are split
down until each element’s maximum dimension is less than one-fifth of the distance from the
element to the point being illuminated.
10.2.1 Line source calculations

Line source formulae are used for linear light sources, for example, luminaires using long
fluorescent tubes. There are a number of formulae to cover points both on and off the axis of the
light source. Some of the formulae make assumptions about the light distribution of the source
and so care has to be taken when applying them. The equations 10.8 and 10.9 for illuminance
at points below the axis of the light source will work for any photometric distribution. Other
equations, not given in this Code, will only work where the shape of the photometric distribution
follows certain rules.
In equations 10.8 and 10.9, the following symbols are used.

164
E Illuminance at point

H Height of light source above point
L Length of light source (see Figures 10.5 and 10.6)
I0 Intensity of light source to the downward vertical
a Aspect angle (see Figures 10.5 and 10.6)
AF Aspect factor (see Table 10.1)
Io
H
Figure 10.5 Point under the end of a linear source
Equation 10.8 gives the illuminance at a point under the end of a linear source (see Figure 10.5):
Io AF (a )
E= (10.8)
LH
I1 I2
L = I 1 + I2
LHS RHS
H Figure 10.6 Point under a linear source
a1 a2
Equation 10.9 gives the illuminance at a point under a linear source (see Figure 10.6)
I0 ¥ ( AF (a1 ) + AF (a2 ))
E= (10.9)
LH
It is also possible to calculate the illuminance on a point that lies on the axis of a light source but
is away from the end, by assuming a virtual light source that extends to the point then doing a
165
calculation by subtracting the result for the virtual source from the combined virtual and real
sources.
In order to use equations 10.8 and 10.9, it is necessary to know the aspect factor for the light
source. This may be calculated using the process set out in Table 10.1.
Table 10.1 Calculation of aspect factors
a b c d e f g h
Vertical Axial (Ic,90)/ cos c Average c / radians Angular Aspect

angle (c) intensity (I0,90) (Ic,90)/ step / factor
(Ic,90) (I0,90) radians
0 310.0 1.000 1.000 – – – –
5 308.8 0.996 0.992 0.996 0.087 0.087 0.087
10 305.3 0.985 0.970 0.981 0.175 0.087 0.173
15 299.4 0.966 0.933 0.951 0.262 0.087 0.256
20 291.3 0.940 0.883 0.908 0.349 0.087 0.335
25 280.9 0.906 0.821 0.852 0.436 0.087 0.409
30 268.5 0.866 0.750 0.786 0.524 0.087 0.478
35 253.9 0.819 0.671 0.711 0.611 0.087 0.540
40 237.5 0.766 0.587 0.629 0.698 0.087 0.595
45 219.2 0.707 0.500 0.543 0.785 0.087 0.642
50 199.3 0.643 0.413 0.457 0.873 0.087 0.682
55 177.8 0.574 0.329 0.371 0.960 0.087 0.714
60 155.0 0.500 0.250 0.289 1.047 0.087 0.740
65 131.0 0.423 0.179 0.214 1.134 0.087 0.758
70 106.0 0.342 0.117 0.148 1.222 0.087 0.771
75 80.2 0.259 0.067 0.092 1.309 0.087 0.779
80 53.8 0.174 0.030 0.049 1.396 0.087 0.783
85 27.0 0.087 0.008 0.019 1.484 0.087 0.785
90 0.0 0.000 0.000 0.004 1.571 0.087 0.785
166
The calculation process is as follows:

I
1) From the values of axial intensity in column (b) calculate the ratio of c,90 for column
I0,90
(c).
2) Multiply the values in column (c) by the cosine of the respective angles of column (a) to
determine the values for column (d).
cos(c) I c ,90
3) The values of column (e) are the average of the values of for the angle being
I0,90
considered and the preceding angle.
4) Column (f) is the value of the angle of column (a) expressed in radians.
5) Column (g) is the difference in angle between the angle considered and the previous angle,
measured in radians.
6) Aspect Factor is shown in column (h); it is derived from the cumulative total of the values
of column (e) × column (g).
10.2.2 Area sources

There are a number of formulae available to calculate the illuminance due to an area source at
a given point. Most of these formulae have limitations to their applicability. Equation 10.10 has
the restriction that the luminance of the source towards the point being illuminated must be the
same across the source.
A B
C
D
Figure 10.7 Illuminance from an

area source
a1
b1
a2
b2
P E
For a rectangle of luminance L, angles as shown in Figure 10.7 and angles b1 and b2 expressed in
radians, the horizontal illuminance at point P is given by equation 10.10:
L
E= (b1 sin a1 + b2 sin a2 ) (10.10)
2
10.2.3 Recursive source subdivision
Recursive source subdivision is a process whereby a large light source is split up into a number of
elements so that each element may be considered to be a point source for a given calculation.
167
E
B
A
G H
D F C
Figure 10.8 Recursive source subdivision
The process is illustrated in Figure 10.8. The source is an area source given by rectangle ABCD;
dimension AB is too large for the ratio of the distance between the centre of the rectangle to
the maximum dimension of the source to pass the 1 to 5 rule. Thus, ABCD is divided into two
rectangles, AEFD and EBCF; each of these two light sources has half the intensity of the original
source. Considering source AEFD, it is found that dimension AD is too large for the source to
be considered a point source, so it is further subdivided into AEHG and GHFD; each of these
sources has half of the intensity of AEFD. This process is repeated until the whole of the original
light source is subdivided into elements for which the 1 to 5 rule holds. Then it is possible to
calculate the illuminance at point P by summing the illuminance from each of the elements of
the original light source.
168
Chapter Eleven: Indirect lighting
Chapter 11: Indirect lighting
11.1 Introduction
In any interior space, light may reach any given point either directly from the source or via a
number of inter-reflections off the room surfaces. Fully modelling these multiple reflections
is highly complex; however, the objective of this chapter is to provide a number of relatively
simple techniques that permit the estimation of indirect light in a number of relatively common
situations. All of the indirect calculation methods discussed assume that all of the reflecting
surfaces reflect light in a way that is diffuse and that the luminance of any surface is the same in
all directions and only a function of the illuminance on it and its reflection factor.
11.2 Sumpner’s method

Sumpner’s method relies on the fact that all of the light entering a space must either leave it or
be absorbed on one of the surfaces of the space. Thus, in a room, we are able to calculate the
average illuminance onto the room surfaces if we know the total light flux entering the space and
the reflective properties of the walls. Equation 11.1 is a mathematical statement of Sumpner’s
method:
W
E= (11.1)
A (1 - Rav )
where: E is the average illuminance on the room surfaces

W is the total flux entering the space
A is the total area of the room surfaces
Rav is the area weighted average reflectance of the surfaces and thus, 1–R is the average
absorbance.
As it is quite easy to calculate the direct illuminance onto room surfaces, it is often more useful
to be able to look at the average indirect illuminance (Eind) falling on to the surfaces, see equation
11.2:
W Rav
Eind = ¥ (11.2)
A 1 - Rav
11.2.1 Checking the results of lighting calculation software
Sumpner’s method may also be used to check the results of a lighting calculation. As all flux
entering a space must be absorbed, it is easy to do a quick check. Consider a room 6 m long, 4 m
wide and 2.5 m high; see Figure 11.1.
Figure 11.1 Example room
169
In the room, the reflectance of the ceiling is 0.7, the walls 0.5 and the floors 0.2. The room is
illuminated with two luminaires each containing two lamps each with an output of 5200 lumens;
the light output ratio of the luminaires is 0.69. From lighting software, the average illuminances
have been calculated and are shown in Table 11.1.
Table 11.1 Calculated illuminances
Surface Average illuminance / lx
Ceiling 132
Floor 417
Left wall 212
Back wall 217
Right wall 212
Front wall 217
Given these data, it is simple to calculate the flux being absorbed on each surface and thus the
total flux being absorbed. The necessary calculations are shown in Table 11.2.
Table 11.2 Calculation of absorbed flux
Surface Area (A) Reflectance Absorbance Illuminance Absorbed flux

(R) (1–R) (E) (A × (1–R) × E)
Ceiling 24 0.7 0.3 132 950
Floor 24 0.2 0.8 417 8006
Left wall 15 0.5 0.5 212 1590
Back wall 10 0.5 0.5 217 1085
Right wall 15 0.5 0.5 212 1590
Front wall 10 0.5 0.5 217 1085
Total 14306
The total flux coming from the luminaires is equal to the total lamp flux per luminaire
(2 × 5200) multiplied by the number of luminaires (2) multiplied by the LOR of each luminaire
(0.69). This gives a total flux leaving the luminaires of 14,352 lumens (2 × 5200 × 2 × 0.69).
Thus, in this case, it can be seen that the calculation is approximately correct.
11.3 Transfer factors

Transfer factors can be used to assess the amount of light inter-reflected between various
surfaces in a room. The method is used as the basis of utilisation factor calculations and has been
developed to cope with the room being broken down into three or four sets of surfaces. The
170
three surface case is used for luminaries mounted close to the ceiling, and the room surfaces used

are the ceiling, the walls and the floor. The four surface case is for suspended luminaires and the
surfaces used are the ceiling, the frieze (the upper walls), the walls and the floor. The underling
notion behind form factors may be extended to be used with as many surfaces as necessary
to fully describe any complex shape. However, many of the mathematical simplifications that
are possible with the transfer factor methods described here are not always possible and so the
application of such methods may be numerically complex. However, because such methods
provide a method to cope with any spatial shape, they are often used in lighting calculation
software.
The description of transfer method requires the use of a large number of equations, and the
symbols used in them are:
gij The exchange coefficient between two parallel surfaces i and j

A The width of a surface or room
B The length of a surface or room
H The separation between two surfaces or height of a room
T The ratio of the width of a surface to the separation between the surfaces
U The ratio of the length of a surface to the separation between the surfaces
FF(i,j) The form factor between surfaces or elements of a room i and j
C The ceiling surface of a room
W The wall surface of a room
F The working plane surface of a room
S The frieze surface of a room
L The luminaire plane in a room
M The luminous exitance of a surface
RI The Room Index, the ratio of the floor area to half the wall area of a room
UF(i) The utilisation factor for surface i
DF(i) The distribution factor for surface i
FT[] The flux transfer matrix for a room
R(i) The reflectance of surface i
TF(i,j) The transfer factor between surface i and j
11.3.1 Basis of calculation

For any two surfaces, it is possible to consider the flux being transferred between them as a
function of the flux leaving the surface per unit area (luminous exitance), the area of the surface
and a geometric multiplier, the form factor, which is a function of the geometric relationship
between the two surfaces. The form factor represents the fraction of the flux leaving one surface
that arrives at another surface. Figure 11.2 diagrammatically represents the situation.
Area
Area FF(S2,S1).M(S2).A(S2)
A(S2)
A(S1)
Luminous exitance
Luminous exitance FF(S1,S2).M(S1).A(S1) M(S2)
M(S1)
Surface S1 Surface S2
Figure 11.2 Flux transfer

171
11.3.2 Calculation of form factors

The basis of the calculation of form factors used here is the equation given in CIE 40 (CIE, 1978)
for the exchange coefficient, between two parallel surfaces, i and j, of width A, length B and
separation H. The exchange coefficients give the fraction of the flux leaving one surface that goes
to the other surface.
1 1
Ï 2 Ê ˆ Ê ˆ¸
Ô(B + H 2
) 2
tan -1 Á A ˜+
(
A 2
+ H 2 2
) 1
tan Á
- B ˜Ô
Ô 1 1
B Á B2 + H 2 2 ˜ A 2 ˜Ô
Á A2 + H 2
g ij =
2 AB Ô
Ì
Ë ( ) ¯ Ë ( ¯Ô
˝ (11.1)
)
p Ô
H -1 Ê A ˆ H
Ô- tan Á ˜ - tan Á ˜ + -1 Ê B ˆ H2
ln Á
( )(
Ê A 2 + H 2 B2 + H 2 ˆ Ô
Ô
)
˜
Ô B
Ó
Ë H¯ A (
Ë H ¯ 2 AB Ë A 2 + B2 + H 2 H 2 ¯ Ô
˛)
This equation needs to be developed in two ways. First, in the way of working of this method,
it is necessary to remove the surface area from the equation so that it gives a form factor rather
than an exchange coefficient. Second, to simplify the equation, as area is to be removed from the
equation, it is then that the ratios of A to H and B to H can be derived from the value of room
index and A, B and H can be replaced by T and U where:
A B
T= and U= (11.2)
H H
Thus, the basic equation for the form factor between two parallel planes is given by:
Ï T2 +1 -1
Ê U ˆ U2 +1 -1
Ê T ˆ¸
Ô ¥ tan Á + ¥ tan Á ˜Ô
2Ô T Ë T 2 + 1 ˜¯ U Ë U2 +1¯ Ô
FF(i, j) = Ì ˝ (11.3)
pÔ -1
tan U tan T -1
1
ln
T 2
(
+ 1 U 2
)(
+ 1 Ô )
Ô- - + Ô
Ó T U 2TU T 2 +U2 +1 ˛
All of the other form factors may be derived from this equation provided that appropriate values
are given for T and U.
There are two sets of calculations of form factors, one for recessed and ceiling mounted
luminaires, the three surface case and another for suspended luminaires, the four surface case.
11.3.3 The three surface case

The values of T and U are related to Room Index (RI) as RI is a function of length (L), width
(W) and height (H).
Ê LW ˆ TU
RI = Á ˜ = (11.4)
Ë H ( L + W )¯ T + U
For the calculation of standard utilisation factor tables (see section 12.3.3), it is normal to take the
ratio of room width to length as 1:1.6. However, in principle, any ratio may be used and a much
higher value may be appropriate if designing lighting for corridors, however for the rest of this
section, a value of 1:1.6 will be assumed. This is expressed in equation 11.5:
U = 1 .6 T (11.5)
Therefore:
1 .6 T 2 T
RI = =
2.6T 1.625
(11.6)
\ T = 1.625 RI
\ U = 2.6 RI
172
Thus with T set to 1.625 RI and U set to 2.6 RI, equation 11.3 may be used to calculate the form

factor for the ceiling and the working plane, FF(C,F) and FF(F,C).
The form factors for the floor to walls and ceiling to walls are easy to calculate as the flux that
leaves the ceiling and does not get to the floor must go to the walls. Thus:
FF(C, W ) = 1 - FF(C, F)
(11.7)
FF( F, W ) = 1 - FF( F, C)
The form factors for the walls to the ceiling and floor can be derived by using the reversible
nature of form factors thus:
Area(C)
FF(W , C) = FF(C, W ) (11.8)
Area(W )
As Room Index is in fact the area of the ceiling divided by half the area of the walls, then the
above equation may be rewritten:
RI
FF(W , C) = FF(C, W ) (11.9)
2
Likewise:
RI
FF(W , F) = FF( F, W ) (11.10)
2
The wall to wall transfer factor is similarly the flux that leaves the wall that does not go to the
ceiling or the floor. Thus:
FF(W , W ) = 1 - FF(W , C) - FF(W , F ) (11.11)
With these equations, it is then possible to calculate all form factors needed for the evaluation of a
standard set of utilisation factors. Table 11.3 gives the calculated form factors.
Table 11.3 Form factors for the three surface cases
RI FF(F,W) FF(C,W) FF(F,C) FF(C,F) FF(W,F) FF(W,C) FF(W,W)

0.60 0.74727 0.25273 0.22418 0.55164
0.80 0.65810 0.34190 0.26324 0.47352
1.00 0.58466 0.41534 0.29233 0.41534
1.25 0.51122 0.48878 0.31951 0.36097
1.50 0.45330 0.54670 0.33998 0.32005
2.00 0.36877 0.63123 0.36877 0.26246
2.50 0.31051 0.68949 0.38814 0.22372
3.00 0.26809 0.73191 0.40213 0.19573
4.00 0.21056 0.78944 0.42113 0.15774
5.00 0.17341 0.82659 0.43352 0.13296
11.3.4 The four surface case

In the case of suspended luminaires, the situation is more complex. To start with, there are three
parallel planes to consider, the working plane, the luminaire plane and the ceiling. Again equation
11.3 may be used to calculate the form factors for ceiling and working plane FF(C,F) and
FF(F,C); luminaire plane and ceiling FF(L,C) and FF(C,L); and finally, the working plane and
the luminaire plane FF(L,F) and FF(F,L). The values of T and U used are given Table 11.4.
173
Table 11.4 Values of T and U

Form factor calculated T U
FF(C,F) and FF(F,C) RI × 1.625 × 3/4 RI × 2.6 × 3/4
FF(F,L) and FF(L,F) RI × 1.625 RI × 2.6
FF(L,C) and FF(C,L) RI × 1.625 × 3 RI × 2.6 × 3
The other form factors are derived in a similar way to that used in the three surface case. The
factor for the ceiling to the frieze is given by
FF(C,S) = 1 - FF(C,L) (11.12)
The form factor for the frieze to the ceiling may be calculated by using the following equation:
Area(C)
FF(S, C) = FF(C, S) (11.13)
Area(S)
Given that the relationship between the area of the frieze and ceiling is a function of room index,
the above equation may be rewritten as:
3 RI
FF(S, C) = FF(C, S) (11.14)
2
The form factor for the ceiling to the walls is given by:
FF(C, W ) = FF(C, L) - FF(C, F) (11.15)
The reverse form factor for the walls to the ceiling is given by
Area(C)
FF(W , C) = FF(C, W ) (11.16)
Area(W )
The above equation may be rewritten in terms of the room index as follows
RI
FF(W , C) = FF(C, W ) (11.17)
2
The frieze to frieze form factor is that fraction of the flux from the frieze that does not go to the
ceiling or the luminaire plane. Its calculation is simplified by the fact that the form factors from
the frieze to the luminaire plane and the ceiling are the same
FF(S, S) = 1 - 2 FF(S, C) (11.18)
The form factor for the floor to the frieze is the fraction of the flux leaving the floor that reaches
the luminaire plane but does not reach the ceiling, so the equation for the factor is given by
FF( F, S) = FF( F, L) - FF( F, C) (11.19)
174
The reverse of the above factor, the frieze to floor factor may be evaluated by the following

equation
Area( F )
FF(S, F) = FF( F, S) (11.20)
Area(S)
This may be rewritten in terms of room index
3 RI
FF(S, F ) = FF( F, S) (11.21)
2
The floor to wall factor is then given by the fraction of the flux leaving the floor that does not
reach the luminaire plane
FF( F, W ) = 1 - FF( F, L) (11.22)
The reverse of the above factor is calculated by multiplying it by a ratio of the respective areas to
get the form factor floor to wall
Area( F )
FF(W , F) = FF( F, W ) (11.23)
Area(W )
This may be rewritten in terms of room index as
RI
FF(W , F) = FF( F, W ) (11.24)
2
The wall to wall form factor is given by the following equation
FF(W , W ) = 1 - 2 FF(W , F) (11.25)
The frieze to wall form factor is calculated on the basis that the fraction of the flux leaving the
frieze that ends up on the walls is that flux that does not go to any of the other room surfaces
FF(S, W ) = 1 - FF(S, C) - FF(S, S) - FF(S, F) (11.26)
The final form factor of the walls to the frieze is the reverse of the above factor and may be
calculated
Area(S)
FF(W , S) = FF(S, W ) (11.27)
Area(W )
The area of the frieze is always one-third of the area of the walls so the above equation may be
rewritten as
1
FF(W , S) = FF(S, W ) (11.28)
3
With these equations, it is then possible to calculate all form factors needed for the evaluation of
a standard set of utilisation factors for suspended luminaires. Table 11.5 gives the calculated form
factors.
175
Table 11.5 Form factors for the four surface case

RI FF(F,C) FF(C,S) FF(S,C) FF(C,W) FF(W,C) FFS,S) FF(F,S)

FF(C,F)
0.60 0.175969 0.398586 0.358727 0.425445 0.127634 0.282545 0.076762
0.80 0.252731 0.320654 0.384785 0.426615 0.170646 0.230430 0.089168
1.00 0.321140 0.268090 0.402135 0.410770 0.205385 0.195730 0.094200
1.25 0.393953 0.222495 0.417178 0.383552 0.239720 0.165644 0.094824
1.50 0.454306 0.190181 0.427908 0.355512 0.266634 0.144185 0.092392
2.00 0.546698 0.147434 0.442302 0.305868 0.305868 0.115396 0.084534
2.50 0.613134 0.120425 0.451594 0.266441 0.333051 0.096812 0.076354
3.00 0.662836 0.101807 0.458133 0.235357 0.353035 0.083735 0.069074
4.00 0.731910 0.077799 0.466791 0.190291 0.380583 0.066417 0.057525
5.00 0.777505 0.062975 0.472312 0.159520 0.398800 0.055377 0.049087
RI FF(S,F) FF(F,W) FF(W,F) FF(W,W) FF(S,W) FF(W,S)

0.60 0.069086 0.747269 0.224181 0.551639 0.289641 0.096547
0.80 0.107001 0.658101 0.263240 0.473519 0.277784 0.092595
1.00 0.141299 0.584660 0.292330 0.415340 0.260836 0.086945
1.25 0.177796 0.511223 0.319514 0.360972 0.239382 0.079794
1.50 0.207881 0.453302 0.339976 0.320047 0.220026 0.073342
2.00 0.253601 0.368768 0.368768 0.262463 0.188701 0.062900
2.50 0.286326 0.310512 0.388140 0.223719 0.165268 0.055089
3.00 0.310834 0.268090 0.402135 0.195730 0.147299 0.049100
4.00 0.345152 0.210565 0.421129 0.157742 0.121639 0.040546
5.00 0.368149 0.173408 0.433521 0.132958 0.104162 0.034721
11.3.5 Derivation of transfer factors

The fraction of the flux intercepted by a room surface, the utilisation factor of that surface, is the
sum of the flux directly received and the flux transferred from the other room surfaces. The flux
transferred from any room surface to another is the total flux leaving the surface multiplied by
the form factor between the two surfaces. The fraction of flux leaving a surface is the utilisation
factor of the surface multiplied by the reflection factor of the surface. So for the three surface
case, the following equations describe the situation
UF( F) = DF( F ) + UF(W ). R(W ). FF(W , F) + UF(C). R(C). FF(C, F)

UF(W ) = UF( F ). R( F). FF( F, W ) + DF(W ) + UF(W ). R(W ). FF(W , W )
(11.29)
+ UF(C). R(C). FF(C, W )
UF(C) = UF( F). R( F). FF( F, C) + UF(W ). R(W ). FF(W , C) + DF(C)
176
For the four surface case, the equations become

UF( F) = DF( F ) + UF(W ). R(W ). FF(W , F) + UF(S). R(S). FF(S, F)
+ UF(C). R(C). FF(C, F )
UF(W ) = UF( F). R( F). FF( F, W ) + DF(W ) + UF(W ). R(W ). FF(W , W )
+ UF(S). R(S). FF(S, W ) + UF(C). R(C). FF(C, W )
(11.30)
UF(S) = UF( F ). R( F). FF( F, S) + UF(W ). R(W ). FF(W , S) + DF(S)
+ UF(S). R(S). FF(S, S) + UF(C). R(C). FF(C, S)
UF(C) = UF( F). R( F). FF( F, C) + UF(W ). R(W ). FF(W , C)
+ UF(S). R(S). FF(S, C) + DF(C)
These equations may be arranged into a more logical form with the distribution factors all
arranged on the left-hand side.
For the three surface case, the equations become
DF( F) = UF( F) - UF(W ). R(W ). FF(W , F) - UF(C). R(C). FF(C, F)

DF(W ) = - UF( F ). R( F). FF( F, W ) + UF(W ).(1 - R(W ). F(W , W ))
(11.31)
- UF(C). R(C). FF(C, W )
DF(C) = -UF( F ). R( F). FF( F, C) - UF(W ). R(W ). FF(W , C) + UF(C)
For the four surface case, they are
DF( F) = UF( F) - UF(W ). R(W ). FF(W , F) - UF(S). R(S). FF(S, F)

- UF(C). R(C). FF(C, F)
DF(W ) = -UF( F ). R( F). FF( F, W ) + UF(W ).(1 - R(W ). FF(W , W ))
- UF(S). R(S). FF(S, W ) - UF(C). R(C). FF(C, W )
(11.32)
DF(S) = -UF( F ). R( F). FF( F, S) - UF(W ). R(W ). FF(W , S)
+ UF(S).(1 - R(S). FF(S, S)) - UF(C). R(C). FF(C, S)
DF(C) = -UF( F ). R( F). FF( F, C) - UF(W ). R(W ). FF(W , C)
- UF(S). R(S). FF(S, C) + UF(C)
This set of equations enables the distribution factors required to produce a given set of
utilisation factors to be found. However, to find the utilisation factors produced by a given
set of distribution factors, the equations must be solved simultaneously. The solution of these
simultaneous equations will yield the transfer factors. Expressing the above set of equations in
matrix form gives:
[ DF ] = [ FT ][UF ] (11.33)
where [DF] is the array of distribution factors, [UF] is the array of utilisation factors having the
same meanings as before and [FT] is the flux transfer matrix. In the three surface case, they are
given by equations 11.34 to 11.36 and for the four surface case, they are given by equations 11.37
to 11.39
È DF ( F ) ˘
[ DF ] = ÍÍ DF (W )˙˙ (11.34)
ÍÎ DF (C ) ˙˚
177
È UF ( F ) ˘
[UF ] = ÍÍUF (W )˙˙ (11.35)
ÍÎ UF (C ) ˙˚
È 1 - R(W ). FF(W , F ) - R(C). FF(C, F ) ˘

[ FT ] = Í- R( F).FF( F, W ) 1 - R(W ).FF(W , W ) - R(C).FF(C, W )˙˙
Í
(11.36)
ÍÎ - R( F ). FF( F, C) - R(W ). FF(W , C) 1 ˙˚
In the four surface case, the equations are:
È DF ( F ) ˘
Í ˙
Í DF (W )˙
[ DF ] = Í DF S ˙ (11.37)
( )
Í ˙
ÍÎ DF (C ) ˙˚
È UF ( F ) ˘
Í ˙
Í UF (W )˙
[UF ] = Í UF S ˙ (11.38)
( )
Í ˙
ÍÎ UF (C ) ˙˚
È 1 - R(W ). FF(W , F ) - R(S). FF(S, F) - R(C). FF(C, F)˘

Í- R( F ). FF( F, W ) 1 - R(W ). FF(W , W ) - R(S). FF(S, W ) R(C). FF(C, W ) ˙
[ ] ÍÍ - R( F).FF( F, S) - R(W )..FF(W , S) 1 - R(S).FF(S, S) R(C).FF(C, S) ˙˙
FT =
Í ˙
Î - R( F ). FF( F, C) - R(W ). FF(W , C) - R(S). FF(S, C) 1 ˚
(11.39)
In order to express the utilisation factors in terms of the distribution factors, it is necessary to find
a matrix [TF] such that:
[TF ][ FT ] = [I ] i.e. [TF ] = [ FT ]-1 (11.40)
where [I] is the identity matrix
È1 0 0 0˘
È1 0 0 ˘ Í0 1 0 0 ˙˙
[ I ] = ÍÍ0 1 0 ˙˙ or Í
Í0 0 1 0˙
(11.41)
ÍÎ0 0 1 ˙˚ Í ˙
Î0 0 0 1˚
Thus
[TF ].[ DF ] = [UF ] (11.42)
178
In the three surface case, the matrix TF is

È TF( F, F) TF(W , F) TF(C, F) ˘
[TF ] = ÍÍTF( F, W ) TF(W , W ) TF(C, W )˙˙ (11.43)
ÍÎ TF( F, C) TF(W , C) TF(C, C) ˙˚
In the four surface case, it is
È TF( F, F ) TF(W , F) TF(S, F) TF(C, F) ˘

ÍTF( F, W ) TF(W , W ) TF(S, W ) TF(C, W )˙
[TF ] = ÍÍ TF( F, S) TF(W , S) TF(S, S) TF(C, S) ˙˙ (11.44)
Í ˙
Î TF( F, C) TF(W , C) TF(S, C) TF(C, C) ˚
The matrix inversion may be achieved using a wide variety of computer programs such as
Microsoft® Excel or MathWorks® Matlab.
The above methods may be used to calculate the transfer factors to any of the room surfaces.
Tables 11.6 to 11.8 give the transfer factors for the three surface case and Tables 11.9 to 11.12 give
the values for the four surface case.
Table 11.6 Transfer factors to the working plane for the three surface case
Reflectances
Ceiling 0.8 0.8 0.8 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.5 0.5 0.5
Walls 0.7 0.5 0.3 0.7 0.5 0.3 0.7 0.5 0.3
Floor 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2
k Transfer factors to working plane
0.60 TF(C,F) 0.4532 0.3408 0.2708 0.3856 0.2934 0.2349 0.2610 0.2031 0.1650
TF(W,F) 0.3924 0.2152 0.1048 0.3735 0.2073 0.1017 0.3387 0.1923 0.0957
TF(F,F) 1.0815 1.0494 1.0293 1.0753 1.0458 1.0271 1.0638 1.0390 1.0226
0.80 TF(C,F) 0.5367 0.4259 0.3522 0.4562 0.3661 0.3051 0.3082 0.2527 0.2137
TF(W,F) 0.4500 0.2567 0.1282 0.4254 0.2455 0.1236 0.3802 0.2241 0.1144
TF(F,F) 1.0959 1.0629 1.0410 1.0872 1.0573 1.0371 1.0711 1.0468 1.0297
1.00 TF(C,F) 0.5980 0.4923 0.4184 0.5082 0.4228 0.3620 0.3433 0.2912 0.2529
TF(W,F) 0.4920 0.2891 0.1473 0.4629 0.2749 0.1411 0.4096 0.2480 0.1291
TF(F,F) 1.1072 1.0747 1.0520 1.0963 1.0673 1.0466 1.0764 1.0532 1.0361
1.25 TF(C,F) 0.6542 0.5561 0.4843 0.5561 0.4772 0.4185 0.3757 0.3281 0.2916
TF(W,F) 0.5304 0.3203 0.1665 0.4972 0.3031 0.1586 0.4361 0.2706 0.1435
TF(F,F) 1.1182 1.0871 1.0644 1.1052 1.0776 1.0571 1.0813 1.0597 1.0432
1.50 TF(C,F) 0.6954 0.6049 0.5361 0.5913 0.5187 0.4628 0.3998 0.3563 0.3219
TF(W,F) 0.5588 0.3445 0.1818 0.5224 0.3248 0.1725 0.4554 0.2876 0.1547
TF(F,F) 1.1267 1.0974 1.0751 1.1120 1.0862 1.0662 1.0850 1.0650 1.0492
2.00 TF(C,F) 0.7515 0.6740 0.6120 0.6395 0.5775 0.5274 0.4329 0.3962 0.3657
TF(W,F) 0.5979 0.3793 0.2047 0.5570 0.3559 0.1931 0.4816 0.3118 0.1711
TF(F,F) 1.1390 1.1131 1.0924 1.1218 1.0992 1.0808 1.0902 1.0730 1.0588
179

2.50 TF(C,F) 0.7877 0.7203 0.6646 0.6706 0.6170 0.5721 0.4545 0.4228 0.3958
TF(W,F) 0.6234 0.4031 0.2209 0.5796 0.3770 0.2077 0.4987 0.3281 0.1824
TF(F,F) 1.1473 1.1244 1.1054 1.1285 1.1085 1.0918 1.0936 1.0787 1.0659
3.00 TF(C,F) 0.8129 0.7535 0.7031 0.6924 0.6451 0.6047 0.4696 0.4418 0.4177
TF(W,F) 0.6414 0.4204 0.2331 0.5955 0.3924 0.2185 0.5107 0.3398 0.1908
TF(F,F) 1.1534 1.1328 1.1154 1.1333 1.1155 1.1002 1.0961 1.0829 1.0714
4.00 TF(C,F) 0.8456 0.7977 0.7557 0.7207 0.6827 0.6491 0.4894 0.4672 0.4473
TF(W,F) 0.6651 0.4440 0.2500 0.6165 0.4133 0.2336 0.5265 0.3557 0.2024
TF(F,F) 1.1615 1.1446 1.1298 1.1398 1.1252 1.1123 1.0994 1.0887 1.0791
5.00 TF(C,F) 0.8659 0.8258 0.7899 0.7383 0.7066 0.6779 0.5018 0.4833 0.4664
TF(W,F) 0.6801 0.4593 0.2614 0.6298 0.4268 0.2436 0.5365 0.3659 0.2101
TF(F,F) 1.1667 1.1525 1.1396 1.1439 1.1316 1.1205 1.1016 1.0926 1.0844
Table 11.7 Transfer factors to the walls for the three surface case
Reflectances
Ceiling 0.8 0.8 0.8 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.5 0.5 0.5
Walls 0.7 0.5 0.3 0.7 0.5 0.3 0.7 0.5 0.3
Floor 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2
k Transfer factors to walls
0.60 TF(C,W) 1.3061 1.0029 0.8139 1.1112 0.8635 0.7061 0.7521 0.5977 0.4959
TF(W,W) 2.0585 1.5805 1.2827 2.0041 1.5573 1.2734 1.9038 1.5131 1.2554
TF(F,W) 0.3737 0.2869 0.2328 0.3557 0.2764 0.2260 0.3225 0.2563 0.2127
0.80 TF(C,W) 1.0786 0.8616 0.7172 0.9168 0.7407 0.6213 0.6194 0.5112 0.4351
TF(W,W) 1.8817 1.5031 1.2513 1.8322 1.4803 1.2417 1.7414 1.4370 1.2232
TF(F,W) 0.3214 0.2567 0.2137 0.3039 0.2455 0.2059 0.2716 0.2241 0.1907
1.00 TF(C,W) 0.9142 0.7520 0.6387 0.7769 0.6458 0.5526 0.5248 0.4448 0.3860
TF(W,W) 1.7548 1.4435 1.2260 1.7104 1.4218 1.2165 1.6288 1.3808 1.1983
TF(F,W) 0.2811 0.2313 0.1964 0.2645 0.2199 0.1882 0.2341 0.1984 0.1722
1.25 TF(C,W) 0.7654 0.6472 0.5605 0.6506 0.5553 0.4843 0.4396 0.3819 0.3375
TF(W,W) 1.6398 1.3864 1.2008 1.6009 1.3663 1.1917 1.5294 1.3284 1.1742
TF(F,W) 0.2425 0.2050 0.1776 0.2273 0.1940 0.1692 0.1993 0.1732 0.1530
1.50 TF(C,W) 0.6572 0.5672 0.4989 0.5588 0.4864 0.4306 0.3778 0.3341 0.2995
TF(W,W) 1.5556 1.3425 1.1807 1.5211 1.3240 1.1721 1.4578 1.2892 1.1555
TF(F,W) 0.2129 0.1837 0.1616 0.1990 0.1732 0.1533 0.1735 0.1534 0.1375
2.00 TF(C,W) 0.5113 0.4541 0.4084 0.4351 0.3891 0.3520 0.2945 0.2669 0.2441
TF(W,W) 1.4408 1.2796 1.1509 1.4130 1.2639 1.1432 1.3617 1.2342 1.1285
TF(F,W) 0.1708 0.1517 0.1364 0.1591 0.1423 0.1288 0.1376 0.1247 0.1140
2.50 TF(C,W) 0.4180 0.3784 0.3456 0.3558 0.3241 0.2975 0.2411 0.2221 0.2058
TF(W,W) 1.3662 1.2368 1.1298 1.3430 1.2231 1.1229 1.3001 1.1974 1.1098
TF(F,W) 0.1425 0.1290 0.1178 0.1325 0.1207 0.1108 0.1140 0.1050 0.0973
180

3.00 TF(C,W) 0.3533 0.3242 0.2996 0.3009 0.2776 0.2577 0.2041 0.1901 0.1780
TF(W,W) 1.3139 1.2057 1.1141 1.2939 1.1937 1.1079 1.2571 1.1711 1.0961
TF(F,W) 0.1222 0.1121 0.1036 0.1134 0.1046 0.0971 0.0973 0.0906 0.0848
4.00 TF(C,W) 0.2697 0.2521 0.2366 0.2299 0.2157 0.2032 0.1561 0.1476 0.1400
TF(W,W) 1.2450 1.1635 1.0921 1.2295 1.1538 1.0870 1.2008 1.1356 1.0772
TF(F,W) 0.0950 0.0888 0.0833 0.0881 0.0827 0.0779 0.0752 0.0711 0.0675
5.00 TF(C,W) 0.2181 0.2062 0.1956 0.1860 0.1764 0.1678 0.1264 0.1207 0.1155
TF(W,W) 1.2016 1.1362 1.0775 1.1889 1.1280 1.0731 1.1654 1.1128 1.0648
TF(F,W) 0.0777 0.0735 0.0697 0.0720 0.0683 0.0650 0.0613 0.0585 0.0560
Table 11.8 Transfer factors to the ceiling for the three surface case
Reflectances
Ceiling 0.8 0.8 0.8 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.5 0.5 0.5
Walls 0.7 0.5 0.3 0.7 0.5 0.3 0.7 0.5 0.3
Floor 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2
k Transfer factors to ceiling
0.60 TF(C,C) 1.2279 1.1296 1.0684 1.1939 1.1116 1.0594 1.1312 1.0773 1.0417
TF(W,C) 0.3429 0.1880 0.0916 0.3334 0.1850 0.0908 0.3159 0.1793 0.0893
TF(F,C) 0.1133 0.0852 0.0677 0.1102 0.0838 0.0671 0.1044 0.0813 0.0660
0.80 TF(C,C) 1.2354 1.1425 1.0807 1.2001 1.1225 1.0699 1.1352 1.0846 1.0490
TF(W,C) 0.3775 0.2154 0.1076 0.3667 0.2116 0.1065 0.3469 0.2045 0.1044
TF(F,C) 0.1342 0.1065 0.0881 0.1303 0.1046 0.0872 0.1233 0.1011 0.0855
1.00 TF(C,C) 1.2367 1.1508 1.0908 1.2012 1.1295 1.0785 1.1359 1.0892 1.0549
TF(W,C) 0.3999 0.2350 0.1198 0.3885 0.2307 0.1184 0.3673 0.2224 0.1158
TF(F,C) 0.1495 0.1231 0.1046 0.1452 0.1208 0.1034 0.1373 0.1165 0.1012
1.25 TF(C,C) 1.2351 1.1577 1.1011 1.1999 1.1354 1.0873 1.1351 1.0931 1.0609
TF(W,C) 0.4186 0.2528 0.1314 0.4067 0.2479 0.1297 0.3847 0.2387 0.1266
TF(F,C) 0.1635 0.1390 0.1211 0.1589 0.1363 0.1196 0.1503 0.1313 0.1166
1.50 TF(C,C) 1.2324 1.1626 1.1095 1.1976 1.1394 1.0945 1.1336 1.0958 1.0657
TF(W,C) 0.4313 0.2659 0.1403 0.4191 0.2606 0.1384 0.3967 0.2506 0.1348
TF(F,C) 0.1739 0.1512 0.1340 0.1689 0.1482 0.1322 0.1599 0.1425 0.1287
2.00 TF(C,C) 1.2269 1.1688 1.1224 1.1930 1.1447 1.1055 1.1307 1.0992 1.0732
TF(W,C) 0.4474 0.2838 0.1532 0.4351 0.2780 0.1509 0.4123 0.2669 0.1464
TF(F,C) 0.1879 0.1685 0.1530 0.1827 0.1650 0.1507 0.1732 0.1585 0.1463
2.50 TF(C,C) 1.2222 1.1728 1.1319 1.1892 1.1480 1.1135 1.1282 1.1014 1.0785
TF(W,C) 0.4572 0.2956 0.1620 0.4448 0.2894 0.1594 0.4220 0.2776 0.1544
TF(F,C) 0.1969 0.1801 0.1661 0.1916 0.1763 0.1635 0.1818 0.1691 0.1583
3.00 TF(C,C) 1.2184 1.1755 1.1391 1.1861 1.1503 1.1196 1.1262 1.1029 1.0826
TF(W,C) 0.4637 0.3040 0.1685 0.4514 0.2975 0.1656 0.4286 0.2852 0.1602
TF(F,C) 0.2032 0.1884 0.1758 0.1978 0.1843 0.1728 0.1878 0.1767 0.1671
181

4.00 TF(C,C) 1.2130 1.1790 1.1492 1.1816 1.1532 1.1282 1.1233 1.1049 1.0883
TF(W,C) 0.4720 0.3151 0.1775 0.4598 0.3082 0.1742 0.4371 0.2953 0.1681
TF(F,C) 0.2114 0.1994 0.1889 0.2059 0.1951 0.1855 0.1958 0.1869 0.1789
5.00 TF(C,C) 1.2093 1.1812 1.1560 1.1785 1.1551 1.1339 1.1213 1.1061 1.0921
TF(W,C) 0.4771 0.3222 0.1833 0.4649 0.3151 0.1798 0.4424 0.3017 0.1732
TF(F,C) 0.2165 0.2065 0.1975 0.2110 0.2019 0.1937 0.2007 0.1933 0.1866
Table 11.9 Transfer factors to the working plane for the four surface case
Reflectances
Ceiling 0.8 0.8 0.8 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.5 0.5 0.5
Walls 0.7 0.5 0.3 0.7 0.5 0.3 0.7 0.5 0.3
Floor 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2
0.60 TF(C,F) 0.3558 0.2519 0.1929 0.3021 0.2168 0.1674 0.2036 0.1498 0.1176
TF(S,F) 0.2654 0.1267 0.0547 0.2456 0.1186 0.0515 0.2093 0.1033 0.0453
TF(W,F) 0.3544 0.1915 0.0931 0.3435 0.1876 0.0917 0.3233 0.1801 0.0890
TF(F,F) 1.0696 1.0394 1.0215 1.0657 1.0375 1.0204 1.0587 1.0338 1.0181
0.80 TF(C,F) 0.4447 0.3346 0.2671 0.3774 0.2877 0.2315 0.2543 0.1985 0.1623
TF(S,F) 0.3346 0.1722 0.0788 0.3087 0.1608 0.0741 0.2613 0.1390 0.0649
TF(W,F) 0.4103 0.2289 0.1133 0.3941 0.2224 0.1108 0.3644 0.2100 0.1060
TF(F,F) 1.0824 1.0501 1.0298 1.0764 1.0467 1.0276 1.0655 1.0402 1.0233
1.00 TF(C,F) 0.5129 0.4027 0.3310 0.4353 0.3459 0.2867 0.2933 0.2384 0.2007
TF(S,F) 0.3884 0.2103 0.1000 0.3578 0.1959 0.0939 0.3018 0.1687 0.0820
TF(W,F) 0.4527 0.2593 0.1303 0.4320 0.2502 0.1267 0.3942 0.2331 0.1196
TF(F,F) 1.0932 1.0601 1.0384 1.0852 1.0552 1.0350 1.0706 1.0457 1.0284
1.25 TF(C,F) 0.5776 0.4709 0.3978 0.4904 0.4043 0.3442 0.3306 0.2782 0.2404
TF(S,F) 0.4397 0.2488 0.1224 0.4047 0.2314 0.1147 0.3405 0.1986 0.0998
TF(W,F) 0.4930 0.2899 0.1481 0.4678 0.2779 0.1431 0.4216 0.2554 0.1333
TF(F,F) 1.1043 1.0715 1.0488 1.0941 1.0647 1.0439 1.0756 1.0518 1.0345
1.50 TF(C,F) 0.6264 0.5249 0.4525 0.5320 0.4504 0.3911 0.3590 0.3097 0.2727
TF(S,F) 0.4786 0.2794 0.1409 0.4403 0.2596 0.1319 0.3700 0.2221 0.1143
TF(W,F) 0.5237 0.3144 0.1629 0.4949 0.2999 0.1565 0.4419 0.2728 0.1443
TF(F,F) 1.1132 1.0814 1.0585 1.1013 1.0729 1.0522 1.0795 1.0570 1.0400
2.00 TF(C,F) 0.6945 0.6042 0.5357 0.5903 0.5180 0.4623 0.3989 0.3557 0.3215
TF(S,F) 0.5330 0.3246 0.1693 0.4902 0.3010 0.1580 0.4115 0.2566 0.1363
TF(W,F) 0.5672 0.3510 0.1859 0.5330 0.3326 0.1773 0.4700 0.2980 0.1608
TF(F,F) 1.1268 1.0974 1.0751 1.1121 1.0863 1.0663 1.0852 1.0652 1.0493
2.50 TF(C,F) 0.7394 0.6590 0.5955 0.6289 0.5647 0.5133 0.4254 0.3874 0.3561
TF(S,F) 0.5691 0.3561 0.1898 0.5233 0.3298 0.1768 0.4391 0.2805 0.1520
TF(W,F) 0.5965 0.3771 0.2030 0.5585 0.3557 0.1926 0.4886 0.3154 0.1727
TF(F,F) 1.1364 1.1097 1.0885 1.1198 1.0964 1.0776 1.0892 1.0714 1.0567
182

3.00 TF(C,F) 0.7711 0.6990 0.6403 0.6562 0.5988 0.5515 0.4444 0.4104 0.3819
TF(S,F) 0.5946 0.3791 0.2052 0.5469 0.3509 0.1910 0.4588 0.2979 0.1637
TF(W,F) 0.6175 0.3965 0.2162 0.5768 0.3728 0.2043 0.5018 0.3283 0.1817
TF(F,F) 1.1435 1.1192 1.0993 1.1255 1.1042 1.0867 1.0921 1.0761 1.0626
4.00 TF(C,F) 0.8127 0.7534 0.7030 0.6922 0.6450 0.6046 0.4694 0.4417 0.4176
TF(S,F) 0.6284 0.4107 0.2270 0.5781 0.3798 0.2109 0.4850 0.3217 0.1801
TF(W,F) 0.6457 0.4236 0.2351 0.6013 0.3966 0.2211 0.5193 0.3459 0.1944
TF(F,F) 1.1534 1.1328 1.1154 1.1333 1.1155 1.1002 1.0962 1.0829 1.0714
5.00 TF(C,F) 0.8389 0.7885 0.7447 0.7148 0.6749 0.6398 0.4853 0.4619 0.4411
TF(S,F) 0.6498 0.4314 0.2417 0.5979 0.3986 0.2242 0.5017 0.3372 0.1910
TF(W,F) 0.6637 0.4417 0.2481 0.6170 0.4124 0.2325 0.5305 0.3575 0.2030
TF(F,F) 1.1598 1.1422 1.1268 1.1384 1.1232 1.1098 1.0988 1.0875 1.0775
Table 11.10 Transfer factors to the walls for the four surface case
Reflectances
Ceiling 0.8 0.8 0.8 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.5 0.5 0.5
Walls 0.7 0.5 0.3 0.7 0.5 0.3 0.7 0.5 0.3
Floor 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2
0.60 TF(C,W) 0.9702 0.6785 0.5111 0.8236 0.5838 0.4434 0.5552 0.4036 0.3115
TF(S,W) 0.8160 0.4062 0.1830 0.7619 0.3844 0.1746 0.6628 0.3429 0.1583
TF(W,W) 1.9464 1.5073 1.2448 1.9164 1.4967 1.2411 1.8616 1.4765 1.2340
TF(F,W) 0.3376 0.2554 0.2068 0.3271 0.2501 0.2038 0.3079 0.2401 0.1978
0.80 TF(C,W) 0.8578 0.6362 0.4996 0.7280 0.5469 0.4330 0.4905 0.3774 0.3036
TF(S,W) 0.7189 0.3788 0.1775 0.6689 0.3571 0.1687 0.5775 0.3158 0.1516
TF(W,W) 1.7995 1.4438 1.2185 1.7683 1.4314 1.2139 1.7112 1.4078 1.2049
TF(F,W) 0.2930 0.2289 0.1888 0.2815 0.2224 0.1847 0.2603 0.2100 0.1766
1.00 TF(C,W) 0.7591 0.5867 0.4745 0.6442 0.5040 0.4109 0.4341 0.3474 0.2876
TF(S,W) 0.6354 0.3488 0.1682 0.5902 0.3278 0.1594 0.5073 0.2882 0.1424
TF(W,W) 1.6929 1.3955 1.1982 1.6624 1.3823 1.1929 1.6064 1.3573 1.1828
TF(F,W) 0.2587 0.2074 0.1737 0.2469 0.2002 0.1689 0.2253 0.1865 0.1595
1.25 TF(C,W) 0.6585 0.5283 0.4390 0.5591 0.4535 0.3798 0.3769 0.3122 0.2653
TF(S,W) 0.5515 0.3142 0.1557 0.5116 0.2947 0.1472 0.4385 0.2578 0.1307
TF(W,W) 1.5947 1.3490 1.1780 1.5659 1.3356 1.1724 1.5132 1.3103 1.1616
TF(F,W) 0.2254 0.1855 0.1580 0.2139 0.1779 0.1526 0.1927 0.1635 0.1422
1.50 TF(C,W) 0.5791 0.4776 0.4050 0.4919 0.4098 0.3501 0.3319 0.2817 0.2441
TF(S,W) 0.4859 0.2845 0.1439 0.4504 0.2665 0.1358 0.3855 0.2324 0.1201
TF(W,W) 1.5213 1.3127 1.1619 1.4946 1.2996 1.1562 1.4457 1.2748 1.1452
TF(F,W) 0.1995 0.1677 0.1448 0.1885 0.1600 0.1391 0.1683 0.1455 0.1282
183

2.00 TF(C,W) 0.4644 0.3977 0.3472 0.3947 0.3410 0.2997 0.2667 0.2341 0.2084
TF(S,W) 0.3916 0.2383 0.1242 0.3630 0.2228 0.1169 0.3104 0.1936 0.1028
TF(W,W) 1.4193 1.2595 1.1375 1.3963 1.2474 1.1319 1.3542 1.2246 1.1212
TF(F,W) 0.1621 0.1404 0.1240 0.1523 0.1331 0.1182 0.1343 0.1192 0.1072
2.50 TF(C,W) 0.3866 0.3395 0.3023 0.3288 0.2909 0.2606 0.2224 0.1995 0.1808
TF(S,W) 0.3281 0.2048 0.1089 0.3042 0.1913 0.1024 0.2601 0.1659 0.0898
TF(W,W) 1.3515 1.2223 1.1198 1.3316 1.2113 1.1145 1.2950 1.1906 1.1044
TF(F,W) 0.1363 0.1207 0.1083 0.1277 0.1138 0.1027 0.1117 0.1009 0.0921
3.00 TF(C,W) 0.3307 0.2957 0.2671 0.2815 0.2533 0.2301 0.1906 0.1736 0.1593
TF(S,W) 0.2826 0.1797 0.0970 0.2621 0.1677 0.0910 0.2243 0.1453 0.0797
TF(W,W) 1.3031 1.1948 1.1063 1.2856 1.1848 1.1013 1.2535 1.1659 1.0919
TF(F,W) 0.1176 0.1057 0.0961 0.1099 0.0994 0.0908 0.0956 0.0875 0.0808
4.00 TF(C,W) 0.2564 0.2347 0.2163 0.2183 0.2009 0.1860 0.1481 0.1376 0.1285
TF(S,W) 0.2218 0.1445 0.0797 0.2059 0.1349 0.0747 0.1766 0.1168 0.0652
TF(W,W) 1.2385 1.1567 1.0870 1.2245 1.1482 1.0827 1.1987 1.1324 1.0745
TF(F,W) 0.0922 0.0847 0.0784 0.0859 0.0793 0.0737 0.0742 0.0692 0.0648
5.00 TF(C,W) 0.2092 0.1944 0.1816 0.1783 0.1664 0.1560 0.1210 0.1139 0.1076
TF(S,W) 0.1831 0.1212 0.0677 0.1702 0.1131 0.0634 0.1462 0.0980 0.0554
TF(W,W) 1.1973 1.1314 1.0739 1.1856 1.1242 1.0701 1.1641 1.1106 1.0629
TF(F,W) 0.0759 0.0707 0.0661 0.0705 0.0660 0.0620 0.0606 0.0572 0.0541
Table 11.11 Transfer factors to the frieze plane for the four surface case
Reflectances
Ceiling 0.8 0.8 0.8 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.5 0.5 0.5
Walls 0.7 0.5 0.3 0.7 0.5 0.3 0.7 0.5 0.3
Floor 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2
k Transfer factors to frieze plane
0.60 TF(C,S) 0.5837 0.4643 0.3917 0.4955 0.3995 0.3398 0.3340 0.2761 0.2387
TF(S,S) 1.5031 1.2866 1.1454 1.4705 1.2717 1.1390 1.4109 1.2433 1.1264
TF(W,S) 0.2720 0.1354 0.0610 0.2540 0.1281 0.0582 0.2209 0.1143 0.0528
TF(F,S) 0.0843 0.0563 0.0405 0.0780 0.0527 0.0381 0.0664 0.0459 0.0336
0.80 TF(C,S) 0.4575 0.3713 0.3164 0.3883 0.3192 0.2743 0.2616 0.2203 0.1923
TF(S,S) 1.4019 1.2343 1.1203 1.3753 1.2216 1.1147 1.3265 1.1974 1.1039
TF(W,S) 0.2396 0.1263 0.0592 0.2230 0.1190 0.0562 0.1925 0.1053 0.0505
TF(F,S) 0.0797 0.0574 0.0438 0.0735 0.0536 0.0411 0.0622 0.0463 0.0361
1.00 TF(C,S) 0.3748 0.3097 0.2665 0.3181 0.2660 0.2308 0.2143 0.1834 0.1615
TF(S,S) 1.3343 1.1987 1.1032 1.3120 1.1877 1.0983 1.2710 1.1668 1.0887
TF(W,S) 0.2118 0.1163 0.0561 0.1967 0.1093 0.0531 0.1691 0.0961 0.0475
TF(F,S) 0.0740 0.0561 0.0445 0.0681 0.0522 0.0417 0.0575 0.0450 0.0364
184

k Transfer factors to frieze plane
1.25 TF(C,S) 0.3047 0.2567 0.2233 0.2587 0.2203 0.1932 0.1744 0.1517 0.1350
TF(S,S) 1.2761 1.1675 1.0881 1.2576 1.1580 1.0837 1.2238 1.1401 1.0754
TF(W,S) 0.1838 0.1047 0.0519 0.1705 0.0982 0.0491 0.1462 0.0859 0.0436
TF(F,S) 0.0670 0.0531 0.0435 0.0617 0.0494 0.0408 0.0519 0.0424 0.0355
1.50 TF(C,S) 0.2561 0.2192 0.1927 0.2175 0.1881 0.1666 0.1467 0.1293 0.1162
TF(S,S) 1.2352 1.1451 1.0771 1.2195 1.1368 1.0732 1.1908 1.1211 1.0658
TF(W,S) 0.1620 0.0948 0.0480 0.1501 0.0888 0.0453 0.1285 0.0775 0.0400
TF(F,S) 0.0608 0.0497 0.0418 0.0559 0.0462 0.0391 0.0470 0.0395 0.0339
2.00 TF(C,S) 0.1935 0.1699 0.1519 0.1645 0.1456 0.1311 0.1111 0.1000 0.0911
TF(S,S) 1.1816 1.1149 1.0621 1.1697 1.1082 1.0589 1.1477 1.0958 1.0528
TF(W,S) 0.1305 0.0794 0.0414 0.1210 0.0743 0.0390 0.1035 0.0645 0.0343
TF(F,S) 0.0508 0.0433 0.0376 0.0467 0.0401 0.0351 0.0392 0.0342 0.0303
2.50 TF(C,S) 0.1552 0.1387 0.1257 0.1320 0.1189 0.1083 0.0893 0.0815 0.0752
TF(S,S) 1.1482 1.0954 1.0523 1.1386 1.0899 1.0496 1.1209 1.0795 1.0443
TF(W,S) 0.1094 0.0683 0.0363 0.1014 0.0638 0.0341 0.0867 0.0553 0.0299
TF(F,S) 0.0434 0.0380 0.0337 0.0399 0.0352 0.0314 0.0335 0.0299 0.0270
3.00 TF(C,S) 0.1294 0.1173 0.1073 0.1101 0.1004 0.0924 0.0746 0.0689 0.0640
TF(S,S) 1.1254 1.0818 1.0453 1.1174 1.0771 1.0429 1.1026 1.0682 1.0383
TF(W,S) 0.0942 0.0599 0.0323 0.0874 0.0559 0.0303 0.0748 0.0484 0.0266
TF(F,S) 0.0378 0.0337 0.0304 0.0347 0.0312 0.0283 0.0291 0.0265 0.0243
4.00 TF(C,S) 0.0970 0.0896 0.0833 0.0826 0.0767 0.0716 0.0560 0.0525 0.0495
TF(S,S) 1.0962 1.0639 1.0359 1.0902 1.0602 1.0340 1.0791 1.0533 1.0303
TF(W,S) 0.0739 0.0482 0.0266 0.0686 0.0450 0.0249 0.0589 0.0389 0.0217
TF(F,S) 0.0299 0.0274 0.0252 0.0275 0.0253 0.0234 0.0231 0.0214 0.0200
5.00 TF(C,S) 0.0775 0.0725 0.0681 0.0661 0.0621 0.0585 0.0448 0.0425 0.0404
TF(S,S) 1.0783 1.0526 1.0298 1.0735 1.0496 1.0282 1.0646 1.0439 1.0252
TF(W,S) 0.0610 0.0404 0.0226 0.0567 0.0377 0.0211 0.0487 0.0327 0.0185
TF(F,S) 0.0248 0.0230 0.0215 0.0228 0.0213 0.0199 0.0191 0.0180 0.0170
Table 11.12 Transfer factors to the ceiling for the four surface case
Reflectances
Ceiling 0.8 0.8 0.8 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.5 0.5 0.5
Walls 0.7 0.5 0.3 0.7 0.5 0.3 0.7 0.5 0.3
Floor 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2
0.60 TF(C,C) 1.2458 1.1354 1.0685 1.2086 1.1165 1.0594 1.1406 1.0806 1.0417
TF(S,C) 0.4597 0.2611 0.1322 0.4460 0.2568 0.1311 0.4209 0.2485 0.1289
TF(W,C) 0.2547 0.1272 0.0575 0.2471 0.1251 0.0570 0.2332 0.1211 0.0561
TF(F,C) 0.0890 0.0630 0.0482 0.0863 0.0619 0.0478 0.0815 0.0599 0.0470
185

0.80 TF(C,C) 1.2482 1.1426 1.0756 1.2106 1.1226 1.0655 1.1419 1.0846 1.0459
TF(S,C) 0.4804 0.2785 0.1424 0.4659 0.2736 0.1411 0.4395 0.2643 0.1385
TF(W,C) 0.3002 0.1591 0.0749 0.2912 0.1563 0.0742 0.2747 0.1510 0.0729
TF(F,C) 0.1112 0.0837 0.0668 0.1078 0.0822 0.0661 0.1017 0.0794 0.0649
1.00 TF(C,C) 1.2476 1.1484 1.0826 1.2101 1.1275 1.0716 1.1416 1.0878 1.0501
TF(S,C) 0.4919 0.2903 0.1499 0.4771 0.2851 0.1483 0.4501 0.2750 0.1454
TF(W,C) 0.3321 0.1833 0.0890 0.3221 0.1800 0.0880 0.3039 0.1737 0.0863
TF(F,C) 0.1282 0.1007 0.0828 0.1244 0.0988 0.0819 0.1173 0.0954 0.0803
1.25 TF(C,C) 1.2450 1.1540 1.0909 1.2080 1.1322 1.0786 1.1402 1.0910 1.0549
TF(S,C) 0.4998 0.3008 0.1570 0.4850 0.2951 0.1553 0.4578 0.2844 0.1518
TF(W,C) 0.3601 0.2064 0.1029 0.3494 0.2025 0.1017 0.3298 0.1951 0.0995
TF(F,C) 0.1444 0.1177 0.0994 0.1401 0.1155 0.0983 0.1322 0.1113 0.0962
1.50 TF(C,C) 1.2417 1.1583 1.0982 1.2053 1.1358 1.0849 1.1385 1.0934 1.0592
TF(S,C) 0.5041 0.3083 0.1626 0.4894 0.3023 0.1606 0.4622 0.2910 0.1568
TF(W,C) 0.3800 0.2239 0.1139 0.3689 0.2195 0.1125 0.3485 0.2113 0.1099
TF(F,C) 0.1566 0.1312 0.1131 0.1520 0.1287 0.1117 0.1436 0.1239 0.1091
2.00 TF(C,C) 1.2353 1.1644 1.1106 1.2000 1.1410 1.0954 1.1351 1.0968 1.0664
TF(S,C) 0.5080 0.3185 0.1708 0.4935 0.3121 0.1685 0.4668 0.3000 0.1640
TF(W,C) 0.4063 0.2486 0.1302 0.3947 0.2436 0.1284 0.3734 0.2341 0.1250
TF(F,C) 0.1736 0.1510 0.1339 0.1687 0.1480 0.1321 0.1595 0.1423 0.1286
2.50 TF(C,C) 1.2298 1.1687 1.1202 1.1955 1.1445 1.1037 1.1323 1.0991 1.0719
TF(S,C) 0.5092 0.3251 0.1767 0.4950 0.3184 0.1741 0.4688 0.3058 0.1691
TF(W,C) 0.4228 0.2652 0.1417 0.4110 0.2597 0.1396 0.3892 0.2494 0.1356
TF(F,C) 0.1848 0.1647 0.1489 0.1797 0.1613 0.1467 0.1702 0.1549 0.1424
3.00 TF(C,C) 1.2255 1.1717 1.1279 1.1919 1.1471 1.1102 1.1299 1.1008 1.0763
TF(S,C) 0.5096 0.3298 0.1811 0.4956 0.3229 0.1783 0.4698 0.3098 0.1728
TF(W,C) 0.4341 0.2772 0.1503 0.4222 0.2714 0.1479 0.4003 0.2604 0.1434
TF(F,C) 0.1928 0.1747 0.1601 0.1875 0.1711 0.1576 0.1777 0.1642 0.1528
4.00 TF(C,C) 1.2190 1.1758 1.1393 1.1865 1.1506 1.1198 1.1265 1.1031 1.0827
TF(S,C) 0.5093 0.3359 0.1874 0.4957 0.3287 0.1842 0.4706 0.3152 0.1781
TF(W,C) 0.4486 0.2934 0.1622 0.4367 0.2871 0.1595 0.4146 0.2752 0.1542
TF(F,C) 0.2032 0.1883 0.1758 0.1978 0.1843 0.1727 0.1878 0.1767 0.1670
5.00 TF(C,C) 1.2145 1.1785 1.1472 1.1828 1.1528 1.1265 1.1241 1.1046 1.0872
TF(S,C) 0.5087 0.3398 0.1916 0.4954 0.3324 0.1882 0.4708 0.3185 0.1816
TF(W,C) 0.4576 0.3038 0.1702 0.4457 0.2972 0.1672 0.4236 0.2848 0.1613
TF(F,C) 0.2097 0.1971 0.1862 0.2042 0.1928 0.1828 0.1941 0.1848 0.1764
186
Chapter Twelve: Photometric datasheets
Chapter 12: Photometric datasheets
Whilst most lighting design is based on computer simulation, photometric datasheets are still
provided for luminaires as they can provide a quick and efficient way of picking a luminaire
that is suitable for a given application. This chapter is split into three sections. The first section
gives information on the measurement of luminaires and the production of intensity tables. The
second lists a number of elements that may be found in a datasheet and gives an explanation
where necessary on how to use this information. The third section gives information on the
calculation of certain elements.
12.1 Photometric measurement

To ensure common standards of accuracy of measurement, the procedures used to measure
the photometric performance of a luminaire are covered in BS EN 13032-1 (BSI, 2004a). The
standard covers a number of areas that are necessary to ensure accuracy of the testing process but
the definitions of angular systems to be used are also covered and they impact on the meaning of
the data produced.
There are two systems of photometric angles defined in BS EN 13032-1: the C-c and the
B-b system. The vast majority of luminaire data produced is based on the C-c system and the
B-b system is only occasionally used for some types of floodlights. Note that, throughout the
world, the C-c and B-b systems are the most common angular systems used, however, in North
America, they use other systems that are slight variants of them.
12.1.1 The C-c system

Figure 12.1 shows the luminaire orientation for C-c photometry.
Polar axis of
photometer
C= °
18 90
0° C=
C=
0°
27 0° c = 18
C= 0°
Se
co
s nd
d axi e of
lum axi
ir ir ina s
Th ina ire
l u m c = 90°
of
Page =
c = 0° C
of luminaire
half pla
ne
First axis
Figure 12.1 The C-c system

187
The totality of the C-planes is the group of planes for which the line of intersection (polar axis) is
the vertical line through the photometric centre of the luminaire. C-planes are marked by angles
CX of 0° ≤ CX ≤ 360°. Within a plane, the directions are given by the angle c with 0° ≤ c ≤ 180°.
Any two of these C-planes with an angular difference of 180° combine to a single plane in the
mathematical sense.
The system of C-planes is orientated rigidly in space and does not follow a tilt in the luminaire.
The polar axis does not necessarily coincide with the first axis of the luminaire. The first axis is
mostly the axis going through the photometric centre and perpendicular to the light emitting
area.
If the luminaire is tilted during measurement (the polar axis is not coincident with the first axis
of the luminaire), the angle of tilt should be declared.
Notes:
1. For street luminaires, the direction or the road is located in the C0/C180-plane and the pole in
the C270-plane.
2. For indoor luminaires, the C0/C180-plane is the symmetry plane of the luminous intensity
distribution with the highest degree of symmetry. For indoor luminaires with different
luminous intensity distributions in the C0 and C180 half-planes, the main direction of light
output is orientated in the C0-plane.
12.1.2 The B-b system

Figure 12.2 shows the luminaire orientation for B-b photometry.
B = 180°
of Po
ph lar
o tom axis
ete rd
r Thi of
s
axi ire
i na
lum 0°
+9
Sec B=
axi ond
lum s of
ina
ire
B = 0°
0 ° Figure 12.2 The B-b system

–9
B=
b=
of luminaire
First axis
-90
°
b=
90
°
Pa
ge b = 0°
=
Bh
alf
pla
n e
188
The totality of the B-planes is the group of planes for which the line of intersection (polar axis)

goes through the photometric centre and is parallel to the second axis of the luminaire. B-planes
are marked by angles BX of –180° ≤ BX ≤ 180°. Within a plane, directions are given by the angle
bX with –90° ≤ bX ≤ 90°.
Note: The system of B-planes is coupled rigidly to the light source and follows its tilt if the
luminaire is tilted. The first axis is mostly the axis going through the photometric centre and
perpendicular to the emitting area. The second axis is coincident with the transversal axis (if any)
of the emitting area or with the spigot axis of the luminaire.
12.1.3 Relationships between the two angular co-ordinate systems

The angular values of one plane system can be converted into the corresponding angular values
of another plane system if the relations given in Table 12.1 are used. The relations are only valid if
the tilt angle of the luminaire in the C-plane system is zero.
Table 12.1 Conversion between B-b and C-c
Direction Conversion formulae
Given Wanted For planes For angles
B-b C-c tan C = sin B tan b cos c = cos B ¥ cos b
C-c B-b tan B = sin C ¥ tan c sin b = cos C ¥ sin c
Care needs to be taken when applying the above formulae as the use of tangents means that
values can go to infinity and so the calculations may cause problems if implemented in a software
routine that cannot handle this sort of problem.
12.1.4 Photometric centre

Both the C-c and the B-b systems of photometric angles are based around a central point known
as the photometric centre. The position of the photometric centre of a luminaire is determined
with the following rules and examples as shown in Figure 12.3.
z Luminaires with substantially opaque sides: At the centre of the main luminaire opening
(or diffusing/prismatic member across the opening) if the lamp compartment is substantially
white or luminous but at the lamp photometric centre if it is outside the plane of the opening,
or if the lamp compartment is substantially black or non-luminous.
z Luminaires with diffusing/prismatic sides: At the centre of the solid figure bounded in
outline by the luminous surfaces but at the lamp photometric centre, if it is outside this solid
figure.
z Luminaires with transparent sides or without side members: At the lamp photometric
centre.
189
Figure 12.3 Photometric centres of

luminaires
In Figure 12.3, the following drawing elements mean:
Photometric centre
opaque, substantially black
opaque, diffuse or specular reflectant
translucent, clear
compartment
1) Incandescent lamp
2) With a clear cover
3) Compact fluorescent lamp
4) Reflector lamp
5) Luminaire with reflecting mirror
6) Luminaire with shield, substantially black
7) Luminaire with opaque sides
8) Direct-indirect luminaire
a) Luminant area 1 with photometric centre 1
b) Luminant area 2 with photometric centre 2
9) Luminaire with diffusing/prismatic sides
10) Indirect luminaire with secondary reflector
11) Outdoor luminaire with clear cover
12) Outdoor luminaire with diffusing/prismatic cover
190
12.2 Elements of a datasheet
There are many elements to any datasheet for a luminaire. These may cover mechanical and
electrical aspects, and appearance of the luminaire as well as its photometric performance. The
data that need to be produced for a normal luminaire for use in workplaces is covered in British
Standard BS EN 13032-2 (BSI, 2004b). There is also a separate standard provided for emergency
luminaires: BS EN 13032-3 (BSI, 2007d). A significant amount of the data to be presented in a
datasheet is based on gonio-photometric measurement of the luminaire. These measurement
results produce a normalised intensity table. The basis of these measurements is covered in
section 12.1.
The following sections cover some of the key elements covering lighting performance.
12.2.1 Normalised intensity table

The normalised intensity table gives a list of the intensities in different directions for a luminaire
where the total lamp flux is assumed to be 1000 lumens. Table 12.2 is an example of a typical
table for a luminaire with two planes of symmetry; data values for C planes greater than 90° are
not shown as they may be derived by symmetry. For example, the values for 60° are the same as
the values for 120°, 240° and 300°.
Table 12.2 A normalised intensity table
c angles C planes
0 15 30 45 60 75 90
0 281.8 281.8 281.8 281.8 281.8 281.8 281.8
5 281.0 280.5 280.1 280.3 280.6 281.0 280.8
10 279.7 279.3 278.3 277.5 277.0 277.2 276.9
15 276.9 276.2 274.5 273.0 271.6 270.9 270.5
20 271.8 271.1 268.8 266.2 263.7 261.9 261.1
25 263.5 262.9 260.2 256.8 252.8 250.2 248.6
30 249.2 249.4 247.5 243.5 239.0 234.6 232.1
35 225.2 226.0 226.3 225.0 218.3 212.8 210.1
40 199.7 200.2 199.3 197.0 192.8 186.6 184.4
45 169.2 164.7 160.9 158.3 156.2 155.0 155.5
50 131.5 132.0 131.5 127.6 126.2 122.8 120.7
55 98.0 98.8 98.1 94.3 94.7 95.7 94.0
60 73.1 69.9 64.9 62.3 63.9 68.8 71.6
65 55.0 48.5 39.6 36.4 38.7 48.3 54.6
70 41.6 36.8 29.1 24.8 28.5 37.3 41.5
75 30.9 27.9 23.9 22.8 23.6 27.6 30.6
80 19.5 20.9 19.3 18.0 19.3 20.9 18.9
85 11.2 11.4 11.0 12.1 11.2 11.4 10.9
90 1.1 1.1 0.9 0.7 0.6 0.4 0.4
191
To use the data in a lighting calculation, it is first necessary to calculate the C and c angles at
the luminaire of the line joining the luminaire to the point where the illuminance is being
calculated; usually the calculated angles will not line up exactly with a point in the table and some
interpolation will be needed. The value obtained needs to be multiplied by the total lamp flux in
kilolumens to give the absolute intensity in the direction of interest.
12.2.2 Intensity diagram

There are a number of graphical representations of the intensity data. The most common of these
is the polar curve. Figure 12.4 shows a polar curve plotted for the data in Table 12.2.
120 150 180 150 120
90 90
100
150
200
60 60
250
300
350 cd/klm
30 0 30
180.0 0.0
270.0 90.0
Figure 12.4 A polar curve
The polar curve contains a number of plotted lines, each one representing a different C plane.
The c values are plotted around the centre of the diagram and the distance of the line from
the centre at any point represents the intensity at the given c angle in terms of candelas per
kilolumen.
12.2.3 Light output ratios

A light output ratio (LOR) of a luminaire gives the ratio of the total flux leaving the luminaire
under standard conditions compared with the total flux of lamps used in the luminaire
operated under standard conditions. As one might expect, the value of LOR is usually less than
1. However, with certain lamps, their maximum light output is not reached under standard
conditions (for which their lumen value is declared) so inside a luminaire they may give out
more light than under standard conditions. Where this happens, the LOR is higher than would
be expected for the optical efficiency of the luminaire and may be greater than 1.
192
There are also a number of light output ratios that look at only part of the luminaire distribution.

z Downward Light Output Ratio (DLOR): this is the ratio of the light emitted below the
horizontal to the total lamp flux.
z Upward Light Output Ratio (ULOR): this is the ratio of the light emitted above the hori-
zontal to the total lamp flux.
z Kerbside Light Output Ratio: this is the ratio between the light emitted on the kerb side of
a road lantern to the total light emitted from the lantern.
z Roadside Light Output Ratio: this is the ratio between the light emitted on the road side of
a road lantern to the total light emitted from the lantern.
LOR may be used as a form of quality metric for luminaires; for two luminaires of similar
distribution, then the one with higher LOR is more efficient. However, LOR should not be
used to compare luminaires of dissimilar distributions as, in general, the more controlled the
distribution of light from a luminaire, then the lower the LOR will be.
It is sometimes possible to use the ratio of the DLOR to ULOR to describe the general properties
of a luminaire. For example, if the ULOR is much greater than the DLOR then it makes sense to
describe the luminaire as an uplighter.
12.2.4 Spacing to height ratio (SHR)

SHR is the ratio of spacing between luminaires to the height of the geometric centres of the
luminaires above the reference plane. The value given in most datasheets is the maximum
permitted value of SHR that enables the lighting scheme to achieve an illuminance uniformity
(minimum divided by the average) of 0.7.
The SHR is useful to have if you need to ensure that an area that is being lit will have good
uniformity. Provided the spacing between the luminaires does not cause the SHR of the
installation to be greater than the maximum permitted SHR given on the datasheet, then, in most
cases, uniformity will be assured.
12.2.5 Utilisation factor (UF) tables

Utilisation factors are one of the key elements of what is known as the average lumen method of
lighting design. The method is based on the fact that in any regular array lighting installation, it is
possible to think about the amount of light incident on the reference plane as a certain fraction of
the flux of the lamps in the installation. This fraction is known as the utilisation factor (UF). The
reference plane is the plane in the room where you want to know what the illuminance is, for
example, in an office, this is the height of the desktops, usually taken to be 0.8 m above the floor.
The UF of an installation depends on three factors: the luminaire used, the shape of the room
and the surface finishes of the room. The room shape is characterised by a metric called the room
index (K). Equation 12.1 gives the formula for calculating the room index from the length (L)
and width (W) of the room together with the height that the luminaires are mounted above the
reference plane (hm)
L¥W
K= (12.1)
( L + W ) hm
The UF table for a given luminaire provides a series of utilisation factors for the luminaire when
used in a range of room shapes and with different surface finishes.
193
Table 12.3 is a typical UF table.

Table 12.3 Typical UF table

Reflectance values
Ceiling 0.8 0.8 0.8 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.5 0.5 0.5
Walls 0.7 0.5 0.3 0.7 0.5 0.3 0.7 0.5 0.3
Floor cavity 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2
0.60 0.64 0.55 0.50 0.63 0.55 0.50 0.61 0.54 0.49
0.80 0.74 0.67 0.62 0.73 0.66 0.61 0.71 0.65 0.61
1.00 0.80 0.74 0.69 0.79 0.73 0.69 0.77 0.72 0.68
1.25 0.85 0.80 0.76 0.84 0.79 0.75 0.81 0.77 0.74
Room index
1.50 0.89 0.84 0.80 0.87 0.83 0.79 0.84 0.81 0.78
2.00 0.91 0.87 0.84 0.90 0.86 0.83 0.87 0.84 0.81
2.50 0.93 0.90 0.87 0.91 0.88 0.86 0.88 0.86 0.83
3.00 0.94 0.91 0.88 0.92 0.90 0.87 0.89 0.87 0.85
4.00 0.96 0.93 0.91 0.94 0.91 0.89 0.90 0.88 0.87
5.00 0.97 0.94 0.92 0.95 0.93 0.91 0.91 0.89 0.88
Note: The reflectance of the floor cavity is the effective reflectance of the room volume below the working plane.
As the concept of UF is simple, it is very easy to calculate the number of luminaires needed to
provide a given average illuminance in a given room. The number of luminaires (N) is a function
of the required illuminance (E), the flux in each lamp (F) and the number of lamps per luminaire
(n). Equation 12.2 gives the calculation
E ¥ L¥W (12.2)
N=
F ¥ n ¥ UF ¥ MF
In equation 12.2, the term MF stands for maintenance factor. It is a factor that allows for the fact
that, as lighting systems age, the amount of light they deliver decreases. The use of MF ensures
that the system is slightly over-specified when new but is still delivering the correct illuminance
when the system is maintained. See Chapter 18: Predicting maintenance factor.
12.2.6 Shielding angle

It is important that bright light sources do not appear in the centre of the field of view. To block
the view of lamps or bright parts of luminaires, it is normal to recess them into the luminaire.
The shielding angle is a guide to how far the bright objects have been taken out of the line of
sight. Figure 12.5 shows the shielding angle.
194
Luminaire using an
internal baffle to
improve screening Shielding angle. Beyond
this angle the lamp is
not visible to the user
Figure 12.5 Shielding angle
For indoor workplaces, there are recommendations for the minimum shielding angles to be used
for various levels of high luminance sources. See section 2.1.5.3: Shielding against glare.
12.2.7 Normalised luminance table

With certain types of display screen, it is possible that the reflection of a high luminance
luminaire may make it hard to read the information being displayed. To ensure that this problem
is minimised, most screens have a maximum rated luminance that they are able to accept from
a luminaire. The use of average luminance tables enables the designer to check if there may
be problems with the combination of luminaires and displays used in a given area. It is only
necessary to consider this problem if there is not the flexibility in the layout of screens in the
room that will permit their positioning so that reflections can be avoided. For most potential
problem areas, it is only light above a c angle of 65° that causes a problem, however, in certain
instances of high levels of screen use, it may be necessary to consider the luminance at 55°.
Table 12.4 Normalised luminance

C planes
0 15 30 45 60 75 90
55 714 835 880 1412 1913 1662 1473
65 41 62 124 186 83 31 21
c angle
75 0 17 0 0 0 0 0
85 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Table 12.4 is an example of a normalised luminance table. Note that, to use this table, it is
necessary to multiply the values by the total lamp flux per luminaire in kilolumens.
195
12.2.8 Unified Glare Rating (UGR) table

UGR is the metric used to control discomfort glare in interior workplaces. The equation used
to evaluate UGR is given in CIE 117 (CIE, 1995a), however, the equation is complex to evaluate
and its results have only been validated in a limited range of circumstances so it is better to use
the UGR table as a basis for the calculation. The UGR table may be used to assess the glare
experienced by a person looking into the room from the midpoint of a wall with eye height
1.2 m.
Table 12.5 shows a typical UGR table. It shows UGR for a given luminaire as a function of
room size expressed in multiples of the luminaire height above eye height and the room surface
reflectances. The UGR values in the table are based on a total lamp flux of the luminaire of 1000
lumens and it is necessary to correct the values for the actual lamp flux used.
To use the table, it is first necessary to calculate the size of the room in terms of the mounting
height of the luminaires above eye level (1.2 m). For example, if a room is 12 m long and the
luminaires are mounted 2.7 m above the floor, then the luminaire would be 1.5 m above eye
height and the length could be expressed as 8H. Figure 12.6 gives the location of the X and Y
dimensions of the room for the views of observers on the long and short walls of a room for both
crosswise and endwise views. Selection of endwise or crosswise views depends on the orientation
of the luminaires within the room.
196
Table 12.5 UGR table
Uncorrected UGR values calculated at SHR = 1.0
Ceiling 0.8 0.8 0.8 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.8 0.8 0.8 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.5 0.5 0.5
Wall 0.7 0.5 0.3 0.7 0.5 0.3 0.7 0.5 0.3 0.7 0.5 0.3 0.7 0.5 0.3 0.7 0.5 0.3
Floor 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2
X Y Crosswise view Endwise view
2 2 8.4 9.8 11.2 8.6 10.0 11.4 9.1 10.5 11.9 5.1 6.5 8.0 5.4 6.8 8.2 5.9 7.2 8.7
2 3 10.8 12.0 13.3 11.0 12.3 13.6 11.6 12.8 14.1 6.3 7.6 8.9 6.6 7.8 9.1 7.1 8.3 9.6
2 4 11.7 12.9 14.2 12.0 13.2 14.4 12.5 13.7 14.9 6.8 8.0 9.2 7.1 8.2 9.5 7.6 8.8 10.0
2 6 12.5 13.6 14.8 12.8 13.9 15.1 13.4 14.4 15.6 7.2 8.3 9.5 7.5 8.6 9.7 8.1 9.1 10.3
2 8 12.9 14.0 15.1 13.2 14.3 15.4 13.8 14.8 15.9 7.4 8.5 9.6 7.7 8.7 9.8 8.2 9.3 10.4
2 12 13.3 14.3 15.4 13.6 14.6 15.7 14.2 15.1 16.2 7.5 8.6 9.6 7.8 8.8 9.9 8.4 9.4 10.4
4 2 8.8 10.0 11.2 9.0 10.2 11.5 9.6 10.7 12.0 6.1 7.3 8.6 6.4 7.6 8.8 7.0 8.1 9.3
4 3 11.4 12.5 13.5 11.7 12.7 13.8 12.3 13.3 14.3 7.7 8.7 9.8 8.0 9.0 10.0 8.5 9.5 10.6
4 4 12.6 13.5 14.5 12.9 13.8 14.8 13.5 14.4 15.3 8.3 9.3 10.2 8.6 9.5 10.5 9.2 10.1 11.0
4 6 13.7 14.5 15.4 14.0 14.8 15.6 14.6 15.4 16.2 8.9 9.7 10.6 9.2 10.0 10.9 9.8 10.6 11.4
4 8 14.2 15.0 15.8 14.5 15.3 16.1 15.1 15.8 16.6 9.1 9.9 10.7 9.4 10.2 11.0 10.0 10.8 11.6
4 12 14.8 15.5 16.2 15.0 15.7 16.5 15.7 16.3 17.1 9.3 10.0 10.8 9.6 10.3 11.1 10.2 10.9 11.7
8 4 12.9 13.7 14.5 13.2 13.9 14.7 13.8 14.5 15.3 9.2 10.0 10.8 9.5 10.2 11.0 10.1 10.8 11.6
8 6 14.2 14.8 15.5 14.5 15.1 15.8 15.1 15.7 16.4 10.0 10.6 11.3 10.3 10.9 11.6 10.9 11.5 12.2
8 8 14.9 15.5 16.1 15.2 15.7 16.3 15.8 16.4 17.0 10.4 10.9 11.5 10.7 11.2 11.8 11.3 11.9 12.4
8 12 15.7 16.2 16.7 16.0 16.5 17.0 16.6 17.1 17.6 10.7 11.2 11.7 11.0 11.5 12.0 11.6 12.1 12.6
12 4 12.9 13.7 14.4 13.2 13.9 14.7 13.8 14.5 15.3 9.4 10.1 10.9 9.7 10.4 11.1 10.3 11.0 11.7
12 6 14.3 14.9 15.5 14.6 15.1 15.7 15.2 15.8 16.4 10.4 10.9 11.5 10.6 11.2 11.8 11.3 11.8 12.4
12 8 15.0 15.6 16.1 15.3 15.8 16.4 16.0 16.5 17.0 10.8 11.3 11.9 11.1 11.6 12.2 11.8 12.3 12.8
197
Y Y
X X
(a) (b)
X X
Y Y
(c) (d)
Figure 12.6 Orientation of luminaires; (a) crosswise view from long wall; (b) endwise view from
long wall; (c) crosswise view from short wall; (d) endwise view from short wall
Once the X and Y values have been determined for the long and short wall views of the room,
it is possible to look up the uncorrected UGR value in the table. These values must then be
corrected for true lamp flux by adding a correction term to the values.
The correction term may be calculated using equation 12.3

Ê Total flux of lamps in luminaire ˆ
Correction term = 8 log 10 Á ˜¯ (12.3)
Ë 1000
Table 12.6 gives tabulated values of the correction factor.
Table 12.6 Tabulated values of correction factor
Lamp Cor- Lamp Cor- Lamp Cor- Lamp Cor- Lamp Cor-
flux rection flux rection flux rection flux rection flux rection
factor factor factor factor factor
1000 0.0 2000 2.4 3000 3.8 4000 4.8
100 –8.0 1100 0.3 2100 2.6 3100 3.9 4100 4.9
200 –5.6 1200 0.6 2200 2.7 3200 4.0 4200 5.0
300 –4.2 1300 0.9 2300 2.9 3300 4.1 4300 5.1
400 –3.2 1400 1.2 2400 3.0 3400 4.3 4400 5.1
500 –2.4 1500 1.4 2500 3.2 3500 4.4 4500 5.2
600 –1.8 1600 1.6 2600 3.3 3600 4.5 4600 5.3
700 –1.2 1700 1.8 2700 3.5 3700 4.5 4700 5.4
800 –0.8 1800 2.0 2800 3.6 3800 4.6 4800 5.4
900 –0.4 1900 2.2 2900 3.7 3900 4.7 4900 5.5
198
12.2.9 Luminaire maintenance factor (LMF)
As luminaires are used, dirt accumulates on the optical surfaces and over time, this reduces the
efficiency of the luminaire. It is important for the designer to know how much light output will
drop with time so that a maintenance schedule can be worked out. Also LMF is one element of
overall maintenance factor as used in section 12.2.5. Luminaire manufacturers may choose to test
their luminaires over a period of a few years whilst they are operating under different conditions
and present the results on the datasheet or they may just state the maintenance class of the
luminaire. See Chapter 18: Predicting maintenance factor.
12.2.10 Spacing tables (Emergency Lighting)

Spacing tables are used when designing emergency lighting for corridors and defined escape
routes. They provide a convenient way of calculating the layout of luminaires required. The
layout is calculated for strips between luminaires to ensure that the illuminance on the centre line
of the escape route does not fall below the required illuminance and that the edges of the strip
have at least half that illuminance. The luminaire spacing is calculated for five conditions:
z from a luminaire that is mounted transverse to the escape route and an end wall (STW)
z between luminaires that are mounted transverse to the escape route (STT)
z between a luminaire that is mounted transverse to the escape route and a luminaire mounted
axial to the escape route (STA)
z between luminaires that are mounted axial to the escape route (SAA)
z from a luminaire that is mounted axial to the escape route and an end wall (SAW).
Figure 12.7 illustrates these options.
SAW SAA STA STT STW
Figure 12.7 Types of spacing
199
Table 12.7 is an example of a spacing table.

Table 12.7 Spacing table
Mounting STW STT STA SAA axial to SAW axial to

height / m transverse to transverse to transverse to axial / m wall / m
wall / m transverse / m axial / m
2 2.3 5.9 7 8.2 3
2.2 2.3 6.1 7.2 8.5 3.1
2.4 2.3 6.3 7.3 8.5 3.1
2.6 2.3 6.4 7.4 8.6 3
2.8 2.3 6.5 7.5 8.7 3
3 2.3 6.6 7.6 8.8 3
3.2 2.3 6.7 7.7 8.8 3
3.2 2.3 6.7 7.7 8.8 2.9
3.4 2.2 6.7 7.7 8.7 2.8
3.6 2.1 6.7 7.7 8.7 2.7
3.8 2 6.7 7.6 8.7 2.5
4 1.9 6.7 7.6 8.6 2.3
The table gives the maximum permitted spacing when using the given luminaire. SLL Lighting
Guide 12 (SLL, 2004) gives more information on the design of emergency lighting and
calculation of values for datasheets.
12.3 Calculations for datasheets

Most of the calculations in this section are covered in BS EN 13032-2 (BSI, 2004b), however, the
first section on the method of calculating flux from intensity is not.
12.3.1 Flux calculations

From the basis of photometry, intensity is flux per unit solid angle so, by multiplying intensity
values by the solid angle over which they are valid, flux may be calculated. With the C-c
coordinate system, the size of zone (V) for a complete band of a range of c angles (h′ to h″) may
be calculated with equation 12.4 and the calculation is illustrated by Figure 12.8.
V = 2p (cos hp - cos hq ) (12.4)
200
Figure 12.8 Calculation of zone size
h′
h″
The fraction of the zone associated with any given intensity value is the width of the zone in
degrees divided by 360.
For example, consider the intensity for c = 35° and C = 15° in Table 12.2. The value of the
intensity is 226.0 cd·klm–1; this value is the best estimate we have for intensity in the range c
32.5–37.5°; these zone limits are half way to the next points that have intensity values. Similarly, if
in the C direction, the value is the best estimate for intensity in the range C 7.5–22.5°.
The full zone in the range c 32.5–37.5° is 0.3144 sr. The zone required runs from C = 7.5° to
C = 22.5° and is thus 15° in width. It is thus 0.04167 of the full zone. Thus the zone for the
intensity value in question is 0.0131 sr so the flux in the zone is 2.96 lumens per kilolumen of
total lamp flux.
This calculation forms the basis of light output ratio calculations where all or a subset of the
intensity values in the table have their flux calculated for them and the results are summed and
the result divided by 1000.
12.3.2 Calculation of spacing to height ratio

To calculate the spacing to height ratio for a rotationally symmetric or dissymmetric luminaire,
it is necessary to calculate the direct illuminance on each point of a grid illuminated by a 4 × 4
square array of luminaires. The general layout for the luminaires and calculation points is shown
in Figure 12.9.
201
Figure 12.9 General layout of

luminaires and calculation points
The luminaires are taken to be 1 m above the grid of points and the illuminance calculation treats
them as point sources. This grid of points is placed so that it has one corner in the centre of the
array of luminaires and the opposite corner directly under the centre of one of the luminaires.
The spacing between each of the grid points is one twentieth of the spacing (S) between the
luminaires; the locations of the grid points are shown in Figure 12.10.
S/20
/
Figure 12.10 Grid of calculation

points
Once the illuminances at each of the grid points have been calculated, it is then necessary to
find the minimum value (Emin) and the average value (Eav). The uniformity (U) may then be
calculated using the equation:
Emin
U= (12.5)
Eav
202
The spacing (S) is adjusted until a uniformity value of 0.7 is obtained and this spacing is then

determined as being SHRmax.
12.3.3 Calculation of utilisation factors

The process of utilisation factor calculation involves the calculation of the amount of light
received by each of the room surfaces directly from the luminaires and then a calculation of the
inter-reflected light in the space.
The calculation requires the ULOR and the DLOR for the luminaire together with the total flux
for the following zones: 0° to 41.4° (FCL1), 0° to 60° (FCL2), 0° to 75.5° (FCL3) and 0° to 90°
(FCL4). In addition, if the luminaire has a significant amount of upward light and is designed
to be suspended below the ceiling rather than mounted on it, then four further total fluxes are
required; they are: 138.6° to 180° (FCU1), 120° to 180° (FCU2), 104.5° to 180° (FCU3) and 90°
to 180° (FCU4). All of these values may be calculated using the method set out in section 12.3.1.
The direct flux on to the floor (DFL) may be calculated using equation 12.6:
DFL = GML1 ¥ FCL1 + GML 2 ¥ FCL 2 + GML3 ¥ FCL3 + GML4 ¥ FCL4 (12.6)
where GML1, GML2, GML3 and GML4 are geometric multipliers that are a function of spacing
to height ratio and room index. Table 12.8 lists their values.
In a similar way, the flux received directly by the ceiling (DFU) may be calculated using equation 12.7:
DFU = GMU1 ¥ FCU1 + GMU 2 ¥ FCU 2 + GMU 3 ¥ FCL3 + GMU 4 ¥ FCU 4 (12.7)
where GMU1, GMU2, GMU3 and GMU4 are also geometric multipliers that are a function of
spacing to height ratio and room index. Table 12.9 lists their values.
Table 12.8 Geometric multipliers for the lower hemisphere
Room 0.6 0.8 1 1.25 1.5 2 2.5 3 4 5

index / K
SHRNOM = 1.00
GML1 0.943 0.752 0.636 0.510 0.429 0.354 0.286 0.258 0.236 0.231
GML2 –0.317 –0.033 0.121 0.238 0.275 0.248 0.190 0.118 –0.006 –0.099
GML3 0.145 0.081 0.088 0.131 0.202 0.350 0.470 0.563 0.684 0.748
GML4 –0.027 –0.016 –0.015 –0.016 –0.018 –0.015 –0.003 0.016 0.060 0.107
SHRNOM = 1.25
GML1 1.013 0.893 0.692 0.569 0.498 0.355 0.317 0.268 0.242 0.234
GML2 –0.338 –0.112 0.151 0.256 0.274 0.284 0.184 0.132 0.005 –0.091
GML3 0.144 0.102 0.065 0.119 0.197 0.337 0.471 0.563 0.685 0.751
GML4 –0.026 –0.019 –0.011 –0.014 –0.017 –0.013 –0.002 0.016 0.061 0.108
203

Room 0.6 0.8 1 1.25 1.5 2 2.5 3 4 5

index / K
SHRNOM = 1.50
GML1 1.070 0.934 0.774 0.591 0.435 0.353 0.293 0.279 0.236 0.231
GML2 –0.340 –0.045 0.168 0.342 0.420 0.334 0.254 0.161 0.026 –0.076
GML3 0.133 0.058 0.038 0.062 0.141 0.316 0.447 0.541 0.679 0.746
GML4 –0.024 –0.011 –0.006 –0.004 –0.009 –0.009 0.002 0.020 0.062 0.109
SHRNOM = 1.75
GML1 NA NA 0.717 0.529 0.413 0.331 0.249 0.238 0.229 0.219
GML2 NA NA 0.316 0.480 0.494 0.386 0.313 0.209 0.054 –0.051
GML3 NA NA –0.029 0.003 0.101 0.292 0.436 0.538 0.664 0.737
GML4 NA NA 0.005 0.005 –0.002 –0.006 0.003 0.021 0.065 0.112
SHRNOM = 2.00
GML1 NA NA 0.644 0.459 0.319 0.217 0.206 0.176 0.192 0.204
GML2 NA NA 0.441 0.588 0.657 0.529 0.407 0.319 0.100 –0.015
GML3 NA NA –0.080 –0.032 0.037 0.266 0.390 0.491 0.658 0.718
GML4 NA NA 0.012 0.009 0.006 –0.004 0.010 0.028 0.067 0.114
Table 12.9 Geometric multipliers for the upper hemisphere
Room 0.6 0.8 1 1.25 1.5 2 2.5 3 4 5

index / K
SHRNOM = 1.00
GMU1 0.124 0.176 0.136 0.148 0.134 0.102 0.138 0.148 0.156 0.152
GMU2 0.753 0.463 0.373 0.199 0.125 0.009 –0.097 –0.157 –0.222 –0.247
GMU3 0.130 0.363 0.475 0.610 0.666 0.749 0.765 0.764 0.738 0.702
GMU4 0.003 0.007 0.030 0.057 0.093 0.158 0.219 0.271 0.355 0.420
204

Room 0.6 0.8 1 1.25 1.5 2 2.5 3 4 5
index / K
SHRNOM = 1.25
GMU1 0.028 –0.008 0.028 0.023 0.028 0.077 0.099 0.118 0.133 0.138
GMU2 0.826 0.645 0.416 0.276 0.170 –0.012 –0.087 –0.166 –0.230 –0.256
GMU3 0.152 0.360 0.541 0.656 0.726 0.797 0.792 0.801 0.767 0.723
GMU4 –0.004 0.000 0.050 0.050 0.083 0.153 0.215 0.269 0.355 0.421
SHRNOM = 1.50
GMU1 –0.036 –0.094 –0.071 –0.026 0.023 0.061 0.091 0.103 0.128 0.133
GMU2 0.840 0.633 0.422 0.217 0.066 –0.059 –0.144 –0.187 –0.253 –0.273
GMU3 0.205 0.464 0.639 0.774 0.841 0.863 0.860 0.842 0.796 0.745
GMU4 –0.016 –0.017 –0.001 0.032 0.076 0.147 0.211 0.262 0.354 0.420
SHRNOM = 1.75
GMU1 NA NA –0.073 –0.019 0.023 0.063 0.100 0.113 0.127 0.134
GMU2 NA NA 0.322 0.119 0.015 –0.095 –0.195 –0.236 –0.273 –0.295
GMU3 NA NA 0.750 0.873 0.898 0.900 0.901 0.877 0.819 0.766
GMU4 NA NA –0.010 0.025 0.069 0.144 0.213 0.266 0.351 0.420
SHRNOM = 2.00
GMU1 NA NA –0.056 –0.003 0.043 0.092 0.108 0.127 0.137 0.137
GMU2 NA NA 0.245 0.046 –0.091 –0.208 –0.254 –0.315 –0.315 –0.315
GMU3 NA NA 0.815 0.932 0.990 0.981 0.956 0.933 0.849 0.786
GMU4 NA NA –0.013 0.025 0.066 0.151 0.209 0.264 0.355 0.417
To calculate the distribution factors for the floor [DF(F)], walls [DF(W)] and ceiling [DF(C)]
for surface mounted and recessed luminaires, use equations 12.8 to 12.10:
DFL
DF ( F ) = (12.8)
1000
DF (W ) = DLOR - DF( F) (12.9)
DF (C ) = ULOR (12.10)
When using suspended luminaires, the distribution factors for the walls and floor remain the
same but equation 12.11 is used to evaluate the distribution factor for the ceiling, and the
205
distribution factor for the wall above the luminaires, known as the frieze [DF(S)], is calculated
with equation 12.12:

DFU
DF (C ) = (12.11)
1000
DF ( S) = ULOR - DF (C ) (12.12)
With ceiling mounted and recessed luminaires, it is possible to calculate the utilisation factor on
the floor [UF(F)] using equation 12.13:
UF ( F ) = DF ( F ) ◊ TF ( F, F ) + DF (W ) ◊ TF (W , F ) + DF (C ) ◊ TF (C, F ) (12.13)
For suspended luminaires, the UF is calculated with equation 12.14:

UF ( F ) = DF ( F ) ◊ TF ( F, F ) + DF (W ) ◊ TF (W , F )
(12.14)
+ DF ( S) ◊ TF ( S, F ) + DF (C ) ◊ TF (C, F )
In the above equation, TF(F,F) is the transfer factor from floor to floor, TF(W,F) is the transfer
factor from walls to floor, TF(S,F) is the transfer factor from frieze to floor and TF(C,F) is the
transfer factor from ceiling to floor. The tables needed are given in section 11.3.5, Tables 11.6 to
11.12.
12.3.4 Calculation of normalised luminance tables

The normalised luminance of a luminaire is a function of the normalised intensity in a particular
direction and the projected luminous area of the luminaire in that direction. Thus, to calculate
the normalised luminance, equation 12.15 can be used:
I (C , c )
L (C , c ) = (12.15)
Ab cos c + AS sin c cos C + Ae sin c sin C
where
z I(C, c) is the normalised intensity at elevation angle c and azimuth plane C
z Ab is the luminous area of the base of the luminaire (the area when viewed from c = 0)
z As is the luminous area of the side of the luminaire (the area when viewed from c = 90, C=0)
z Ae is the luminous area of the end of the luminaire (the area when viewed from c = 90, C=90)
12.3.5 Calculation of UGR tables

The Discomfort Glare Rating of a lighting installation is determined by the CIE Unified Glare
Rating (UGR) tabular method (CIE, 1995a) based on the basic equation 12.16
È 0.25 L2 v ˘
UGR = 8 log 10 ÍÂ ˙ (12.16)
Î Lb p2 ˚
where
z Lb is the background luminance (cd/m²), calculated as Eind , in which Eind is the vertical
p
indirect illuminance at the observer eye and thus, the average luminance that created this
illuminance is Eind .
p
206
z L is the luminance of the luminous parts of each luminaire in the direction of the observer’s

eye (cd/m2).
z v is the solid angle of the luminous parts of each luminaire at the observer’s eye (steradian).
z p is the Guth Position Index for each individual luminaire, which relates to its displacement
from the line of sight.
Note that there is a lower limit of v for which the equation works, but the eye has limited ability
to focus on small objects. However, no allowance is made for this in these calculations which are
based on the procedure used in CIE 190 (CIE, 2010).
Standard conditions are defined for the calculation of UGR tables; the conditions are as follows:
z The position of the complete array of luminaires is shown in Figure 12.11.
z The observer is located at the mid-point marked O of a wall and has a horizontal line of sight
towards the centre of the opposite wall.
z The height of the luminaires’ centre above the observer’s eye level is H = 2 m.
z The spacing of the luminaires is 2 m in both xT and yR directions where xT is the horizontal
distance between vertical planes through the luminaire centre and through the observer’s eye
position. Both are parallel to the direction of view, and yR is the horizontal distance parallel
to the viewing direction from the observer’s eye position to the vertical plane. This is
perpendicular to the viewing direction through the luminaire centre. See Figures 12.12 and
12.13. The spacing to height ratio (SHR) is 1:1. The height of the wall is 2 m.
z The horizontal reference plane is at the observer eye level at 1.2 m above the floor.
z The room dimensions X and Y are expressed in terms of H (the mounting height) and where
the X dimension is perpendicular to the line of sight and the Y dimension is parallel to the line
of sight.
z The luminous intensity distribution of the luminaire (I table) is provided in the normalised
form of cd/1000 lm.
max y
2m
2m
PLAN
Figure 12.11 The position of luminaires

B in the standard array area, with examples
of area A, size 2H × 4H and area B, size
A 8H × 6H
yR
xT O Horlzontal line of sight

max x
207
CENTRE OF LUMINAIRE
Figure 12.12 The position of luminaire

D
centre relative to observer
xT
yR
c
DIRECTION OF VIEW
O
HORIZONTAL PLANE
AE
Figure 12.13 The projected areas for

AS
linear luminaire
AB
The table is generated with the basic equation (12.16) but rearranged and simplified using preset
conditions and values. This may be expressed in terms of the apparent luminaire surface area, the
distance to the luminaire, the intensity towards the observer, the position index and the indirect
illuminance on the wall produced by the luminaire. The revised equation is stated as 12.17
È 0.25p IC2 c A 1 ˘
UGR = 8 log 10 ÍÂ 2 2 2 ˙ (12.17)
ÍÎ E WID A D p ˙˚
This equation can be further simplified for the standard luminaire arrangements to 12.18
2
È K ICc ˘
UGR = 8 log 10 ÍÂ ˙
ÍÎ E WID A ˙˚
(12.18)
È KIC2 c ˘
UGR = 8 log 10 ÍÂ ˙ - 8 log 10 E WID
ÍÎ A ˙˚
208
where:

p
z K=
4 p2 D 2
z IC c is the luminous intensity of the source at the angles to the downward vertical c and of
azimuth C, appropriate to the eye position O of the observer and the viewing direction – see
Figure 12.11
x
z C = tan -1 T
yR
-1 H
z c = cos
D
z A is the projected luminous area of the source (m2) from the observer position O
(see Figure 12.11).
Note: A is dependent on the viewing direction and may be calculated using equations 12.19 to
12.21. For crosswise viewing, equation 12.19 should be used and for endwise view, equation
12.20.
H y xT
For crosswise view: A = AB + AS R + AE (12.19)
D D D
H xT yR
For endwise view: A = AB + AS + AE (12.20)
D D D
D = H 2 + xT2 + y R2 (12.21)
z EWID is the indirect component of the illuminance on the walls

H xT y R
Note: The pre-calculated parameters of K, azimuth (C), elevation (c), , , , are given in
Table 12.10. D D D
209
210
Table 12.10 Pre-calculated parameters for luminaires in the standard array
xT
0.5 1.5
H
yR H yR xT H yR xT
C (º) c (º) K C (º) c (º) K
H D D D D D D
0.5 45.00 35.26 n/a 0.8165 0.4082 0.4082 71.57 57.69 n/a 0.5345 0.2673 0.8018
1.5 18.43 57.69 0.00412 0.5345 0.8018 0.2673 45.00 64.76 0.00155 0.4264 0.6396 0.6396
2.5 11.31 68.58 0.00541 0.3651 0.9129 0.1826 30.96 71.07 0.00294 0.3244 0.8111 0.4867
3.5 8.13 74.21 0.00473 0.2722 0.9526 0.1361 23.20 75.29 0.00329 0.2540 0.8890 0.3810
4.5 6.34 77.55 0.00386 0.2157 0.9705 0.1078 18.43 78.10 0.00292 0.2063 0.9283 0.3094
5.5 5.19 79.74 0.00308 0.1782 0.9800 0.0891 15.26 80.05 0.00249 0.1728 0.9503 0.2592
6.5 4.40 81.28 0.00243 0.1516 0.9855 0.0758 12.99 81.47 0.00209 0.1482 0.9636 0.2224
7.5 3.81 82.42 0.00197 0.1319 0.9891 0.0659 11.31 82.55 0.00177 0.1296 0.9723 0.1945
8.5 3.37 83.30 0.00163 0.1166 0.9915 0.0583 10.01 83.39 0.00150 0.1151 0.9782 0.1726
9.5 3.01 84.00 0.00137 0.1045 0.9931 0.0523 8.97 84.06 0.00129 0.1034 0.9825 0.1551
10.5 2.73 84.57 0.00116 0.0947 0.9944 0.0474 8.13 84.61 0.00111 0.0939 0.9856 0.1408
11.5 2.49 85.03 0.00100 0.0865 0.9953 0.0433 7.43 85.07 0.00097 0.0859 0.9879 0.1289
xT
2.5 3.5
H
yR H yR xT H yR xT
C (º) c (º) K C (º) c (º) K
H D D D D D D
0.5 78.69 68.58 n/a 0.3651 0.1826 0.9129 81.87 74.21 n/a 0.2722 0.1361 0.9526
1.5 59.04 71.07 0.00053 0.3244 0.4867 0.8111 66.80 75.29 0.00024 0.2540 0.3810 0.8890
2.5 45.00 74.21 0.00119 0.2722 0.6804 0.6804 54.46 76.91 0.00053 0.2265 0.5661 0.7926
3.5 35.54 76.91 0.00166 0.2265 0.7926 0.5661 45.00 78.58 0.00083 0.1980 0.6931 0.6931
xT
2.5 3.5
H
yR H yR xT H yR xT
C (º) c (º) K C (º) c (º) K
H D D D D D D
4.5 29.05 79.01 0.00183 0.1907 0.8581 0.4767 37.87 80.05 0.00105 0.1728 0.7775 0.6047
5.5 24.44 80.60 0.00176 0.1633 0.8981 0.4082 32.47 81.28 0.00115 0.1516 0.8339 0.5307
6.5 21.04 81.83 0.00159 0.1421 0.9239 0.3553 28.30 82.29 0.00113 0.1342 0.8725 0.4698
7.5 18.43 82.79 0.00140 0.1255 0.9412 0.3137 25.02 83.11 0.00106 0.1200 0.8996 0.4198
8.5 16.39 83.56 0.00124 0.1122 0.9533 0.2804 22.38 83.79 0.00099 0.1081 0.9193 0.3785
9.5 14.74 84.19 0.00109 0.1013 0.9621 0.2532 20.22 84.36 0.00090 0.0983 0.9338 0.3440
10.5 13.39 84.71 0.00096 0.0923 0.9687 0.2306 18.43 84.84 0.00081 0.0900 0.9448 0.3149
11.5 12.26 85.14 0.00084 0.0847 0.9737 0.2117 16.93 85.24 0.00073 0.0829 0.9534 0.2902
xT
4.5 5.5
H
yR H yR xT H yR xT
C (º) c (º) K C (º) c (º) K
H D D D D D D
0.5 83.66 77.55 n/a 0.2157 0.1078 0.9705 84.81 79.74 n/a 0.1782 0.0891 0.9800
1.5 71.57 78.10 0.00015 0.2063 0.3094 0.9283 74.74 80.05 n/a 0.1728 0.2592 0.9503
2.5 60.95 79.01 0.00027 0.1907 0.4767 0.8581 65.56 80.60 0.00017 0.1633 0.4082 0.8981
3.5 52.13 80.05 0.00045 0.1728 0.6047 0.7775 57.53 81.28 0.00026 0.1516 0.5307 0.8339
4.5 45.00 81.07 0.00059 0.1552 0.6985 0.6985 50.71 81.99 0.00036 0.1393 0.6271 0.7664
5.5 39.29 81.99 0.00072 0.1393 0.7664 0.6271 45.00 82.67 0.00044 0.1275 0.7013 0.7013
6.5 34.70 82.79 0.00077 0.1255 0.8157 0.5647 40.24 83.30 0.00052 0.1166 0.7582 0.6415
7.5 30.96 83.48 0.00078 0.1136 0.8519 0.5112 36.25 83.86 0.00056 0.1069 0.8018 0.5880
211
The indirect component of the illuminance on the walls can be calculated by the method given
below using equation 12.22

UFWID N W0
E WID = (12.22)
AW
where:
z UFWID = indirect utilisation factor for walls
z N = number of luminaires
z AW = total area of walls (m2) between reference plane and luminaire plane
z W0 = 1000 lm
This may be simplified to equation 12.23
E WID = UFWID B (12.23)
where:
1000 N
B= (12.24)
AW
UFWID = DF( F )TF( F, W ) + DF(W )(TF(W , W ) - 1) + DF(C)TF(C, W ) (12.25)
The distribution factors DF(F), DF(W) and DF(C) may be calculated using a similar method
to that set out in section 12.3.3, however, the geometric multipliers GML1, GML2, GML3 and
GML4 should be taken from Table 12.11, which also gives the values of B. Table 12.12 gives the
transfer factors needed.
212
Table 12.11 Values of B and geometric multipliers

X dimension Y dimension B GM1 GM2 GM3 GM4
2H 2H 125.00 0.690 0.109 0.085 –0.016
3H 150.00 0.578 0.200 0.127 –0.018
4H 166.67 0.528 0.218 0.170 –0.017
6H 187.50 0.485 0.215 0.222 –0.012
8H 200.00 0.466 0.207 0.249 –0.006
12H 214.29 0.448 0.198 0.272 0.005
4H 2H 166.67 0.528 0.218 0.170 –0.017
3H 214.29 0.394 0.275 0.268 –0.020
4H 250.00 0.338 0.257 0.351 –0.018
6H 300.00 0.296 0.203 0.449 –0.006
8H 333.33 0.280 0.165 0.499 0.006
12H 375.00 0.264 0.125 0.541 0.027
8H 4H 333.33 0.280 0.165 0.499 0.006
6H 428.57 0.248 0.058 0.628 0.032
8H 500.00 0.239 –0.012 0.690 0.058
12H 600.00 0.232 –0.084 0.740 0.098
12H 4H 375.00 0.264 0.125 0.541 0.027
6H 500.00 0.238 –0.003 0.677 0.063
8H 600.00 0.232 –0.084 0.740 0.098
213
214
Table 12.12 Transfer factors
Reflectances
c 0.8 0.8 0.8 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.5 0.5 0.5
w 0.7 0.5 0.3 0.7 0.5 0.3 0.7 0.5 0.3
XH YH f 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2
2 2 TF(F,W) 0.2811 0.2313 0.1964 0.2645 0.2199 0.1882 0.2341 0.1984 0.1722
TF(W,W)–1 0.7547 0.4435 0.2260 0.7103 0.4218 0.2165 0.6288 0.3807 0.1982
TF(C,W) 0.9142 0.7521 0.6388 0.7770 0.6459 0.5526 0.5248 0.4449 0.3861
3 TF(F,W) 0.2494 0.2098 0.1811 0.2339 0.1987 0.1727 0.2054 0.1777 0.1565
TF(W,W)–1 0.6599 0.3966 0.2054 0.6200 0.3762 0.1962 0.5467 0.3377 0.1785
TF(C,W) 0.7913 0.6658 0.5746 0.6726 0.5714 0.4966 0.4544 0.3930 0.3462
4 TF(F,W) 0.2319 0.1975 0.1721 0.2171 0.1867 0.1637 0.1900 0.1661 0.1476
TF(W,W)–1 0.6083 0.3702 0.1934 0.5709 0.3506 0.1845 0.5023 0.3137 0.1672
TF(C,W) 0.7262 0.6186 0.5389 0.6173 0.5307 0.4654 0.4172 0.3648 0.3241
6 TF(F,W) 0.2132 0.1842 0.1621 0.1993 0.1736 0.1538 0.1738 0.1538 0.1380
TF(W,W)–1 0.5524 0.3408 0.1800 0.5178 0.3222 0.1713 0.4542 0.2872 0.1545
TF(C,W) 0.6589 0.5691 0.5008 0.5602 0.4880 0.4323 0.3787 0.3352 0.3007
8 TF(F,W) 0.2035 0.1771 0.1567 0.1901 0.1668 0.1485 0.1654 0.1474 0.1329
TF(W,W)–1 0.5224 0.3247 0.1724 0.4892 0.3066 0.1639 0.4282 0.2725 0.1474
TF(C,W) 0.6246 0.5435 0.4810 0.5311 0.4659 0.4150 0.3590 0.3199 0.2884
12 TF(F,W) 0.1935 0.1697 0.1511 0.1806 0.1596 0.1431 0.1568 0.1407 0.1276
TF(W,W)–1 0.4905 0.3073 0.1642 0.4589 0.2898 0.1558 0.4005 0.2567 0.1397
TF(C,W) 0.5898 0.5173 0.4607 0.5015 0.4434 0.3973 0.3391 0.3043 0.2760
4 2 TF(F,W) 0.2319 0.1975 0.1721 0.2171 0.1867 0.1637 0.1900 0.1661 0.1476
TF(W,W)–1 0.6083 0.3702 0.1934 0.5709 0.3506 0.1845 0.5023 0.3137 0.1672
TF(C,W) 0.7262 0.6186 0.5389 0.6173 0.5307 0.4654 0.4172 0.3648 0.3241
3 TF(F,W) 0.1925 0.1685 0.1497 0.1797 0.1585 0.1417 0.1560 0.1396 0.1263
Reflectances
c 0.8 0.8 0.8 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.5 0.5 0.5
w 0.7 0.5 0.3 0.7 0.5 0.3 0.7 0.5 0.3
XH YH f 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2
4 TF(W,W)–1 0.5003 0.3126 0.1667 0.4690 0.2954 0.1585 0.4115 0.2630 0.1428
TF(C,W) 0.5855 0.5122 0.4553 0.4980 0.4391 0.3927 0.3369 0.3014 0.2727
4 TF(F,W) 0.1707 0.1516 0.1363 0.1590 0.1422 0.1286 0.1375 0.1246 0.1139
TF(W,W)–1 0.4421 0.2804 0.1513 0.4144 0.2646 0.1436 0.3632 0.2350 0.1289
TF(C,W) 0.5108 0.4535 0.4078 0.4347 0.3887 0.3514 0.2943 0.2666 0.2437
6 TF(F,W) 0.1474 0.1329 0.1211 0.1370 0.1244 0.1139 0.1180 0.1084 0.1002
TF(W,W)–1 0.3794 0.2445 0.1336 0.3553 0.2304 0.1266 0.3110 0.2040 0.1132
TF(C,W) 0.4337 0.3913 0.3565 0.3692 0.3352 0.3069 0.2502 0.2297 0.2124
8 TF(F,W) 0.1351 0.1230 0.1129 0.1256 0.1149 0.1060 0.1079 0.0999 0.0929
TF(W,W)–1 0.3452 0.2244 0.1236 0.3231 0.2113 0.1169 0.2823 0.1866 0.1042
TF(C,W) 0.3944 0.3590 0.3294 0.3358 0.3074 0.2835 0.2276 0.2106 0.1960
12 TF(F,W) 0.1225 0.1126 0.1042 0.1137 0.1051 0.0977 0.0976 0.0910 0.0853
TF(W,W)–1 0.3080 0.2022 0.1123 0.2880 0.1900 0.1060 0.2509 0.1672 0.0940
TF(C,W) 0.3546 0.3259 0.3015 0.3020 0.2790 0.2593 0.2048 0.1911 0.1791
8 4 TF(F,W) 0.1351 0.1230 0.1129 0.1256 0.1149 0.1060 0.1079 0.0999 0.0929
TF(W,W)–1 0.3452 0.2244 0.1236 0.3231 0.2113 0.1169 0.2823 0.1866 0.1042
TF(C,W) 0.3944 0.3590 0.3294 0.3358 0.3074 0.2835 0.2276 0.2106 0.1960
6 TF(F,W) 0.1088 0.1007 0.0937 0.1009 0.0939 0.0877 0.0864 0.0810 0.0763
TF(W,W)–1 0.2809 0.1858 0.1037 0.2632 0.1749 0.0981 0.2304 0.1544 0.0872
TF(C,W) 0.3117 0.2886 0.2686 0.2656 0.2470 0.2309 0.1802 0.1691 0.1593
8 TF(F,W) 0.0949 0.0887 0.0832 0.0880 0.0826 0.0777 0.0752 0.0710 0.0674
TF(W,W)–1 0.2466 0.1646 0.0926 0.2311 0.1549 0.0875 0.2025 0.1367 0.0778
215
216
Reflectances
c 0.8 0.8 0.8 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.5 0.5 0.5
w 0.7 0.5 0.3 0.7 0.5 0.3 0.7 0.5 0.3
XH YH f 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2
8 TF(C,W) 0.2695 0.2517 0.2362 0.2297 0.2155 0.2029 0.1560 0.1474 0.1398
12 TF(F,W) 0.0807 0.0761 0.0720 0.0747 0.0707 0.0672 0.0637 0.0607 0.0580
TF(W,W)–1 0.2093 0.1411 0.0801 0.1962 0.1327 0.0756 0.1718 0.1170 0.0671
TF(C,W) 0.2267 0.2139 0.2025 0.1933 0.1831 0.1738 0.1314 0.1252 0.1196
12 6 TF(F,W) 0.1225 0.1126 0.1042 0.1137 0.1051 0.0977 0.0976 0.0910 0.0853
TF(W,W)–1 0.3080 0.2022 0.1123 0.2880 0.1900 0.1060 0.2509 0.1672 0.0940
TF(C,W) 0.3546 0.3259 0.3015 0.3020 0.2790 0.2593 0.2048 0.1911 0.1791
6 TF(F,W) 0.0951 0.0889 0.0835 0.0881 0.0828 0.0780 0.0753 0.0712 0.0676
TF(W,W)–1 0.2432 0.1625 0.0915 0.2277 0.1527 0.0864 0.1989 0.1345 0.0766
TF(C,W) 0.2700 0.2525 0.2370 0.2301 0.2161 0.2036 0.1563 0.1479 0.1403
8 TF(F,W) 0.0807 0.0761 0.0720 0.0747 0.0707 0.0672 0.0637 0.0607 0.0580
TF(W,W)–1 0.2093 0.1411 0.0801 0.1962 0.1327 0.0756 0.1718 0.1170 0.0671
TF(C,W) 0.2267 0.2139 0.2025 0.1933 0.1831 0.1738 0.1314 0.1252 0.1196
Chapter Thirteen: Indoor lighting calculations
Chapter 13: Indoor lighting calculations
The main calculation required in indoor lighting is that of calculating the illuminance on any
given plane, whether this is on a real solid object or a plane in space. This sort of calculation is
quite straightforward and methods are given in Chapters 10 and 11, the only complexity being
dealing with the geometry of any given situation.
However, the approach of only considering planes on which light is falling is very limiting if one
is trying to think about objects that might appear in the space. To obtain an understanding of this,
it is necessary to consider the light arriving at the object from all possible directions. Hence, the
concept of cubic illuminance (Cuttle, 1997) has been developed.
13.1 Introduction
In cubic illumination, the illuminance on the six faces of a small virtual cube is considered. From
these illuminances, it is possible to consider the flow of light at the centre of the cube as a vector
and the x, y and z components of the vector give both its magnitude and direction. To understand
how the various relationships work, it is first necessary to know a little of the mathematics of
vectors.
To start the consideration of vectors, it is first necessary to look at how space is defined in terms
of x, y and z. Figure 13.1 shows a set of orthogonal axes.
+Z
+Y
Figure 13.1 Three orthogonal

-X +X
axes defining space
-Y
-Z
Given that space is defined by the set of axes, it is now possible to define any point in space
relative to the origin of the axes by x, y and z values of the point. It is also possible to define the
point by its distance from the origin and the x, y and z components of that distance.
217
+Z
+Y
-X +X Figure 13.2 A point in space
-Y
-Z
Consider point P in Figure 13.2. We can define the position vector of point P (P) as:
(
P = P( x ) , P( y ) , P( z ) ) (13.1)
where P(x), P(y) and P(z) are the x, y and z coordinates of point P relative to the origin.
The distance of point P from the origin or magnitude of vector P is given by equation 13.2:
P = P(2x) + P(2y ) + P(2z ) (13.2)
The unit vector of P that defines the direction but not the distance is defined by equation 13.3:
Ê P( x) P( y ) P( z ) ˆ
( )
p = p( x ) , p( y ) , p( z ) = Á ,
Ë P P P ¯
, ˜ (13.3)
One other useful tool of vector mathematics is the dot product; it is useful for calculating the
component of a given vector on another. In Figure 13.3, a unit vector p is show next to the unit
vector n that represents the normal to the surface.
p h n
Figure 13.3 The dot product of unit vectors
The dot product (p.n) of the two vectors is calculated using equation 13.4:
218
p.n = p( x) .n( x) + p( y ) .n( y ) + p( z ) .n( z ) (13.4)
When considering the case shown in Figure 13.3, then the dot product p.n is cos h.
13.2 The illumination vector

The illuminance received at a point may be considered as a vector. Figure 13.4 shows the
illuminance due to a source S. The vector E is the illumination vector and the distance from the
origin of the axes and the circle indicates the relative illuminance falling on a plane normal to the
line joining the origin to the circle.
Z S
Figure 13.4 The illumination

E vector
-X X
-Z
The situation where there is only one light source illuminating a point is quite unusual and
in general, there is light falling from a number of different sources on to the point. Thus the
illumination vector would become the sum of two or more vectors. As a vector may be a sum of
more than one component, it is also possible to analyse vectors into a series of components.
13.3 Cubic illuminance

To characterise the pattern of illuminance at any given point, it is necessary to measure or
calculate the illuminance falling on the six faces of a small cube, see Figure 13.5.
219
E(z)
E(-x)
E(y)
Figure 13.5 The illuminance on six faces of a
small cube
E(-y)
E(x)
E(-z)
From such an assessment of illuminance, the six values obtained are E(+x), E(–x), E(+y), E(–y), E(+z)
and E(–z). From these values, it is common to calculate the vector ('E) and symmetric (~E)
components. The process is given in equation 13.5:
(
' E = ' E(x),' E(y ),' E(z ) ) (
~ E = ~ E(x),~ E(y ),~ E(z ) )
' E(X ) = E(+ X ) - E(- X ) (
~ E(X ) = min E(+ X ), E(- X ) )
(13.5)
' E(Y ) = E(+ Y ) - E(- Y ) ~ E(Y ) = min (E (+ Y ), E(- Y ) )
' E(Z ) = E(+ Z ) - E(- Z ) ~ E(x) = min (E (+ Z ) , E(- Z ) )
The symmetric component of the vector in this analysis is the amount of light that is equally
received on each side of the cube and the 'E vector components are the differences between each
pair of opposite sides of the cube.
The application of equation 13.5 is illustrated in Table 13.1.
Table 13.1 Example of cubic illuminance data and some derived values
+x 480 –x 210 'x 270 ~x 210
+y 270 –y 270 'y 0 ~y 270
+z 660 –z 135 'z 525 ~z 135
The magnitude of the illuminance vector |E| is 590 and the unit vector p = (0.457, 0.000,
0.889).
From the data, it also possible to calculate the illuminance solids for the point in question. There
are three lines in Figure 13.6, one for the vector component, one for the symmetric component
and one for the total.
220
z
Total
Vector
Symmetric
-x x
-z
Figure 13.6 The illumination solids for the data in Table 13.1
13.4 Derived values

Given that cubic illuminances carry a lot of information about the illumination at a point, it is not
surprising that it is possible to derive some other parameters that describe the illuminance from
them.
Planar illuminance
The planar illuminance (Epr) may be calculated using equation 13.6 where n is the unit vector of
the normal to the plane:
Epr = E e.n + ~ E( x) n2( x) + ~ E( y ) n2( y ) + ~ E( z ) n2( z ) (13.6)
Scalar illuminance
Scalar illuminance Esr is the average illuminance on the surface of a small sphere and is given by
equation 13.7:
Esr =
E
+
(
~ E( x) + ~ E( y ) + ~ E( z ) ) (13.7)
4 3
Hemispherical illuminance
Hemispherical illuminance Ehs, is the average illuminance falling onto the curved side of a
hemisphere. The normal to the centre of the flat side through the curved side has the unit vector
n, and the value may be calculated with equation 13.8:
Ehs =
E (1 + e.n)
+
(~ E ( x) + ~ E( y ) + ~ E( z ) ) (13.8)
4 3
221
Cylindrical illuminance
Cylindrical illuminance Ecl is the average illuminance on the curved surface of a cylinder, the axis
of the cylinder is vertical. Equation 13.9 may be used to calculate cylindrical illuminance:
Ecl =
E e.e( x , y )
+
(~ E ( x) + ~ E( y ) ) (13.9)
p 2
Semi-cylindrical illuminance
Semi-cylindrical illuminance Escl, is the average illuminance on the curved surface of a semi-
cylinder. It is assumed that the axis of the semi-cylinder through the middle of the flat side is
vertical. The direction of the curved surface is defined by the unit vector n is the normal to the
flat side and passes through the curved side. Semi-cylindrical illuminance may be calculated with
equation 13.10:
Escl =
( )(
E e.e( x , y ) 1 + e( x , y ) .n( x , y ) ) + (~ E( x) + ~ E( y) ) (13.10)
p 2
222
Chapter Fourteen: Outdoor lighting calculations
Chapter 14: Outdoor lighting calculations
This chapter on outdoor lighting calculations takes many of the calculation techniques from
the European Standard method of road lighting calculation (BSI, 2003c). There are many other
standard methods of calculation available, most notably CIE (2000). The differences in the
methods are minor and generally the difference in results between the methods small. In virtually
all outdoor lighting calculations, inter-reflected light is neglected. The difficult part of most
calculations is finding the intensity towards a given point from a luminaire; this is complex as the
luminaires may be aimed in a variety of ways making it hard to calculate the photometric angles
C and c. The first section of this chapter covers the calculation of intensity towards a point.
The main things that need to be calculated are illuminance (sometimes including semi-
cylindrical and semi-spherical illuminance), road surface luminance and glare. The calculation
of road surface luminance requires knowledge of the reflective properties of the road surface.
Section 14.2 discusses the way that road surfaces are dealt with as this is required before the
luminance calculation process can be considered.
14.1 Calculation of intensity towards a point

To determine the luminous intensity I(C, c) from a luminaire to a point, it is necessary to find the
vertical photometric angle (c) and photometric azimuth (C) of the light path to the point. To do
this, account has to be taken of the tilt in application in relation to the tilt during measurement,
the orientation, and rotation of the luminaire. For this purpose, mathematical sign conventions
for measuring distances on the road and for rotations about axes have to be established. The
system used is a right-handed Cartesian co-ordinate system as shown in Figure 14.1.
(x1 ,y1)
(x0 ,y0)
(2) (3)
(1)
Figure 14.1 Geometry of calculation point (2), luminaire (3) and road (1)
Figure 14.1 is taken from EN 13201-3 (BSI, 2003c) and illustrates the calculations on a road;
however, the same general principles apply to all outdoor calculations.
223
Equations 14.1 and 14.2 give the separation between the luminaire and the point in terms of X
and Y:
X = Xp − Xl (14.1)
Y = Yp − Yl (14.2)
where Xp and Yp are the coordinates of the point and Xl and Yl are the coordinates of the
luminaire. The luminaire may be rotated or tilted on each of three axes. Figure 14.2 show the
various rotations.
n
C = 90°
C = 270°
y
C = 0°
C = 180° y
Figure 14.2 Rotation of the luminaire
14.1.1 Calculation of C and c

There are four stages in the calculation of C and c.
First substitute the values of X, Y, H, u, c and d to obtain X', Y' and H' in equation 14.3.
X' = X (cosn cosy - sinn siny)+ Y (sinn siny - cosn sindsiny)

+ H cos d sin y
Y' = X sinn cos d + Y cos n cos d - H sin d (14.3)
H' = H cosdcos y - X (sinn sindcosy - cosn siny)
- Y (sin n sin y - cos n sin d cos y)
224
where X and Y are the longitudinal and transverse distances between the calculation point and the

luminaire, H is the height of the luminaire above the calculation point, X', Y' and H' are distances
for the calculation of C and c and may be regarded as intermediate variables, and n, d, and y are
tilts of the lantern as shown in Figure 14.2.
Note that, in a number of installations such as straight roads, car parks and some industrial yards,
it is only angle d that is fully variable, y is usually zero and n is either 0° or 180°. Under these
constraints, equations 14.3 may be simplified to give equations 14.4:
X' = X cosn
Y ' = Y cosn cosd - H sind (14.4)
H ' = H cosd + Y cosn sind
The second stage is the evaluation of the installation azimuth angle Q. It is given by equation 14.5:
( )
Q = arctan Y ' X ' (14.5)
Care must be exercised when using 14.5 as when X' is zero, Y ' X ' becomes infinite so the Q
becomes 90° if Y' > 0 and –90° if Y' < 0. If Y' is zero, then any value of Q may be used as the
point must line up with the axis of the luminaire and the c angle is zero.
A second problem with equation 14.5 is that the arctan function generally returns a value
between –90° and +90° so it is necessary to check in which quadrant the point lies. It is also
normal to work with the angle range 0 to 360°. The equations given in 14.6 should be used.
For X' > 0, Y' > 0 Q = arctan (Y'/X')

For X' < 0, Y' > 0 Q = 180° + arctan (Y'/X')
(14.6)
For X' < 0, Y' < 0 Q = 180° + arctan (Y'/X')
For X' > 0, Y'< 0 Q = 360° + arctan (Y'/X')
Note: a number of calculation tools provide an arctan function that takes two arguments, for
example ATAN2 in Excel; this type of function makes the calculation much simpler as it is only
necessary to provide values of X' and Y'.
The third step is to calculate C with equation 14.7:
C = Q-n (14.7)
The fourth step is the calculation of c using equation 14.8:
Ê X'2 + Y'2 ˆ
c = arctan Á ˜ (14.8)
Ë H' ¯
14.1.2 Finding the intensity value I

It is necessary to find the intensity value for the direction C and c calculated for a given point. In
general, this is not likely to coincide with an exact point in the measured intensity table for the
luminaire so some form of interpolation is necessary.
225
If the values in the photometric table have been measured at close spacings (Dc < 2.5° and
DC < 5°), then linear interpolation may be used, however, at larger angular separations, quadratic
interpolation should be used.
Linear interpolation
To estimate the luminous intensity I(C, c), it is necessary to interpolate between four values of
luminous intensity lying closest to the direction. The situation is illustrated in Figure 14.3.
Cm C Cm+1
cj+1
cj
Figure 14.3 Angles required for linear interpolation
In Figure 14.3 and equations 14.9, the following symbols are used:
C is the azimuth, measured about the first photometric axis
c is the vertical angle measured from the first photometric axis
j, j+1, m, m+1 are integers indicating the number of the column or row in the I-table.
The intensity I(C, c) may be found using equations 14.9
( C - C m ) ( I ( C m + 1 , c j ) - I (C m , c j ) )
( ) (
I C , c j = I Cm , c j + ) Cm + 1 - Cm
( C - C m ) ( I ( C m + 1 , c j + 1 ) - I (C m , c j + 1 ) ) (14.9)
( ) ( )
I C , c j + 1 = I Cm , c j + 1 +
Cm + 1 - Cm
( c - l ) ( I (C , c ) - I (C , c ))
j j +1 j
(
I(C, c) = I C, c j + ) c j +1 - c j
226
Quadratic interpolation

Quadratic interpolation requires three values in the I-table for each interpolated value.
Figure 14.4 shows the values needed. If a value of I is required at (C, c), interpolation is first
carried out down three adjacent columns of the I-table enclosing the point. This enables three
values of I to be found at c. Interpolation is then carried out across the table to find the required
value at (C, c). If preferred, this procedure may be reversed; that is, interpolation can be carried
out across and then down the I-table without affecting the result.
Cm Cm+1 C Cm+2
cj+2
cj+1
cj
Figure 14.4 Angles required for quadratic interpolation
The following equations give the interpolation starting across the C planes; however, the
procedure would work equally well working across the c angles. Initially, calculate the constants
K1, K2 and K3 using equations 14.10.
K1 =
( C - C m + 1 ) (C - C m + 2 )
(C m - C m + 1 ) (C m + 1 - C m + 2 )
K2 =
(C - C m ) (C - C m + 2 ) (14.10)
(C m + 1 - C m ) (C m + 1 - C m + 2 )
K3 =
(C - C m ) (C - C m + 1 )
( C m + 2 - C m ) (C m + 2 - C m + 1 )
227
It is now possible to calculate three intensity values at the desired value of C but differing at three
different c angles using equations 14.11:
( ) ( ) ( )
I C , c j = K 1 I Cm , c j + K 2 I Cm + 1 , c j + K 3 I C m + 2 , c j ( )
( ) ( ) ( )
I C , c j + 1 = K 1 I Cm , c j + 1 + K 2 I Cm + 1 , c j + 1 + K 3 I Cm + 2 , c j + 1 ( ) (14.11)
( ) ( ) ( )
I C , c j + 2 = K 1 I Cm , c j + 2 + K 2 I C m + 1 , c j + 2 + K 3 I Cm + 2 , c j + 2 ( )
Then it is necessary to interpolate across the different c angles, so three new constants (k1, k2, k3)
are needed.
k1 =
(c - c ) (c - c )
j +1 j+2
(c - c ) (c - c )
j j +1 j +1 j+2
k2 =
(c - C ) (c - c )
j j+2 (14.12)
(c - c ) (c - c )
j +1 j j +1 j+2
k3 =
(c - c ) (c - c )
j j +1
(c - c ) (c - c )
j+2 j j+2 j +1
Then the value of I(C, c) may be found using equation 14.13:
( ) (
I (C, l ) = k1 I C, c j + k2 I C, c j +1 + k3 I C, c j + 2 ) ( ) (14.13)
Note: When performing quadratic interpolation close to c = 0, it may be necessary to take one or
more of the values for interpolation from the opposite half plane. This means that photometric
data files that are used must contain a full set of planes either actually in the data or implied
by symmetry. The presence of orphaned half planes may make it impossible to use this sort of
interpolation.
14.2 The reflective properties of road surfaces

The reflective properties of road surfaces are described by r-tables. The use of r-tables was
developed when computers were less powerful than today and they were originally designed to
make calculations easier. To calculate the luminance on a piece of road towards an observer, it
would be normal to use equation 14.14:
L=qE (14.14)
where L is the luminance of the surface, E is the illuminance on the surface and q the luminance
coefficient. For a fixed viewing angle a, the value of the luminance coefficient varies with angle of
incidence of the incoming light i and the angle of deflection b. Figure 14.5 shows these angles.
228
d
i
H
C
b
a
Figure 14.5 Angles in the definition of r-tables
The tables of reflectance properties are stored as a table of reduced luminance coefficients (r) as
defined in equation 14.15:
r = q cos 3 i (14.15)
This way of working reduces the calculations needed as the calculation process simplifies as
shown in equation 14.16:
I cos 3 i
L=qE and E=
H2
q I cos 3 i
thus L = (14.16)
H2
Ir
\L = 2
H
Table 14.1 shows a typical r-table. The angles b and i are shown in Figure 14.5; note that in some
r-tables, the symbol c is used. However, as c is also used as the photometric elevation angle, its
use in this section has been avoided.
14.3 Calculation of illuminance and luminance

With the intensity calculated in section 14.1, it is now possible to calculate planar illuminance
using equation 10.1, semi-cylindrical illuminance using equation 10.5 and hemispherical
illuminance with equation 10.7. Most of the lighting standards set out rules that determine the
number and position of points that must be calculated to ensure that the results fairly represent
the lighting of the whole road. The same standards also set rules for the calculation of overall
parameters of the lighting such as average values and uniformity.
229
230
Table 14.1 A typical r-table
b0 /tan i 0 2 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 60 75 90 105 120 135 150 165 180
0 329 329 329 329 329 329 329 329 329 329 329 329 329 329 329 329 329 329 329 329
0.25 362 358 371 364 371 369 362 357 351 349 348 340 328 312 299 294 298 288 292 281
0.5 379 368 375 373 367 359 350 340 328 317 306 280 266 249 237 237 231 231 227 235
0.75 380 375 378 365 351 334 315 295 275 256 239 218 198 178 175 176 176 169 175 176
1 372 375 372 354 315 277 243 221 205 192 181 152 134 130 125 124 125 129 128 128
1.25 375 373 352 318 265 221 189 166 150 136 125 107 91 93 91 91 88 94 97 97
1.5 354 352 336 271 213 170 140 121 109 97 87 76 67 65 66 66 67 68 71 71
1.75 333 327 302 222 166 129 104 90 75 68 63 53 51 49 49 47 52 51 53 54
2 318 310 266 180 121 90 75 62 54 50 48 40 40 38 38 38 41 41 43 45
2.5 268 262 205 119 72 50 41 36 33 29 26 25 23 24 25 24 26 27 29 28
3 227 217 147 74 42 29 25 23 21 19 18 16 16 17 18 17 19 21 21 23
3.5 194 168 106 47 30 22 17 14 13 12 12 11 10 11 12 13 15 14 15 14
4 168 136 76 34 19 14 13 11 10 10 10 8 8 9 10 9 11 12 11 13
4.5 141 111 54 21 14 11 9 8 8 8 8 7 7 8 8 8 8 10 10 11
5 126 90 43 17 10 8 8 7 6 6 7 6 7 6 6 7 8 8 8 9
5.5 107 79 32 12 8 7 7 7 6 5
6 94 65 26 10 7 6 6 6 5
6.5 86 56 21 8 7 6 5 5
7 78 50 17 7 5 5 5 5
7.5 70 41 14 7 4 3 4
8 63 37 11 5 4 4 4
8.5 60 37 10 5 4 4 4
9 56 32 9 5 4 3
9.5 53 28 9 4 4 4
10 52 27 7 5 4 3
10.5 45 23 7 4 3 3
11 43 22 7 3 3 3
11.5 53 22 7 3 3
12 42 20 7 4 3
The calculation of luminance is more complex as it is necessary to calculate the angles between

the observer’s eye and the lantern at the point of interest on the road (b), the angle between the
normal to the road surface at the point of interest and the lantern (i) and use them to look up the
appropriate value in the r-table of the road surface. The angles b and i are shown in Figure 14.6.
S
y Q (x1 ,y1)
O’ (x3 ,y3)
i
b I H
P (x2 ,y2)
x
Q
Plan view of road P’
i
a b
O P
O’
1.5 m
Figure 14.6 Angles b and i
Angle b may be calculated using the cosine rule by considering the lengths O′P, the distance from
the road surface below the observer location to the point of interest, PQ, the distance from the
point of interest to the point on the road directly beneath the luminaire and O′Q, the distance
from the road surface below the observer location to the point on the road directly beneath the
luminaire. b may be calculated using equation 14.17.
O ¢P 2 + PQ 2 - O ¢Q 2
b = 180∞ - arccos (14.17)
2 ¥ O ¢P ¥ PQ
It is then necessary to use interpolation in the r-table to find an appropriate value of r for values of
tan i and b lying between those given in the r-table. It is necessary to use quadratic interpolation.
This requires three values in the r-table for each interpolated value. The process is similar to that
used for quadratic interpolation in section 14.1.2.
To reduce interpolation inaccuracies as far as possible, the following rule shall be followed in
selecting the values for insertion in the interpolation equations.
The two tabular values adjacent to the value for interpolation shall be selected. The third tabular value
shall be the next greatest. Linear interpolation shall be used at the boundaries of the table.
Once the r value has been determined, the luminance may be calculated with equation 14.18
I (C, c ) ¥ r ¥ 10 -4
L= (14.18)
H2
231
Note that the 10–4 is in the calculation as, by convention, r-tables are listed multiplied by 104 to
make them easier to read. If relative photometry of the luminaire, based on a nominal lamp flux
of 1000 lumens, is used, it will be necessary to multiply by the total lamp flux of the luminaire
in kilolumens. If the maintained road surface luminance is needed then it will be necessary to
multiply the result by the maintenance factor.
14.4 Calculation of glare

The main metric for the control of glare on main roads is Threshold Increment (TI%). TI% is
a measure of disability glare and it is based on a measure of light scatter in the eye called veiling
luminance (LV). The actual veiling luminance experienced by any given observer is a function
of a number of aspects of their eye and thus is very variable between subjects. In general, the
older the subject is the worse problems they are likely to have with disability glare. In general,
equation 14.19 is used for the calculation of veiling luminance and it gives the amount of veiling
luminance typically found with a subject with good eyesight in the age range 20 to 30.
n Eeyei
LV = 10 Â (14.19)
i =1 hi2
Where there are n light sources, the illuminance at the observer’s eye due to the ith source is Eeye,i
and the angle between the ith source and the direction of view is hi.
TI% is calculated using equation 14.20:

LV
TI % = 65 (14.20)
L0B.8
where LB is the background luminance. This is usually taken as the average luminance of the
road. Note that equation 14.20 is only valid for values of LB up to 5 cd·m–2. This is generally not
a problem for road lighting as it is unusual for road luminance to exceed 2 cd·m–2. Where LB does
exceed 5 cd·m–2, then equation 14.21 should be used.
LV
TI % = 95 (14.21)
L1B.05
14.5 Calculations in other outdoor areas
The same basic calculation principle is used in all outdoor areas and so it is possible to
calculate illuminance in outdoor workplaces and sports facilities. There are European standards
BS EN 12193: 2007: Light and lighting. Sports lighting and BS EN 12464-2:2007: Lighting of work
places. Outdoor work places (BSI 2007b, 2007c) that set out the number and locations of points
where illuminance needs to be calculated. The main difference in these areas is that it is common
to control glare with a metric called Glare Rating (GR). The system of glare rating is defined
by CIE (1994). The degree of glare in any area may vary with observer position and viewing
direction. The calculation is based upon the veiling luminance calculation and the basic equation
for GR is given in equation 14.22:
ÊL ˆ
GR = 27 + 24 log 10 Á 0VL
.9 ˜
(14.22)
Ë LVE ¯
where LVL is the veiling luminance due to the luminaires and LVE is the veiling luminance due to
the rest of the environment.
232
The calculation of the veiling luminance due to the rest of the environment is a complex process

involving breaking down the luminous field into a series of small elements, calculating the
illuminance that they cause at the eye of the observer and dividing by the angle between them
and the direction of view squared.
To overcome this complexity, the CIE (1994) also gave a simplified method that gives an
approximate value of the veiling luminance due to the environment. The method works well
when the background has a fairly uniform luminance. Equation 14.23 may be used to estimate
the veiling luminance due to the environment:
LVE = 0.035 Lav (14.23)
where Lav is the average luminance of the horizontal area being viewed by the observer. The
average luminance of a surface may be calculated by equation 14.24 provided the surface has
diffuse reflection properties.
Ehor av r
Lav = (14.24)
p
where Ehor av is the average horizontal illuminance and r is the reflectance of the area.
In the calculation of GR, the selection of observer locations and viewing directions is critical to
calculating a GR value appropriate to the application; in most applications, it is normal to assume
that the observer is looking 2 degrees below the horizontal.
233
Chapter Fifteen: Measurement of lighting installations and interpreting the results
Chapter 15: Measurement of lighting installations and

interpreting the results
As with any engineering project, the results of any lighting design are prone to a level of
uncertainty and it is often necessary to measure the lighting performance of a design to ensure
that it has been correctly executed. However, the process of measuring light gives rise to a
different set of uncertainties and so care is needed in both the process of measurement and the
interpretation of the results. This chapter looks at the properties of the instruments used for
measurement and the process of performing and interpreting the results of measurement.
15.1 Light measuring equipment

There are two main types of instrument used to measure light, illuminance and luminance
meters. The performance of both types of instrument is covered by British Standards (BSI,
2005b,c) and they are discussed in the following sections.
15.1.1 Illuminance meters

The performance requirements for illuminance meters are set out in BS 667: 2005. The
standard defines two types of meter, Type L – which are of high accuracy and generally used in
a laboratory, and type F – in which a certain amount of accuracy has been sacrificed in order to
make the instrument portable. The standard considers a number of potential sources of error and
puts limits on them. Table 15.1 details errors and their limits.
Table 15.1 Tolerances for illuminance meters
Source of error Maximum error over effective range
Type L Type F
Calibration uncertainty1, %
10–10 000 lux 1.0 2.5
10 000–100 000 lux 1.0 3.0
Non-linearity, %
10–10 000 lux 0.2 1.0
10 000–100 000 lux 0.2 2.0
Spectral correction factor,% 1.5 3.5
Infra-red response, % 0.2 0.2
Ultraviolet response 0.2 0.5
Cosine correction (unless marked as uncorrected), % 1.5 2.5
Fatigue, % 0.1 0.4
Temperature change, % per K 0.2 0.25
Range change 0.5 1.0
The standard used and errors involved should be quoted.

1
234
Note 1: For digital displays, there is a permitted tolerance of ±1 on the least significant digit.

Note 2: A meter, which just meets the requirement of this standard, would have a best
measurement capability of ±4% (type L) or ±6% (type F) when used on any of its calibrated
ranges.
Calibration
Calibration should be done with a stable tungsten light source with a colour temperature of
2856 ± 20 K. The luminance meter is calibrated using a standard intensity source, or against a
standard meter. Usually, the procedure is carried out on an optical bench where the illuminance
at the photometer head can be varied by changing the distance between the light source and the
photocell. Standard lamps are available from the National Physical Laboratory and other national
standards bodies.
Linearity error
To assess the linearity error, expose a meter to an illuminance close to the illuminance used to
calibrate the meter, then expose the meter to a series of illuminances covering the range. The
linearity error may then be calculated using equation 15.1:
Ê AB ˆ
N = Á1 - (15.1)
Ë CD ˜¯
where: A meter reading at the test point
C meter reading close to the calibration point
B/D ratio of illuminance that caused A and C
Spectral correction factor

As a tungsten lamp with a colour temperature of 2856 K ± 20 K has been adopted as the standard
by which a meter is calibrated, it is necessary to check the error when the meter is used with
other light sources. The error when using a particular light source is given by equation 15.2.
780
Â s (l )
*
rel
- V (l )
f1¢ = 380
780
¥ 100 (15.2)
Â V (l )
380
where s*(l)rel is the normalised relative spectral responsivity as given by the following
equation:
780
Â S (l )
380
A
V (l )
s * (l )rel = 780
s (l )rel
Â S (l ) s (l )
380
A rel
S(l)A is the spectral distribution of the illuminant used in the calibration (standard
illuminant A in accordance with CIE 15 (CIE, 2004b));
s(l)rel is the relative spectral responsivity normalised at an arbitrary wavelength;
V(l) is the spectral luminous efficiency of the human eye for photopic vision.
Cosine error
It is important that light coming at high angles away from the normal is given the correct
weighting according to the cosine formula used in calculating plane illuminance. Using a small
source to illuminate the photometer head and then rotating the head, checking the angle of
235
rotation and meter reading and dividing it by the reading at normal to give f(h), the error may be
assessed using equation 15.3:

+850
r= Â F(h) - cos(h) (15.3)
-850 - step 50
The total error may then be expressed as a percentage using equation 15.4:
r
T= ¥ 100 (15.4)
22.9 ¥ 2
15.1.2 Luminance meters
Luminance meters have a similar set of errors to illuminance meters as given in Table 15.2.
Table 15.2 Tolerances for luminance meters
Source of error Maximum error over effective range
Type L Type F
Calibration uncertainty1, %
0.1–1000 cd m–2 1.5 3.0
1000–10 000 cd m–2 1.5 3.5
Non-linearity, %
0.1–1000 cd m–2 0.2 0.5
1000–10 000 cd m–2 0.2 1.0
Spectral correction factor,% 2.0 4.0
Infra-red response, % 0.2 0.2
Ultraviolet response 0.2 0.2
Fatigue, % 0.1 0.4
Temperature change, % per K 0.2 0.2
Directional response 2.0 4.0
Effect of surrounding field 1.0 1.0
Errors of focus 0.4 0.6
Range change 0.1 0.6
The standard used and errors involved should be quoted.

1
Note 1: For digital displays, there is a permitted tolerance of ±1 on the least significant digit.
Note 2: A meter, which just meets the requirement of this standard, would have a best
measurement capability of ±5% (type L) or ±7% (type F) when used on any of its calibrated
ranges.
236
Whilst there is no cosine error to consider, the following spatially related errors must be assessed.

Directional response
Optical axis
dV
e
Figure 15.1 Directional response

of luminance meters
Entrance pupil W
Luminance meters should have a uniform response across their designed field of view. The
response of the meter is characterised by the function f2 (e, w) shown as equation 15.3:
Y (e, w)
f 2 (e, w) = ¥ 100% (15.3)
Y (e = 0 )
where Y (e, w) reading at angle of incidence e, w

Y (e = 0) reading on axis of photometer
The uniformity inside the cone of acceptance (E) can be characterised by equation 15.4:
Ymin
E = (1 - ) ¥ 100 (15.4)
Ymax
Effect of surrounding field

A luminance meter should not respond to light outside its field of measurement. This can be
tested using a gloss trap, which is slightly larger than the acceptance area of the meter.
Measurement field
(diameter d)
Figure 15.2 Testing effect of surrounding field
Gloss trap
(diameter 1.1 d)
237
The meter is exposed to a large uniform luminance source, and the error characterised using
equation 15.5:
Y ( surround)
f 2 (U ) = (15.5)
Y (total) - Y ( surround)
where: Y(surround) Output for the measurement with the gloss trap (black field)
Y(total) Output for the measurement without gloss trap (measurement field and
surrounding field).
Focus error
This may be due to changes in the light transmitting properties of the optical system of the meter
as focus is changed. It is characterised by equation 15.6:
ÊY ˆ
f12 = Á 1 ˜ ¥ 100% (15.6)
Ë Y2 ¯
where: Y1 Output signal when focused at the shortest distance
Y2 Output signal when focused at the longest distance.
15.2 Field measurements

15.2.1 Operating conditions
Whenever a performance measurement is carried out, there are a number of factors that may
impact upon the performance of the lighting installation being tested. A number of issues are
associated with the lighting equipment and there are others that relate to the environment.
It is important to ensure that the output of the lamps is stable. In general, this requires that they
have been run for at least 100 h and they have had time to run up to and reach thermal stability,
which may take half an hour or so. Also if the lamps have been in use for a long time, then their
output may be lower than the nominal output. Similarly, if the luminaires have been running
for a long time, the build-up of dirt on the optical surfaces may be reducing the light output. For
these reasons, it is good practice to record the condition of the lighting equipment when taking
measurements.
Many lamp types are sensitive to changes in temperature so it is important to record the
temperature when taking readings. For example, when taking readings inside a building that has
not been fully commissioned, the temperature might be quite cold. This may cause a reduction
in light output from fluorescent lamps, which are designed to operate at about 25°C.
The supply voltage can significantly change the output of some lamps so it is a good idea to
measure the supply voltage. As there can be a voltage drop in the supply cabling, it is best to
measure the voltage in the supply network as close to the luminaires as possible.
If the measurement is being carried out to demonstrate that a lighting installation performs the
way it was predicted to, then it is necessary to check that the lighting installed is the same as that
which the design calculation assumed. It is also necessary to check that the room geometry and
surface finishes are the same as those used in the design calculations.
15.2.2 Grids and illuminance measurement

When measuring illuminance, it is most common to evaluate the average illuminance and
uniformity over some specified area. To do this, it is normal to measure the illuminance on a
238
regular grid of points with the maximum distance between the points (p) being given by equation

15.7
p = 0.2 ¥ 5log d (15.7)
where d is the length of the longer dimension of the area being measured.
For example, if it is required to calculate the illuminance on a 6 m by 4 m area (see Figure 15.3),
then the following equation may be applied:
p = 0.2 ¥ 5log 6 = 0.6997
However, if you divide the length of 6 m by 0.6997, you get 8.575, so rounding up to the nearest
whole number, nine measurement points are needed. Dividing 6 by 9 gives a true spacing of
0.666 m. Then it is necessary to find the number of points in the width of the area that gives
nearly the same spacing; in the case of the 6 m by 4 m area, this is easy as a spacing of 0.666 m
means that six points are needed across the width. Once the number of points and the spacing
have been calculated, it is simple to arrange the points, with the first point starting a half spacing
from the edge (see Figure 15.3).
Width 4 m
p 0.66 m
Length 6 m
Figure 15.3 Typical measurement grid
This type of grid is suitable for most applications, however, for road lighting and some sports
lighting applications, particular grids are defined in the relevant standards (BSI, 2003c, 2007b).
When the area of a grid is a room or part of a room, then a band of 0.5 m from the walls is
excluded from the calculation area except when a task area is in or extends into this border area.
Once the grid has been defined, it is relatively easy to take illuminance measurements at each
point. This is achieved by placing a light meter at each point at the correct height and taking a
measurement. The orientation of the light meter is a function of the type of measurement being
taken. For horizontal illuminance, it is necessary to ensure that the illuminance meter is flat. For
239
vertical illuminance, the meter must be kept both vertical and parallel to the correct reference
plane. In some sports lighting installations, it is necessary to measure the illuminance towards
a camera location; this involves orientating the illuminance meter so that it faces the camera
location at each point of measurement.
15.2.3 Averages and uniformities

Once measurements have been made at each grid point as set out in section 15.2.2, it is relatively
simple to calculate the average and the uniformity. The average illuminance is calculated by
adding up all of the illuminance values and dividing by the number of measurements. The
most common measure of uniformity is the ratio of minimum to average which is calculated
by dividing the minimum value by the average. However, the minimum to maximum value is
sometimes used.
15.2.4 Measurement of road luminance

To measure the luminance of a road surface, it is necessary to have access to the road in safe
conditions; this usually requires the road to be closed. If it is necessary to work on a road that is
only partly closed then it is sensible to do a risk assessment of the measurement procedure and
take steps to reduce any possible risks to the people conducting the measurement.
Details of the measurement procedure and the luminance meter to be used are given in the
European Standard on methods of measuring lighting performance for road lighting (BSI,
2003d); the key points to consider are:
z Ensure that the luminance meter is located at the correct observer position.
z Measure and record the geometry of the installation.
z Mark out the grid points to be measured with moveable markers so that the marker may be
removed once the meter has been aimed at the spot but before the measurement is taken.
z Check the supply voltage to the lighting and note the age and condition of the lamps.
z Note the condition and state of the road surface, particularly if it is wet or dry.
15.2.5 Other measures of spatial illuminance

Whilst there are meters specially designed to measure hemispherical, cylindrical and
semi-cylindrical illuminance, they can be expensive and the number of times each instrument is
used may be limited. It is usual to measure the illuminance on six faces of a cube and derive the
required illuminance value using the methods set out in Chapter 13.
240
Chapter Sixteen: Colour
Chapter 16: Colour
16.1 Introduction
Colour is a very important property of both light sources and illuminated surfaces. This section
of the Code provides detailed information on the various ways to characterise colours, together
with their strengths and limitations. In all situations, the actual impact in any use of coloured
surfaces with particular light sources will be subjective. Whilst the methods detailed in this
chapter may aid the prediction of the impact of a particular colour scheme, there is no real
substitute for physical assessment. This chapter is divided into two sections: the first deals with
the colour properties of light sources and the second is concerned with the colour properties
of surfaces. There is, however, significant overlap between the two topics and some of the
calculation methods are equally applicable to both the colours of surfaces and the colours of light
sources.
16.2 Colour properties of light sources

All colour properties of a source are a function of its spectral power distribution. There are
two main colour properties: colour appearance and colour rendering. Colour appearance is
commonly expressed in terms of the position of the colour of a light source in one of several
colour systems or the colour of the full radiator (sometimes known as a blackbody or a Planckian
radiator) that most nearly matches it. This latter measure is known as the correlated colour
temperature (CCT) of the source. It should be noted that, to truly describe the appearance of a
colour, it is also necessary to consider the luminance of the source or surface, however, many of
the metrics of colour appearance used in the lighting industry do not include luminance. The
way that a collection of coloured surfaces appears under a given light source is more complex
and whilst the two metrics described in this section give a single number metric that represents
the average performance over a range of surfaces, such metrics are no guarantee of perfect colour
appearance with a given light source.
16.2.1 Colour appearance in the CIE chromaticity (1931) diagram

The CIE define three colour-matching functions x(l), y (l), and z (l), which are specified at
5 nm intervals through the visible spectrum from 380 nm to 780 nm. The X, Y, Z tristimulus
values can be calculated by multiplying the power recorded at each wavelength with each of the
colour-matching functions in turn and summing, thus:
X = Â Q (l ) x (l )
Y = Â Q (l ) y (l )
Z = Â Q (l ) z (l )
where Q(l) is the power in each wavelength band. Tabulated values of the colour-matching
functions are given in Table 16.1.
241
Table 16.1 Tabulated values of x (l), y (l), and z (l)

l / nm x(l) y(l) z(l) l / nm x(l) y(l) z(l)

380 0.0014 0.0000 0.0065 585 0.9786 0.8163 0.0014
385 0.0022 0.0001 0.0105 590 1.0263 0.7570 0.0011
390 0.0042 0.0001 0.0201 595 1.0567 0.6949 0.0010
395 0.0076 0.0002 0.0362 600 1.0662 0.6310 0.0008
400 0.0143 0.0004 0.0679 605 1.0456 0.5668 0.0006
405 0.0232 0.0006 0.1102 610 1.0026 0.5030 0.0003
410 0.0435 0.0012 0.2074 615 0.9384 0.4412 0.0002
415 0.0776 0.0022 0.3713 620 0.8544 0.3810 0.0002
420 0.1344 0.0040 0.6456 625 0.7514 0.3210 0.0001
425 0.2148 0.0073 1.0391 630 0.6424 0.2650 0.0000
430 0.2839 0.0116 1.3856 635 0.5419 0.2170 0.0000
435 0.3285 0.0168 1.6230 640 0.4479 0.1750 0.0000
440 0.3483 0.0230 1.7471 645 0.3608 0.1382 0.0000
445 0.3481 0.0298 1.7826 650 0.2835 0.1070 0.0000
450 0.3362 0.0380 1.7721 655 0.2187 0.0816 0.0000
455 0.3187 0.0480 1.7441 660 0.1649 0.0610 0.0000
460 0.2908 0.0600 1.6692 665 0.1212 0.0446 0.0000
465 0.2511 0.0739 1.5281 670 0.0874 0.0320 0.0000
470 0.1954 0.0910 1.2876 675 0.0636 0.0232 0.0000
475 0.1421 0.1126 1.0419 680 0.0468 0.0170 0.0000
480 0.0956 0.1390 0.8130 685 0.0329 0.0119 0.0000
485 0.0580 0.1693 0.6162 690 0.0227 0.0082 0.0000
490 0.0320 0.2080 0.4652 695 0.0158 0.0057 0.0000
495 0.0147 0.2586 0.3533 700 0.0114 0.0041 0.0000
500 0.0049 0.3230 0.2720 705 0.0081 0.0029 0.0000
505 0.0024 0.4073 0.2123 710 0.0058 0.0021 0.0000
510 0.0093 0.5030 0.1582 715 0.0041 0.0015 0.0000
515 0.0291 0.6082 0.1117 720 0.0029 0.0010 0.0000
520 0.0633 0.7100 0.0782 725 0.0020 0.0007 0.0000
525 0.1096 0.7932 0.0573 730 0.0014 0.0005 0.0000
530 0.1655 0.8620 0.0422 735 0.0010 0.0004 0.0000
535 0.2257 0.9149 0.0298 740 0.0007 0.0002 0.0000
540 0.2904 0.9540 0.0203 745 0.0005 0.0002 0.0000
545 0.3597 0.9803 0.0134 750 0.0003 0.0001 0.0000
550 0.4334 0.9950 0.0087 755 0.0002 0.0001 0.0000
555 0.5121 1.0000 0.0057 760 0.0002 0.0001 0.0000
560 0.5945 0.9950 0.0039 765 0.0001 0.0000 0.0000
565 0.6784 0.9786 0.0027 770 0.0001 0.0000 0.0000
570 0.7621 0.9520 0.0021 775 0.0001 0.0000 0.0000
575 0.8425 0.9154 0.0018 780 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000
580 0.9163 0.8700 0.0017
242
Note that these values are used where the colour source being viewed individually subtends an

angle between 1° and 4° at the eye. For a larger field of view, the CIE has developed a further set
of functions x10 (l), y10 (l), and z10 (l) which are known as the CIE 1964 observer (details of the
CIE 1964 colour matching functions are available at http://www.cie.co.at/main/freepubs.html).
The tristimulus values X, Y and Z are then normalised to create chromaticity coordinates x, y and
z using the following formulae
X Y Z
x= y= z=
X +Y + Z X +Y + Z X +Y + Z
Note that the sum of the chromaticity coordinates x, y and z is always equal to unity. The
relative colour appearance of the light may then be plotted on the CIE chromaticity diagram:
it is only necessary to plot x and y as z may be inferred. This chart is sometimes called the CIE
chromaticity (1931) diagram after the year in which it was introduced. Figure 16.1 shows an
example of the diagram.
Figure 16.1 The CIE chromaticity (1931) diagram
The outer curved boundary of the CIE chromaticity diagram is called the spectrum locus. All
colours that are made up of only a single wavelength plot on this line. The straight line joining
the two ends of the spectrum locus is known as the purple boundary. The line running near the
middle of the diagram is the full radiator (Planckian or blackbody) locus and it passes through
chromaticity coordinates of objects that produce radiation by thermal emission or incandescence.
See section 16.2.3 for more information on calculations with full radiators. Any point on the
chromaticity diagram shows the unique colour of a given light source and so the diagram is a
useful method for specifying such things as the colours of signal lights.
243
16.2.2 CIE UCS (1976) diagram

The CIE chromaticity (1931) diagram is very useful for providing a simple plot of all available
source colours, however, it suffers from the weakness that it is not perceptually uniform.
Green colours cover a large area while blue and red colours are compressed in the bottom left
and right corners, respectively. The ability of a given person to discriminate colour differences
depends on many personal factors including their genetics, age and tiredness; as well as a range
of environmental conditions including the luminance and spatial separation of the colours
being compared. In describing the comparison of colours, it is often important to establish the
minimum difference between two colours necessary for the colours to be seen as different.
Research into the perception of colour difference was carried out during the 1940s by MacAdam
and whilst the methodology was questionable and the number of subjects used very small, the
results have been used to derive a series of ellipses on the CIE chromaticity (1931) diagram. A
MacAdam ellipse joins points that are just perceptually different from the centre of the ellipse
and the ellipses in Figure 16.2 are drawn 10 times correct size.
520 530
0.8
510 540
550
560
0.6
570
500
580
590
y 0.4
600
610
490 620 650

630
0.2
480
470
460
380
450
0
0 0.2 0.3 0.5
Figure 16.2 The CIE chromaticity (1931) diagram with the MacAdam ellipses displayed,
multiplied ten times (after MacAdam (1942) from the IESNA Lighting Handbook)
244
A MacAdam ellipse about any point on the diagram can be described by the equation of an ellipse:

g11 (Dx)2 + g12 (Dx)(Dy) + g 22 (Dy)2 = 1
where Dx and Dy are the differences in the x and y co-ordinates of the colours from the centre
of the ellipse and g11, g12 and g22 are coefficients that may be obtained from Figure 16.3 below by
multiplying the value interpolated for the x and y co-ordinates for the centre of the ellipse by
10 000.
Figure 16.3 Charts used to obtain values of g11, g12 and g22
The same coefficients (g11, g12 and g22) may be used to define a measure of chromaticity difference
DC:
DC = g11 (Dx)2 + g12 (Dx)(Dy) + g 22 (Dy)2
245
To get round the problem of the non-uniformity of the CIE chromaticity (1931) diagram,
in 1960, the CIE recommended the u, v chromaticity diagram for applications where a more
uniform colour space was needed. For this diagram, u and v are calculated as follows:
4X 4x
u= or u=
( X + 15 Y + 3 Z) (-2 x + 12 y + 3)
6Y 6y
v= or v =
( X + 15 Y + 3 Z) (-2 x + 12 y + 3)
To convert these coordinate systems into a three-dimensional colour space for studying
differences in surface colours which may vary in luminance as well as colour, the U* V* W*
system was developed and recommended by the CIE in 1963. In this system, the values of U*,
V* and W* are calculated with the following formulae:
1
W * = 25 Y 3
- 17 where (1 £ Y £ 100)
U * = 13 W * ( u - u0 )
V * = 13 W * (v - v0 )
The chromaticity coordinates (u0, v0) refer to a nominal achromatic colour, usually that of the
light source.
In 1976, the CIE recommended a revised chromaticity diagram space based on u' and v'. The u'
and v' coordinates are calculated using the following formulae:
4X 4x
u' = or u' =
( X + 15 Y + 3 Z) (-2 x + 12 y + 3)
9Y 9y
v' = or v' =
( X + 15 Y + 3 Z) (-2 x + 12 y + 3)
When MacAdam ellipses are plotted on the 1976 colour diagram, they have more similar areas
and are more nearly circular (Figure 16.4).
0.6
0.5
0.4
v’ 0.3
Figure 16.4 MacAdam ellipses plotted on
the CIE 1976 UCS diagram
0.2
0.1
0
0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6
u’
246
There are also other colour spaces which are sufficiently perceptually uniform to permit the

calculation of colour difference. One of these is the CIE L*a*b* space: see section 16.3.6 for
more details.
16.2.3 Colour temperature

When an object is heated to a high temperature, the atoms within the material become excited by
the many interactions between them and energy is radiated in a continuous spectrum. The exact
nature of the radiation produced by an idealised radiator, known as a full radiator, was studied by
Max Planck at the end of the 19th century and he developed the following formula that predicts
the radiation produced:
c1
Methl = 5
l [exp ( c2 / lT ) - 1]
where Methl is the spectral radiant exitance, c1 and c2 are constants, with values of 3.7814 × 10–16
W m–2 and 1.4388 × 10–2 mK, respectively. l is the wavelength and T the temperature in kelvin.
The values of the spectral radiant exitance are plotted for different values of T in Figure 16.5.
Spactral radiant exitance. M el (W·m-2 per µm waveband)
20×106
4500
Wien’s displacement law
15×106 T (K)
4000
Figure 16.5 Spectral power distribution of

th
10×106
lmax radiation according to Planck’s law
3500
5×106
3000
2500
2000
0.5 1.0 1.5

Wavelength, l (µm)
The wavelength for maximum power (lmax) is inversely proportional to the temperature (T). The
following formula was developed by Planck’s co-worker at the University of Berlin and is known
as Wien’s displacement law.
c3
lmax =
T
where c3 has a value of 2.90 × 10–3 mK.
For light sources that are not full radiators, it may still be useful to categorise their colour in
terms of their correlated colour temperature. The correlated colour temperature for a light source
is defined as the temperature corresponding to the point on the full radiator locus which is
nearest to the point representing the chromaticity of the light source in a plot of 2v' against u'.
3
To perform this mathematically, it is necessary to minimise the function below by changing the
value of the temperature of the full radiator.
247
2
Ï È 2 v' - v' ¸
ÔÍ ( s fr )˘˙ 2 Ô
+ ÈÎ u' s - u' fr ˘˚ ˝
Ì
Ô ÍÎ 3 ˙ Ô
Ó ˚ ˛
where v's is the v' value for the source, v'fr is the v' value for the full radiator, u's is the u' value
for the source, and u'fr is the u' value for the full radiator. It is thus possible to plot a series of
lines on the CIE chromaticity diagram that correspond to a particular value of correlated colour
temperature, see Figure 16.6.
0.500
00
0
33
2 ,5
00
2,
3,3
5
5,000
51
0.400
1,
Y
0
,00
D65
10
0.300 C
0.200
0.200 0.300 0.400 0.500 0.600

X
Figure 16.6 The full radiator (Planckian) locus and lines of constant correlated colour
temperature plotted on the CIE 1931 (x, y) chromaticity diagram. Also shown are the
chromaticity coordinates of CIE Standard Illuminants C and D65 (from the IESNA Lighting
Handbook; IESNA, 2000)
16.2.4 Colour rendering

The ability of a light source to render colours faithfully is assessed by the calculation of the
extent to which colours illuminated by the source have their colour appearance changed
compared to those under a reference source. Two metrics for the colour rendering of light
sources are discussed in this section: the first is the CIE Colour Rendering Index (CRI) which
was developed in the 1960s and was largely designed to deal with the then new improvements in
fluorescent lamps. However, the recent emergence of LEDs into mainstream lighting applications
has shown up some of the weaknesses in the CRI system and an alternative system known as the
Colour Quality Scale (CQS) has been developed. Whilst at present, CQS does not have the same
worldwide acceptance as CRI, it does provide a useful metric that works well with most light
sources. However, it should be noted that there is currently a lot of interest in new metrics for
colour and no conclusion has been reached as to which method to adopt.
248
16.2.5 Colour Rendering Index (CRI)

The CIE (1995b) published the method to calculate colour rendering index. They put forward
two metrics, Ra8 which is based on the assessment of light source performance on eight colour
samples and Ra14 which is based on 14 colour samples. The most commonly used version is Ra8.
Figure 16.7 gives an approximate rendering of the colours used. The top row colours are those
used for the calculation of Ra8, the bottom row gives the additional colours that are used in the
calculation of Ra14.
Figure 16.7 Colours used for the calculation of CRI
The CIE colour rendering system compares the colour of test samples under the test light source
with the samples under a reference source. If the correlated colour temperature of the test
source is less than 5000 K, then the full radiator of the same colour temperature is used for the
reference, if the colour temperature is higher, then a simulated daylight spectrum is used.
To calculate the daylight spectrum, the CIE has defined a reference form of daylight that is
defined by the following formula:
Sl = S0 (l) + M1 S1 (l) + M2 S2 (l)
where S0 (l), S1 (l) and S2 (l) are functions of the wavelength l and are listed in Table 16.2. M1
and M2 are functions of the colour co-ordinates of the daylight xD and yD and may be calculated
using the following formulae:
-1.3515 - 1.7703 xD + 5.9114 yD
M1 =
0.0241 + 0.2562 xD - 0.7341 yD
-0.03 - 31.4424 xD + 30.0717 yD
M2 =
0.0241 + 0.2562 xD - 0.7341 yD
For correlated colour temperatures in the range 4000 to 7000 K, the x coordinate of daylight in
terms of the correlated colour temperature TC is given by the following formula:
4.607 ¥ 10 9 2.9678 ¥ 106 99.11

xD = - + + + 0.244063
TC3 TC2 TC
For colour temperatures in the range 7000 to 25 000 K, the following formula may be used:
2.0064 ¥ 10 9 1.9018 ¥ 106 247.48

xD = - + + + 0.233704
TC3 TC2 TC
The y chromaticity coordinate (yD) may then be calculated:
yD = - 3 xD2 + 2.87 xD - 0.275

249
Table 16.2 Tabulated values of S0(l), S1(l) and S2(l)

l S0(l) S1(l) S2(l) l S0(l) S1(l) S2(l)

380 63.40 38.50 3.00 585 92.10 –3.50 1.30
385 64.60 36.75 2.10 590 89.10 –3.50 2.10
390 65.80 35.00 1.20 595 89.80 –4.65 2.65
395 80.30 39.20 0.05 600 90.50 –5.80 3.20
400 94.80 43.40 –1.10 605 90.40 –6.50 3.65
405 99.80 44.85 –0.80 610 90.30 –7.20 4.10
410 104.80 46.30 –0.50 615 89.35 –7.90 4.40
415 105.35 45.10 –0.60 620 88.40 –8.60 4.70
420 105.90 43.90 –0.70 625 86.20 –9.05 4.90
425 101.25 40.50 –0.95 630 84.00 –9.50 5.10
430 96.80 37.10 –1.20 635 84.55 –10.20 5.90
435 105.35 36.90 –1.90 640 85.10 –10.90 6.70
440 113.90 36.70 –2.60 645 83.50 –10.80 7.00
445 119.75 36.30 –2.75 650 81.90 –10.70 7.30
450 125.60 35.90 –2.90 655 82.50 –11.35 7.95
455 125.55 34.25 –2.85 660 82.60 –12.00 8.60
460 125.50 32.60 –2.80 665 83.75 –13.00 9.20
465 123.40 30.25 –2.70 670 84.90 –14.00 9.80
470 121.30 27.90 –2.60 675 83.10 –13.80 10.00
475 121.30 26.10 –2.60 680 81.30 –13.60 10.20
480 121.30 24.30 –2.60 685 76.60 –12.80 9.25
485 117.40 22.20 –2.20 690 71.90 –12.00 8.30
490 113.50 20.10 –1.80 695 73.10 –12.65 8.95
495 113.30 18.15 –1.65 700 74.60 –13.30 9.60
500 113.10 16.20 –1.50 705 75.35 –13.10 9.05
505 111.95 14.70 –1.40 710 76.40 –12.90 8.50
510 110.80 13.20 –1.30 715 69.85 –11.75 7.75
515 108.65 10.90 –1.25 720 63.30 –10.60 7.00
520 106.50 8.60 –1.20 725 67.50 –11.10 7.30
525 107.65 7.35 –1.10 730 71.70 –11.60 7.60
530 108.80 6.10 –1.00 735 74.35 –11.90 7.80
535 107.05 5.15 –0.75 740 77.00 –12.20 8.00
540 105.30 4.20 –0.50 745 71.70 –11.20 7.35
545 104.85 3.05 –0.40 750 65.20 –10.20 6.70
550 104.40 1.90 –0.30 755 56.45 –9.00 5.95
555 102.20 0.95 –0.15 760 47.70 –7.80 5.20
560 100.00 0.00 0.00 765 58.15 –9.50 6.30
565 98.00 –0.80 0.10 770 68.60 –11.20 7.40
570 96.00 –1.60 0.20 775 66.80 –10.80 7.10
575 95.55 –2.55 0.35 780 65.00 –10.40 6.80
580 95.10 –3.50 0.50
250
Once the spectral power distributions of the reference and test sources have been calculated,

and then the tristimulus values calculated, it is necessary to normalise the tristimulus values for
the sources so that they both have a Y value of 100. The mathematical process of calculating the
colour rendering index is as follows:
1. The tristimulus values for the colour sample must be calculated for both the test and
reference source. Tabulated data for the reflectance of the samples used is given in Table 16.3.
2. Colorimetric data must be transformed from CIE 1931 values (X, Y, Z, x, y) to the (u, v)
coordinates of the 1960 diagram by the following:
u = 4 X/(X + 15Y + 3Z) (16.1a)
v = 6 Y/(X + 15Y + 3Z) (16.1b)
3. To account for the adaptive colour shift due to the different state of chromatic adaptation
under the lamp to be tested, k, and under the reference illuminant, r, use the following
formula:
cr d
10.872 + 0.404 c k , i - 4 r dk , i
ck dk
u' k , i =
c d
16.518 + 1.481 r ck, i - r dk, i (16.2)
ck dk
5.520
v' k, i =
c d
16.518 + 1.481 r ck, i - r dk, i
ck dk
The values u'k,i and v'k,i are the chromaticity coordinates of a test colour sample, i, after the
adaptive colour shift, obtained by moving the light source to be tested to the reference
illuminant, i.e. u'k = ur, v'k = vr and should not be confused with CIE 1976 u', v' coordinates.
4. The functions c and d for use in equation 16.2 are calculated for the light source to be tested
uk, vk, and the test colour samples i under the light source to be tested uk,i, vk,i according to
the following:
c = (4 – u – 10v)/v
(16.3)
d = (1.708v + 0.404 – 1.481u)/v
5. Colorimetric data must now be transformed into the 1964 Uniform Space by the following:
1 1
Wr*, i = 25 (Yr , i ) 3 - 17; Wk*, i = 25 (Yk, i ) 3 - 17
U r*, i = 13 Wr*, i ( ur , i - ur ); U k*, i = 13 Wk*, i ( u' k, i - u' k ) (16.4)
Vr*, i = 13 Wr*, i (v r , i - v r ); Vk*, i = 13 Wk*, i (v' k, i - v' k )
The values u'k = ur, v'k = vr are the chromaticity coordinates of the light source to be tested
after consideration of the adaptive colour shift. The values Yr,i and Yk,i must be normalised so
that Yr = Yk = 100.
251
252
Table 16.3 Spectral reflectance values of the colours used for the calculation of CRI
l TCS01 TCS02 TCS03 TCS04 TCS05 TCS06 TCS07 TCS08 TCS09 TCS10 TCS11 TCS12 TCS13 TCS14
380 0.219 0.070 0.065 0.074 0.295 0.151 0.378 0.104 0.066 0.05 0.111 0.12 0.104 0.036
385 0.239 0.079 0.068 0.083 0.306 0.203 0.459 0.129 0.062 0.054 0.121 0.103 0.127 0.036
390 0.252 0.089 0.070 0.093 0.310 0.265 0.524 0.170 0.058 0.059 0.127 0.09 0.161 0.037
395 0.256 0.101 0.072 0.105 0.312 0.339 0.546 0.240 0.055 0.063 0.129 0.082 0.211 0.038
400 0.256 0.111 0.073 0.116 0.313 0.410 0.551 0.319 0.052 0.066 0.127 0.076 0.264 0.039
405 0.254 0.116 0.073 0.121 0.315 0.464 0.555 0.416 0.052 0.067 0.121 0.068 0.313 0.039
410 0.252 0.118 0.074 0.124 0.319 0.492 0.559 0.462 0.051 0.068 0.116 0.064 0.341 0.04
415 0.248 0.120 0.074 0.126 0.322 0.508 0.560 0.482 0.05 0.069 0.112 0.065 0.352 0.041
420 0.244 0.121 0.074 0.128 0.326 0.517 0.561 0.490 0.05 0.069 0.108 0.075 0.359 0.042
425 0.240 0.122 0.073 0.131 0.330 0.524 0.558 0.488 0.049 0.07 0.105 0.093 0.361 0.042
430 0.237 0.122 0.073 0.135 0.334 0.531 0.556 0.482 0.048 0.072 0.104 0.123 0.364 0.043
435 0.232 0.122 0.073 0.139 0.339 0.538 0.551 0.473 0.047 0.073 0.104 0.16 0.365 0.044
440 0.230 0.123 0.073 0.144 0.346 0.544 0.544 0.462 0.046 0.076 0.105 0.207 0.367 0.044
445 0.226 0.124 0.073 0.151 0.352 0.551 0.535 0.450 0.044 0.078 0.106 0.256 0.369 0.045
450 0.225 0.127 0.074 0.161 0.360 0.556 0.522 0.439 0.042 0.083 0.11 0.3 0.372 0.045
455 0.222 0.128 0.075 0.172 0.369 0.556 0.506 0.426 0.041 0.088 0.115 0.331 0.374 0.046
460 0.220 0.131 0.077 0.186 0.381 0.554 0.488 0.413 0.038 0.095 0.123 0.346 0.376 0.047
465 0.218 0.134 0.080 0.205 0.394 0.549 0.469 0.397 0.035 0.103 0.134 0.347 0.379 0.048
470 0.216 0.138 0.085 0.229 0.403 0.541 0.448 0.382 0.033 0.113 0.148 0.341 0.384 0.05
475 0.214 0.143 0.094 0.254 0.410 0.531 0.429 0.366 0.031 0.125 0.167 0.328 0.389 0.052
480 0.214 0.150 0.109 0.281 0.415 0.519 0.408 0.352 0.03 0.142 0.192 0.307 0.397 0.055
485 0.214 0.159 0.126 0.308 0.418 0.504 0.385 0.337 0.029 0.162 0.219 0.282 0.405 0.057
490 0.216 0.174 0.148 0.332 0.419 0.488 0.363 0.325 0.028 0.189 0.252 0.257 0.416 0.062
495 0.218 0.190 0.172 0.352 0.417 0.469 0.341 0.310 0.028 0.219 0.291 0.23 0.429 0.067
500 0.223 0.207 0.198 0.370 0.413 0.450 0.324 0.299 0.028 0.262 0.325 0.204 0.443 0.075
505 0.225 0.225 0.221 0.383 0.409 0.431 0.311 0.289 0.029 0.305 0.347 0.178 0.454 0.083
510 0.226 0.242 0.241 0.390 0.403 0.414 0.301 0.283 0.03 0.365 0.356 0.154 0.461 0.092
515 0.226 0.253 0.260 0.394 0.396 0.395 0.291 0.276 0.03 0.416 0.353 0.129 0.466 0.1
520 0.225 0.260 0.278 0.395 0.389 0.377 0.283 0.270 0.031 0.465 0.346 0.109 0.469 0.108
525 0.225 0.264 0.302 0.392 0.381 0.358 0.273 0.262 0.031 0.509 0.333 0.09 0.471 0.121
530 0.227 0.267 0.339 0.385 0.372 0.341 0.265 0.256 0.032 0.546 0.314 0.075 0.474 0.133
535 0.230 0.269 0.370 0.377 0.363 0.325 0.260 0.251 0.032 0.581 0.294 0.062 0.476 0.142
540 0.236 0.272 0.392 0.367 0.353 0.309 0.257 0.250 0.033 0.61 0.271 0.051 0.483 0.15
545 0.245 0.276 0.399 0.354 0.342 0.293 0.257 0.251 0.034 0.634 0.248 0.041 0.49 0.154
550 0.253 0.282 0.400 0.341 0.331 0.279 0.259 0.254 0.035 0.653 0.227 0.035 0.506 0.155
555 0.262 0.289 0.393 0.327 0.320 0.265 0.260 0.258 0.037 0.666 0.206 0.029 0.526 0.152
560 0.272 0.299 0.380 0.312 0.308 0.253 0.260 0.264 0.041 0.678 0.188 0.025 0.553 0.147
565 0.283 0.309 0.365 0.296 0.296 0.241 0.258 0.269 0.044 0.687 0.17 0.022 0.582 0.14
570 0.298 0.322 0.349 0.280 0.284 0.234 0.256 0.272 0.048 0.693 0.153 0.019 0.618 0.133
575 0.318 0.329 0.332 0.263 0.271 0.227 0.254 0.274 0.052 0.698 0.138 0.017 0.651 0.125
580 0.341 0.335 0.315 0.247 0.260 0.225 0.254 0.278 0.06 0.701 0.125 0.017 0.68 0.118
585 0.367 0.339 0.299 0.229 0.247 0.222 0.259 0.284 0.076 0.704 0.114 0.017 0.701 0.112
590 0.390 0.341 0.285 0.214 0.232 0.221 0.270 0.295 0.102 0.705 0.106 0.016 0.717 0.106
595 0.409 0.341 0.272 0.198 0.220 0.220 0.284 0.316 0.136 0.705 0.1 0.016 0.729 0.101
600 0.424 0.342 0.264 0.185 0.210 0.220 0.302 0.348 0.19 0.706 0.096 0.016 0.736 0.098
605 0.435 0.342 0.257 0.175 0.200 0.220 0.324 0.384 0.256 0.707 0.092 0.016 0.742 0.095
610 0.442 0.342 0.252 0.169 0.194 0.220 0.344 0.434 0.336 0.707 0.09 0.016 0.745 0.093
615 0.448 0.341 0.247 0.164 0.189 0.220 0.362 0.482 0.418 0.707 0.087 0.016 0.747 0.09
620 0.450 0.341 0.241 0.160 0.185 0.223 0.377 0.528 0.505 0.708 0.085 0.016 0.748 0.089
625 0.451 0.339 0.235 0.156 0.183 0.227 0.389 0.568 0.581 0.708 0.082 0.016 0.748 0.087
630 0.451 0.339 0.229 0.154 0.180 0.233 0.400 0.604 0.641 0.71 0.08 0.018 0.748 0.086
635 0.451 0.338 0.224 0.152 0.177 0.239 0.410 0.629 0.682 0.711 0.079 0.018 0.748 0.085
640 0.451 0.338 0.220 0.151 0.176 0.244 0.420 0.648 0.717 0.712 0.078 0.018 0.748 0.084
645 0.451 0.337 0.217 0.149 0.175 0.251 0.429 0.663 0.74 0.714 0.078 0.018 0.748 0.084
650 0.450 0.336 0.216 0.148 0.175 0.258 0.438 0.676 0.758 0.716 0.078 0.019 0.748 0.084
253
254
655 0.450 0.335 0.216 0.148 0.175 0.263 0.445 0.685 0.77 0.718 0.078 0.02 0.748 0.084
660 0.451 0.334 0.219 0.148 0.175 0.268 0.452 0.693 0.781 0.72 0.081 0.023 0.747 0.085
665 0.451 0.332 0.224 0.149 0.177 0.273 0.457 0.700 0.79 0.722 0.083 0.024 0.747 0.087
670 0.453 0.332 0.230 0.151 0.180 0.278 0.462 0.705 0.797 0.725 0.088 0.026 0.747 0.092
675 0.454 0.331 0.238 0.154 0.183 0.281 0.466 0.709 0.803 0.729 0.093 0.03 0.747 0.096
680 0.455 0.331 0.251 0.158 0.186 0.283 0.468 0.712 0.809 0.731 0.102 0.035 0.747 0.102
685 0.457 0.330 0.269 0.162 0.189 0.286 0.470 0.715 0.814 0.735 0.112 0.043 0.747 0.11
690 0.458 0.329 0.288 0.165 0.192 0.291 0.473 0.717 0.819 0.739 0.125 0.056 0.747 0.123
695 0.460 0.328 0.312 0.168 0.195 0.296 0.477 0.719 0.824 0.742 0.141 0.074 0.746 0.137
700 0.462 0.328 0.340 0.170 0.199 0.302 0.483 0.721 0.828 0.746 0.161 0.097 0.746 0.152
705 0.463 0.327 0.366 0.171 0.200 0.313 0.489 0.720 0.83 0.748 0.182 0.128 0.746 0.169
710 0.464 0.326 0.390 0.170 0.199 0.325 0.496 0.719 0.831 0.749 0.203 0.166 0.745 0.188
715 0.465 0.325 0.412 0.168 0.198 0.338 0.503 0.722 0.833 0.751 0.223 0.21 0.744 0.207
720 0.466 0.324 0.431 0.166 0.196 0.351 0.511 0.725 0.835 0.753 0.242 0.257 0.743 0.226
725 0.466 0.324 0.447 0.164 0.195 0.364 0.518 0.727 0.836 0.754 0.257 0.305 0.744 0.243
730 0.466 0.324 0.460 0.164 0.195 0.376 0.525 0.729 0.836 0.755 0.27 0.354 0.745 0.26
735 0.466 0.323 0.472 0.165 0.196 0.389 0.532 0.730 0.837 0.755 0.282 0.401 0.748 0.277
740 0.467 0.322 0.481 0.168 0.197 0.401 0.539 0.730 0.838 0.755 0.292 0.446 0.75 0.294
745 0.467 0.321 0.488 0.172 0.200 0.413 0.546 0.730 0.839 0.755 0.302 0.485 0.75 0.31
750 0.467 0.320 0.493 0.177 0.203 0.425 0.553 0.730 0.839 0.756 0.31 0.52 0.749 0.325
755 0.467 0.318 0.497 0.181 0.205 0.436 0.559 0.730 0.839 0.757 0.314 0.551 0.748 0.339
760 0.467 0.316 0.500 0.185 0.208 0.447 0.565 0.730 0.839 0.758 0.317 0.577 0.748 0.353
765 0.467 0.315 0.502 0.189 0.212 0.458 0.570 0.730 0.839 0.759 0.323 0.599 0.747 0.366
770 0.467 0.315 0.505 0.192 0.215 0.469 0.575 0.730 0.839 0.759 0.33 0.618 0.747 0.379
775 0.467 0.314 0.510 0.194 0.217 0.477 0.578 0.730 0.839 0.759 0.334 0.633 0.747 0.39
780 0.467 0.314 0.516 0.197 0.219 0.485 0.581 0.730 0.839 0.759 0.338 0.645 0.747 0.399
6. The difference between the resultant colour shift of the test colour sample under the test

lamp k and illuminated by the reference r may be calculated using the following 1964 Colour
Difference Formula:
DEi = (D Ui*) 2 + (D Vi * ) 2 + (D Wi * ) 2 (16.5)
7. Calculate the Special Colour Rendering Index, Ri, for each test colour sample by the
following:
Ra8 = 100 - 4.6DEi (16.6)
8. Calculate the general Colour Rendering Index, Ra, by the following formulae, 16.7a for Ra8
and 16.7b for Ra14:
1 8
Ra8 = ÂR i (16.7a)
8 i =1
1 14
Ra14 = ÂR i (16.7b)
14 i =1
16.2.6 Colour Quality Scale (CQS)

The colour quality scale has been proposed by Davis and Ohno (2010) as a response to the
perceived shortcomings of the CIE Colour Rendering Index system when applied to LED
sources. The system is similar to the CRI in that it is based on the difference in the colour of the
light reflected from a series of samples when illuminated by a test and a reference source. The
reference source used is the same as the CRI system but CQS is based on the use of 15 colour
samples that are more saturated in colour than the samples used in the CRI system (Figure 16.8).
The colour calculations are all carried out in CIELAB colour space and the colour transform used
to allow for the adaptation to a new white point uses the CMCCAT2000 transform to convert X,
Y and Z to RGB, a linear shift in RGB space and then an inverse CMCCAT2000 transform back
to X, Y and Z. As well as assessing colour differences between the colours of samples under a
test and a reference source, an allowance is made for any increase in chroma of the colour. Thus,
changes to higher chroma are scored better in the system than those that reduce chroma. The
overall colour differences are summed using a root mean square method, thus making it harder
for light sources that do very badly on one or two colours to obtain a good score on a simple
average. The CQS score is scaled so that it always produces a value between 0 and 100 (in the
CRI system, it is possible to get negative values). Finally, there is a de-rating factor applied for
sources that have a colour temperature below 3500 K. A full explanation and justification of this
process is given in the Davis and Ohno paper.
Figure 16.8 Colours used for the calculation of CQS

255
The calculation process is as follows:

1. Obtain normalised (Y=100) test and reference spectra in the same way as used in the CRI
method.
2. Calculate the tristimulus values for the colour sample with both the test and reference
sources; these need to be compared with the tristimulus values of the same sources (known
as their white values); the following symbols are used to represent these values.
Xi,ref Yi,ref Zi,ref – the tristimulus values of the colour sample i when illuminated with the
reference source.
Xi,test Yi,test Zi,test – the tristimulus values of the colour sample i when illuminated with the test
source.
Xw,ref Yw,ref Zw,ref – the tristimulus values of the white point of the reference source.
Xw,test Yw,test Zw,test – the tristimulus values of the white point of the test source.
The values of reflectance of the 15 colour samples are given in Table 16.4.
3. Transform the tristimulus values for the white points and the colour sample illuminated by
the test source using equations 16.8 to 16.10.
Ê Ri, test ˆ Ê X i, test ˆ

Á ˜ Á ˜
Á Gi, test ˜ = M Á Yi, test ˜ (16.8)
ÁË B ˜¯ ÁË Z ˜¯
i , test i , test
Ê Rw, test ˆ Ê X w, test ˆ

Á ˜ Á ˜
Á Gw, test ˜ = M Á Yw, test ˜ (16.9)
ÁË B ˜¯ ÁË Z ˜¯
w , test w , test
Ê Rw, ref ˆ Ê X w, ref ˆ

Á ˜ Á ˜
Á Gw, ref ˜ = M Á Yw, ref ˜ (16.10)
ÁB ˜ ÁZ ˜
Ë w, ref ¯ Ë w, ref ¯
Ê 0.7982 0.3389 -0.1371ˆ

Á ˜
where M = Á -0.5918 1.5512 0.0406˜
Á 0.0008 0.0239 0.9753˜¯
Ë
4. The corresponding shifted RGB values that allow for white point adaptation are calculated
using equations 16.11 to 16.13.
ÊR ˆ
Ri , test , c = Ri, test Á w, ref R ˜ (16.11)
Ë w , test ¯
ÊG ˆ
Gi , test , c = Gi , test Á w, ref G ˜ (16.12)
Ë w , test ¯
ÊB ˆ
Bi , test , c = Bi , test Á w, ref B ˜ (16.13)
Ë w , test ¯
256
Table 16.4 Values of reflectance of the 15 colour samples
l 7.5P 10PB 5PB 7.5B 10BG 2.5BG 2.5G 7.5GY 2.5GY 5Y 10YR 5YR 10R 5R 7.5RP
(nm) 4/10 4/10 4/2 5/10 6/8 6/10 6/12 7/10 8/10 8.5/12 7/12 7/12 6/12 4/14 4/12
380 0.1086 0.1053 0.0858 0.0790 0.1167 0.0872 0.0726 0.0652 0.0643 0.0540 0.0482 0.0691 0.0829 0.0530 0.0908
385 0.1380 0.1323 0.0990 0.0984 0.1352 0.1001 0.0760 0.0657 0.0661 0.0489 0.0456 0.0692 0.0829 0.0507 0.1021
390 0.1729 0.1662 0.1204 0.1242 0.1674 0.1159 0.0789 0.0667 0.0702 0.0548 0.0478 0.0727 0.0866 0.0505 0.1130
395 0.2167 0.2113 0.1458 0.1595 0.2024 0.1339 0.0844 0.0691 0.0672 0.0550 0.0455 0.0756 0.0888 0.0502 0.1280
400 0.2539 0.2516 0.1696 0.1937 0.2298 0.1431 0.0864 0.0694 0.0715 0.0529 0.0484 0.0770 0.0884 0.0498 0.1359
405 0.2785 0.2806 0.1922 0.2215 0.2521 0.1516 0.0848 0.0709 0.0705 0.0521 0.0494 0.0806 0.0853 0.0489 0.1378
410 0.2853 0.2971 0.2101 0.2419 0.2635 0.1570 0.0861 0.0707 0.0727 0.0541 0.0456 0.0771 0.0868 0.0503 0.1363
415 0.2883 0.3042 0.2179 0.2488 0.2702 0.1608 0.0859 0.0691 0.0731 0.0548 0.0470 0.0742 0.0859 0.0492 0.1363
420 0.2860 0.3125 0.2233 0.2603 0.2758 0.1649 0.0868 0.0717 0.0745 0.0541 0.0473 0.0766 0.0828 0.0511 0.1354
425 0.2761 0.3183 0.2371 0.2776 0.2834 0.1678 0.0869 0.0692 0.0770 0.0531 0.0486 0.0733 0.0819 0.0509 0.1322
430 0.2674 0.3196 0.2499 0.2868 0.2934 0.1785 0.0882 0.0710 0.0756 0.0599 0.0501 0.0758 0.0822 0.0496 0.1294
435 0.2565 0.3261 0.2674 0.3107 0.3042 0.1829 0.0903 0.0717 0.0773 0.0569 0.0480 0.0768 0.0818 0.0494 0.1241
440 0.2422 0.3253 0.2949 0.3309 0.3201 0.1896 0.0924 0.0722 0.0786 0.0603 0.0490 0.0775 0.0822 0.0480 0.1209
445 0.2281 0.3193 0.3232 0.3515 0.3329 0.2032 0.0951 0.0737 0.0818 0.0643 0.0468 0.0754 0.0819 0.0487 0.1137
450 0.2140 0.3071 0.3435 0.3676 0.3511 0.2120 0.0969 0.0731 0.0861 0.0702 0.0471 0.0763 0.0807 0.0468 0.1117
455 0.2004 0.2961 0.3538 0.3819 0.3724 0.2294 0.1003 0.0777 0.0907 0.0715 0.0486 0.0763 0.0787 0.0443 0.1045
460 0.1854 0.2873 0.3602 0.4026 0.4027 0.2539 0.1083 0.0823 0.0981 0.0798 0.0517 0.0752 0.0832 0.0440 0.1006
465 0.1733 0.2729 0.3571 0.4189 0.4367 0.2869 0.1203 0.0917 0.1067 0.0860 0.0519 0.0782 0.0828 0.0427 0.0970
470 0.1602 0.2595 0.3511 0.4317 0.4625 0.3170 0.1383 0.1062 0.1152 0.0959 0.0479 0.0808 0.0810 0.0421 0.0908
475 0.1499 0.2395 0.3365 0.4363 0.4890 0.3570 0.1634 0.1285 0.1294 0.1088 0.0494 0.0778 0.0819 0.0414 0.0858
480 0.1414 0.2194 0.3176 0.4356 0.5085 0.3994 0.1988 0.1598 0.1410 0.1218 0.0524 0.0788 0.0836 0.0408 0.0807
485 0.1288 0.1949 0.2956 0.4297 0.5181 0.4346 0.2376 0.1993 0.1531 0.1398 0.0527 0.0805 0.0802 0.0400 0.0752
490 0.1204 0.1732 0.2747 0.4199 0.5243 0.4615 0.2795 0.2445 0.1694 0.1626 0.0537 0.0809 0.0809 0.0392 0.0716
495 0.1104 0.1560 0.2506 0.4058 0.5179 0.4747 0.3275 0.2974 0.1919 0.1878 0.0577 0.0838 0.0838 0.0406 0.0688
500 0.1061 0.1436 0.2279 0.3882 0.5084 0.4754 0.3671 0.3462 0.2178 0.2302 0.0647 0.0922 0.0842 0.0388 0.0678
505 0.1018 0.1305 0.2055 0.3660 0.4904 0.4691 0.4030 0.3894 0.2560 0.2829 0.0737 0.1051 0.0865 0.0396 0.0639
510 0.0968 0.1174 0.1847 0.3433 0.4717 0.4556 0.4201 0.4180 0.3110 0.3455 0.0983 0.1230 0.0910 0.0397 0.0615
515 0.0941 0.1075 0.1592 0.3148 0.4467 0.4371 0.4257 0.4433 0.3789 0.4171 0.1396 0.1521 0.0920 0.0391 0.0586
257
258
(nm) 4/10 4/10 4/2 5/10 6/8 6/10 6/12 7/10 8/10 8.5/12 7/12 7/12 6/12 4/14 4/12
520 0.0881 0.0991 0.1438 0.2890 0.4207 0.4154 0.4218 0.4548 0.4515 0.4871 0.1809 0.1728 0.0917 0.0405 0.0571
525 0.0842 0.0925 0.1244 0.2583 0.3931 0.3937 0.4090 0.4605 0.5285 0.5529 0.2280 0.1842 0.0917 0.0394 0.0527
530 0.0808 0.0916 0.1105 0.2340 0.3653 0.3737 0.3977 0.4647 0.5845 0.5955 0.2645 0.1897 0.0952 0.0401 0.0513
535 0.0779 0.0896 0.0959 0.2076 0.3363 0.3459 0.3769 0.4626 0.6261 0.6299 0.2963 0.1946 0.0983 0.0396 0.0537
540 0.0782 0.0897 0.0871 0.1839 0.3083 0.3203 0.3559 0.4604 0.6458 0.6552 0.3202 0.2037 0.1036 0.0396 0.0512
545 0.0773 0.0893 0.0790 0.1613 0.2808 0.2941 0.3312 0.4522 0.6547 0.6661 0.3545 0.2248 0.1150 0.0395 0.0530
550 0.0793 0.0891 0.0703 0.1434 0.2538 0.2715 0.3072 0.4444 0.6545 0.6752 0.3950 0.2675 0.1331 0.0399 0.0517
555 0.0790 0.0868 0.0652 0.1243 0.2260 0.2442 0.2803 0.4321 0.6473 0.6832 0.4353 0.3286 0.1646 0.0420 0.0511
560 0.0793 0.0820 0.0555 0.1044 0.2024 0.2205 0.2532 0.4149 0.6351 0.6851 0.4577 0.3895 0.2070 0.0410 0.0507
565 0.0806 0.0829 0.0579 0.0978 0.1865 0.1979 0.2313 0.4039 0.6252 0.6964 0.4904 0.4654 0.2754 0.0464 0.0549
570 0.0805 0.0854 0.0562 0.0910 0.1697 0.1800 0.2109 0.3879 0.6064 0.6966 0.5075 0.5188 0.3279 0.0500 0.0559
575 0.0793 0.0871 0.0548 0.0832 0.1592 0.1610 0.1897 0.3694 0.5924 0.7063 0.5193 0.5592 0.3819 0.0545 0.0627
580 0.0803 0.0922 0.0517 0.0771 0.1482 0.1463 0.1723 0.3526 0.5756 0.7104 0.5273 0.5909 0.4250 0.0620 0.0678
585 0.0815 0.0978 0.0544 0.0747 0.1393 0.1284 0.1528 0.3288 0.5549 0.7115 0.5359 0.6189 0.4690 0.0742 0.0810
590 0.0842 0.1037 0.0519 0.0726 0.1316 0.1172 0.1355 0.3080 0.5303 0.7145 0.5431 0.6343 0.5067 0.0937 0.1004
595 0.0912 0.1079 0.0520 0.0682 0.1217 0.1045 0.1196 0.2829 0.5002 0.7195 0.5449 0.6485 0.5443 0.1279 0.1268
600 0.1035 0.1092 0.0541 0.0671 0.1182 0.0964 0.1050 0.2591 0.4793 0.7183 0.5493 0.6607 0.5721 0.1762 0.1595
605 0.1212 0.1088 0.0537 0.0660 0.1112 0.0903 0.0949 0.2388 0.4517 0.7208 0.5526 0.6648 0.5871 0.2449 0.2012
610 0.1455 0.1078 0.0545 0.0661 0.1071 0.0873 0.0868 0.2228 0.4340 0.7228 0.5561 0.6654 0.6073 0.3211 0.2452
615 0.1785 0.1026 0.0560 0.0660 0.1059 0.0846 0.0797 0.2109 0.4169 0.7274 0.5552 0.6721 0.6141 0.4050 0.2953
620 0.2107 0.0991 0.0560 0.0653 0.1044 0.0829 0.0783 0.2033 0.4060 0.7251 0.5573 0.6744 0.6170 0.4745 0.3439
625 0.2460 0.0995 0.0561 0.0644 0.1021 0.0814 0.0732 0.1963 0.3989 0.7274 0.5620 0.6723 0.6216 0.5335 0.3928
630 0.2791 0.1043 0.0578 0.0653 0.0991 0.0805 0.0737 0.1936 0.3945 0.7341 0.5607 0.6811 0.6272 0.5776 0.4336
635 0.3074 0.1101 0.0586 0.0669 0.1000 0.0803 0.0709 0.1887 0.3887 0.7358 0.5599 0.6792 0.6287 0.6094 0.4723
640 0.3330 0.1187 0.0573 0.0660 0.0980 0.0801 0.0703 0.1847 0.3805 0.7362 0.5632 0.6774 0.6276 0.6320 0.4996
645 0.3542 0.1311 0.0602 0.0677 0.0963 0.0776 0.0696 0.1804 0.3741 0.7354 0.5644 0.6796 0.6351 0.6495 0.5279
(nm) 4/10 4/10 4/2 5/10 6/8 6/10 6/12 7/10 8/10 8.5/12 7/12 7/12 6/12 4/14 4/12
650 0.3745 0.1430 0.0604 0.0668 0.0997 0.0797 0.0673 0.1766 0.3700 0.7442 0.5680 0.6856 0.6362 0.6620 0.5428
655 0.3920 0.1583 0.0606 0.0693 0.0994 0.0801 0.0677 0.1734 0.3630 0.7438 0.5660 0.6853 0.6348 0.6743 0.5601
660 0.4052 0.1704 0.0606 0.0689 0.1022 0.0810 0.0682 0.1721 0.3640 0.7440 0.5709 0.6864 0.6418 0.6833 0.5736
665 0.4186 0.1846 0.0595 0.0676 0.1005 0.0819 0.0665 0.1720 0.3590 0.7436 0.5692 0.6879 0.6438 0.6895 0.5837
670 0.4281 0.1906 0.0609 0.0694 0.1044 0.0856 0.0691 0.1724 0.3648 0.7442 0.5657 0.6874 0.6378 0.6924 0.5890
675 0.4395 0.1983 0.0605 0.0687 0.1073 0.0913 0.0695 0.1757 0.3696 0.7489 0.5716 0.6871 0.6410 0.7030 0.5959
680 0.4440 0.1981 0.0602 0.0698 0.1069 0.0930 0.0723 0.1781 0.3734 0.7435 0.5729 0.6863 0.6460 0.7075 0.5983
685 0.4497 0.1963 0.0580 0.0679 0.1103 0.0958 0.0727 0.1829 0.3818 0.7460 0.5739 0.6890 0.6451 0.7112 0.6015
690 0.4555 0.2003 0.0587 0.0694 0.1104 0.1016 0.0757 0.1897 0.3884 0.7518 0.5714 0.6863 0.6432 0.7187 0.6054
695 0.4612 0.2034 0.0573 0.0675 0.1084 0.1044 0.0767 0.1949 0.3947 0.7550 0.5741 0.6893 0.6509 0.7214 0.6135
700 0.4663 0.2061 0.0606 0.0676 0.1092 0.1047 0.0810 0.2018 0.4011 0.7496 0.5774 0.6950 0.6517 0.7284 0.6200
705 0.4707 0.2120 0.0613 0.0662 0.1074 0.1062 0.0818 0.2051 0.4040 0.7548 0.5791 0.6941 0.6514 0.7327 0.6287
710 0.4783 0.2207 0.0618 0.0681 0.1059 0.1052 0.0837 0.2071 0.4072 0.7609 0.5801 0.6958 0.6567 0.7351 0.6405
715 0.4778 0.2257 0.0652 0.0706 0.1082 0.1029 0.0822 0.2066 0.4065 0.7580 0.5804 0.6950 0.6597 0.7374 0.6443
720 0.4844 0.2335 0.0647 0.0728 0.1106 0.1025 0.0838 0.2032 0.4006 0.7574 0.5840 0.7008 0.6576 0.7410 0.6489
725 0.4877 0.2441 0.0684 0.0766 0.1129 0.1008 0.0847 0.1998 0.3983 0.7632 0.5814 0.7020 0.6576 0.7417 0.6621
730 0.4928 0.2550 0.0718 0.0814 0.1186 0.1036 0.0837 0.2024 0.3981 0.7701 0.5874 0.7059 0.6656 0.7491 0.6662
735 0.4960 0.2684 0.0731 0.0901 0.1243 0.1059 0.0864 0.2032 0.3990 0.7667 0.5885 0.7085 0.6641 0.7516 0.6726
740 0.4976 0.2862 0.0791 0.1042 0.1359 0.1123 0.0882 0.2074 0.4096 0.7735 0.5911 0.7047 0.6667 0.7532 0.6774
745 0.4993 0.3086 0.0828 0.1228 0.1466 0.1175 0.0923 0.2160 0.4187 0.7720 0.5878 0.7021 0.6688 0.7567 0.6834
750 0.5015 0.3262 0.0896 0.1482 0.1617 0.1217 0.0967 0.2194 0.4264 0.7739 0.5896 0.7071 0.6713 0.7600 0.6808
755 0.5044 0.3483 0.0980 0.1793 0.1739 0.1304 0.0996 0.2293 0.4370 0.7740 0.5947 0.7088 0.6657 0.7592 0.6838
760 0.5042 0.3665 0.1063 0.2129 0.1814 0.1330 0.1027 0.2378 0.4424 0.7699 0.5945 0.7055 0.6712 0.7605 0.6874
765 0.5073 0.3814 0.1137 0.2445 0.1907 0.1373 0.1080 0.2448 0.4512 0.7788 0.5935 0.7073 0.6745 0.7629 0.6955
770 0.5112 0.3974 0.1238 0.2674 0.1976 0.1376 0.1115 0.2489 0.4579 0.7801 0.5979 0.7114 0.6780 0.7646 0.7012
775 0.5147 0.4091 0.1381 0.2838 0.1958 0.1384 0.1118 0.2558 0.4596 0.7728 0.5941 0.7028 0.6744 0.7622 0.6996
780 0.5128 0.4206 0.1505 0.2979 0.1972 0.1390 0.1152 0.2635 0.4756 0.7793 0.5962 0.7105 0.6786 0.7680 0.7023
259
5. Then calculate the tristimulus values for the test source reflected on the colour allowing for
white point adaptation using equation 16.14.
Ê X i, test , c ˆ Ê Ri, test , c ˆ

Á ˜ Á ˜
Á Yi, test , c ˜ = M Á Gi, test , c ˜
-1
(16.14)
ÁZ ˜ ÁB ˜
Ë i, test , c ¯ Ë i , test , c ¯
Ê 1.076450 -0.237662 0.161212ˆ

Á ˜
where M -1 = Á 0.410964 0.554342 0.034694˜
Á -0.010954 -0.013389 1.024343 ˜
Ë ¯
6. Calculate the position of the colour of the sample under the test and reference sources in
CIE L*a*b* colour space, using equations 16.15 to 16.17 for the test source and 16.18 to
16.20 for the reference source.
1
3
*
Ê Yi , test , c ˆ
Li , test = 116 Á ˜ - 16 (16.15)
Ë Yw, test ¯
1 1
ÈÊ X ˆ 3 Ê Yi , test , c ˆ 3 ˘
i , test , c
ai*, test = 500 ÍÁ -Á ˙ (16.16)
ÍË X w, test ˜¯ Ë Yw, test ¯ ˙
˜ ˙
ÍÎ ˚
1 1
ÈÊ Y ˆ 3 Ê Zi , test , c ˆ 3 ˘
i , test , c
bi*, test = 500 ÍÁ -Á ˙ (16.17)
ÍË Yw, test ˜¯ Ë Zw, test ¯ ˙
˜ ˙
ÍÎ ˚
1
3
*
Ê Yi , ref ˆ
Li , ref = 116 Á ˜ - 16 (16.18)
Ë Yw, ref ¯
ÈÊ X ˆ 1 3 Ê Y ˆ 1 3 ˘
i , ref i , ref
ai*, ref = 500 ÍÁ ˜ -Á ˙
˜ ˙ (16.19)
ÍË X w, ref ¯ Y
Ë w, ref ¯ ˙
ÍÎ ˚
ÈÊ Y ˆ 1 3 Ê Z ˆ 1 3 ˘
i , ref i , ref
bi*, ref = 500 ÍÁ ˜ -Á ˙
˜ ˙ (16.20)
ÍË Yw, ref ¯ Z
Ë w, ref ¯ ˙
ÍÎ ˚
7. Calculate the chroma value for each sample under both the test (C*i,test) and the reference
(C*i,ref) sources using equations 16.21 and 16.22:
Ci*, test = ( ai*, test )2 + (bi*, test )2 (16.21)
Ci*, ref = ( ai*, ref )2 + (bi*, ref )2 (16.22)
260
8. Calculate the colour differences between the adjusted appearance under the test source and

the reference source using equations 16.23 to 16.25:
DL*i = L*i , test - L*i , ref (16.23)
Dai* = ai*, test - ai*, ref (16.24)
Dbi* = bi*, test - bi*, ref (16.25)
9. Calculate the chroma difference in a similar manner using equation 16.26:
DCi* = Ci*, test - Ci*, ref (16.26)
10. The colour difference of the sample under the reference and test illuminants DE*i is:
calculated using equation 16.27:
DEi* = (DL*i )2 + (Dai* )2 + (Dbi* )2 (16.27)
11. Rather than simply calculating the colour difference of each reflective sample as above, a
saturation factor is introduced into the calculations of the CQS. The saturation factor serves
to negate any contribution to the colour difference that arises from an increase in object
chroma from test source illumination (relative to the reference illuminant). Thus, equations
16.28a and 16.28b are used to calculate a colour difference that allows for a change in colour
saturation DE*i,sat
DEi*, sat = DEi* if DCi* £ 0 (16.28a)
DEi*, sat = (DEi* )2 - (DCi* )2 if DCi* > 0 (16.28b)
12. The next step is to combine the individual colour differences for each of the 15 colour
samples using a RMS method to ensure that it is not possible to get a good overall rating if
one sample produces a large colour difference. The RMS average colour difference DE*RMS
may be calculated using equation 16.29
1 15
DERMS =
15
Â (DE *
i =1
i , sat )2 (16.29)
13. This RMS error is then converted into a quality score Qa,RMS using equation 16.30
Q a, RMS = 100 - (3.1 ¥ DERMS ) (16.30)
14. To ensure that the final CQS score lies in the range 0 to 100, then the value of Qa,RMS is
scaled using equation 16.31 to give Qa,0-100
È Ê Q a, RMS ˆ ˘
Q a, 0-100 = 10 ln Íexp Á + 1˙ (16.31)
ÍÎ Ë 10 ˜¯ ˙˚
The action of this formula is illustrated in Figure 16.9
261
100
90
80
70
60
Qa,0-100
50
40
30
20
10
0
-50 -40 -30 -20 -10 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Qa,RMS
Figure 16.9 Plot of Qa,0-100 for different values of Qa,RMS
15. If the test light source has a low colour temperature (below 3500 K), then the CQS value is
reduced. This is done by multiplying the Qa,0-100 value by CCT factor MCCT. When
the colour temperature is above 3500 K, MCCT is 1; below 3500 K, its value is given by
equation 16.32:
MCCT = T 3 (9.2672 ¥ 10 -11 ) - T 2 (8.3959 ¥ 10 -7 )

(16.32)
+ T (0.00255) - 1.612 for T £ 3500
A plot of MCCT against CCT is given in Figure 16.10.
1.00
0.80
0.60
MCCT
0.40
0.20
0.00
500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500
CCT (K)
Figure 16.10 Plot of MCTT against CCT
262
The CQS system may be compared to the CRI system. Table 16.5 gives the Ra8 and Ra14 values

for a series of common light sources together with the CQS values.
Table 16.5 Ra8, Ra14 and CQS values for common light sources
Lamp type CCT Ra8 Ra14 CQS
Tungsten Halogen 3134 99.89 99.86 98.06
Ceramic Metal Halide 4230 88.97 84.06 85.21
Compact Fluorescent 2848 79.81 67.90 71.56
White LED 4301 76.56 69.31 69.98
Multi Phosphor Fluorescent 6621 97.97 97.08 96.79
16.3 Colour properties of surfaces

There are a number of systems for categorising the colour of surfaces and they are reviewed
in LG11: Surface Reflectance and Colour (SLL, 2001). The systems are reviewed in this section
and Table 16.6 gives the values for a number of colours in each system. There are also colour
management systems that allow for the conversion of the colours from one environment to
another. These systems are used to ensure that images appear the same in different conditions
such as being viewed on a display and on a printed document. This section reviews these systems.
16.3.1 Munsell system

The Munsell system was originally devised in 1905 by A.H. Munsell, however, the system
has been refined over the years. The system gives three different dimensions to colour space:
Munsell Hue, Munsell Value and Munsell Chroma.
Value
Hue
10
Chroma
Yellow-Red
Red-Purple Red 8 Yellow
Purple
Figure 16.11 A schematic representation of the
6
Munsell colour system
6 4 5Green-Yellow
12 10 8 2 0
4
Green
2
Purple-Blue Blue
Blue-Green
0
Hue describes the apparently dominant part of the spectrum occupied by the colour, the main
hues are red (R), yellow (Y), green (G), blue (B) and purple (P). There are also intermediate hues
of yellow red (YR), green yellow (GY), blue green (BG), purple blue (PB) and red purple(RP).
Figure 16.11 shows the Munsell hues and Figure 16.12 illustrates the Munsell hues for chroma 6
and value 6.
263
Figure 16.12 The Munsell hues for chroma 6 and value 6
Chroma is the strength of a colour that increases from neutral grey to fully saturated colour:
neutral grey has a chroma of 0, however there is no intrinsic upper limit to chroma. Different
areas of the colour space have different maximal values of chroma.
Value varies between perfect black (0) and perfect white (10). There is an approximate
relationship between value (V) and the reflectance of the colour (R) given in equation 16.33
R ª V (V - 1) (16.33)
Figure 16.13 shows three views of the Munsell colour space.
Figure 16.13 The Munsell colour solid
16.3.2 Natural Colour System (NCS)

The Swedish NCS colour system is based on the colour opponency description of colour vision,
first proposed by Ewald Hering. The system is proprietary and owned by the Scandinavian
Colour Institute (see http://www.ncscolour.com/ or http://www.ncscolour.co.uk). The system
uses six elementary colours, white, black, red, yellow, green and blue. The system can be thought
of as a colour space as illustrated in Figure 16.14.
264
Figure 16.14 The NCS
colour space (courtesy
NCS Colour AB)
If you take a horizontal slice through the space, then the resulting section is a circle containing a
series of hues as illustrated in Figure 16.15.
Figure 16.15 A hue circle in NCS (courtesy

NCS Colour AB)
All of the colours in the NCS have a percentage of Whiteness or Blackness, and this is best
illustrated using the NCS Colour Triangle (Figure 16.16). The NCS Colour Triangle is a vertical
slice through the NCS Colour Solid. C stands for maximum colour intensity or Chromaticness,
W stands for White and S for Black. The numbers in the system refer to the percentage of the
distance across the colour space.
265
Figure 16.16 A NCS colour triangle (courtesy NCS

Colour AB)
16.3.3 DIN system

The DIN (Deutches Institut für Normung; http://www.din.de) colour system uses three
variables to define the colour space. They are hue (T), saturation (S) and darkness (D).
Figure 16.17 shows the DIN colour space.
W
S
Figure 16.17 The DIN colour

D space
An atlas of colour samples is available showing the individual colours defined by the system, see
Figure 16.18.
266
Figure 16.18 DIN colour atlas
16.3.4 BS 5252
BS 5252: 1976: Framework for colour co-ordination for building purposes (BSI, 1976), provides a list of
237 surface colours. The system uses three dimensions of colour: they are hue, designated by a
number (00 to 24), greyness designated by a letter (A to E), and weight given by an additional
number. Figure 16.19 shows the colours in the system.
267
Figure 16.19 Colours defined by BS 5252 (note colours are approximate)
The colours in the standard are referenced in a number of other British Standards:
BS 381C: 1996 Specification for colours for identification, coding and special purposes
BS 4800: 1981 Specification for paint colours for building purposes
BS 4900: 1976 Specification for vitreous enamel colours for building purposes
BS 4901: 1976 Specification for plastics colours for building purposes
BS 4902: 1976 Specification for sheet and tile flooring colours for building purposes
BS 4903: 1979 Specification for external colours for farm buildings
BS 4904: 1978 Specification for external cladding colours for building purposes
BS 6770: 1988 Guide for exterior colours for park homes (mobile homes), holiday
caravans and transportable accommodation units
In BS 4800, there is a table of colours that lists BS colour designations together with approximate
values of the colours in the NCS and Munsell systems. This is shown here in Table 16.6.
268
Table 16.6 Approximate NCS and Munsell references for colours in BS 4800

Greyness BS colour Hue Approximate Approximate
group designation NCS reference Munsell reference
A 00 A 01 Neutral 1501-Y03R N 8.5
00 A 05 Neutral 3101-Y26R N7
00 A 09 Neutral 5301-R46B N5
00 A 13 Neutral 7501-R97B N3
10 A 03 Yellow 2002-Y03R 5Y 8/0.5
10 A 07 Yellow 4302-Y09R 5Y 6/0.5
10 A 11 Yellow 6702-G98Y 5Y 4/0.5
B 04 B 15 Red 0906-Y78R 10R 9/1
04 B 17 Red 1409-Y83R 10R 8/2
04 B 21 Red 3810-Y76R 10R 6/2
08 B 15 Yellow-Red 0606-Y41R 10YR9.25/1
08 B 17 Yellow-Red 1607-Y41R 8.75YR 8/2
08 B 21 Yellow-Red 4107-Y41R 8.75YR 6/2
08 B 25 Yellow-Red 6308-Y40R 8.75YR 4/2
08 B 29 Yellow-Red 8105-Y53R 8.75YR 2/2
10 B 15 Yellow 0504-Y21R 5Y 9.25/1
10 B 17 Yellow 1811-Y01R 5Y 8/2
10 B 21 Yellow 4011-G99Y 5Y 6/2
10 B 25 Yellow 6211-G90Y 5Y 4/2
10 B 29 Yellow 8305-G89Y 5Y 2/2
12 B 15 Green-Yellow 0807-G73Y 5GY 9/1
12 B 17 Green-Yellow 1812-G75Y 2.5GY 8/2
18 B 17 Blue 1704 B78G 5B 8/1
18 B 21 Blue 4004-B57G 5B 6/1
18 B 25 Blue 6405-B14G 5B 4/1
18 B 29 Blue 8205-B06G 7.5B 2/1
22 B 15 Violet 1000-N 10PB 9/1
22 B 17 Violet 1804-R58B 10PB 8/2
C 02 C 33 Red-Purple 1118-R07B 7.5 RP 8/4
02 C 37 Red-Purple 3531-R17B 7.5 RP 5/6
02 C 39 Red-Purple 5331-R21B 7.5 RP 3/6
02 C 40 Red-Purple 7315-R24B 7.5 RP 2/4
04 C 33 Red 1019-Y86R 7.5 R 8/4
04 C 37 Red 3632-Y85R 7.5 R 5/6
04 C 39 Red 5136-Y87R 7.5 R 3/6
06 C 33 Yellow-Red 1517-Y35R 7.5 YR 8/4
06 C 37 Yellow-Red 4034-Y45R 5 YR 5/6
06 C 39 Yellow-Red 6525-Y40R 7.5 YR 3/6
269


C 08 C 31 Yellow-Red 0809-Y32R 10 YR 9/2
08 C 33 Yellow-Red 2430-Y24R 10 YR 7/6
08 C 37 Yellow-Red 4340-Y18R 10 YR 5/6
08 C 39 Yellow-Red 6724-Y22R 10 YR 3/6
10 C 31 Yellow 0811-Y16R 5Y 9/2
10 C 33 Yellow 1122-Y03R 5Y 8.5/4
10 C 37 Yellow 2536-G99Y 5Y 7/6
10 C 39 Yellow 6921-G95Y 5Y 3/4
12 C 33 Green-Yellow 1623-G72Y 2.5GY 8/4
12 C 29 Green-Yellow 6626-G49Y 2.5GY 3/4
14 C 31 Green 0609-G12Y 5G 9/1
14 C 35 Green 2601-G06Y 5G 7/2
14 C 39 Green 6520-G 5G 3/4
14 C 40 Green 8007-G05Y 5G 2/2
16 C 33 Blue-Green 1613-B68G 7.5BG 8/2
16 C 37 Blue-Green 4326-B57G 7.5BG 5/4
18 C 31 Blue 0704-B97G 5B 9.25/1
18 C 35 Blue 2156-B05G 7.5B 7/3
18 C 39 Blue 6126-B08G 7.5B 3/4
20 C 33 Blue-Purple 1117-R83B 5PB 8/4
22 C 37 Violet 3928-R60B 10PB 5/6
24 C 33 Purple 1514-R35B 7.5P 4/10
24 C 39 Purple 5431-R49B 7.5P 3/10
D 04 D 44 Red 2858-Y88R 7.5R 4/10
04 D 45 Red 3657-Y93R 7.5R 3/10
06 D 43 Yellow-Red 2560-Y27R 7.5YR 6/10
06 D 45 Yellow-Red 4644-Y47R 5YR 5/8
10 D 43 Yellow 2163-G97Y 5Y 7/10
10 D 45 Yellow 3952-G98Y 5Y 5/8
12 D 43 Green- Yellow 2954-G64Y 2.5GY 6/8
12 D 45 Green- Yellow 5043-G54Y 2.5GY 4/6
16 D 45 Blue-Green 5536-B51G 7.5BG 3/6
18 D 45 Blue 3536-B09G 7.5B 5/6
20 D 45 Purple-Blue 4938-R88B 5PB 3/8
22 D 45 Violet 4542-R63B 10PB 3/8
270

E 04 E 49 Red 0314-Y91B 7.5R 9/3
04 E 51 Red 0963-Y81R 7.5R 6/12
04 E 53 Red 1777-Y81R 7.5R 4.5/16
06 E 50 Yellow-Red 0742-Y32R 7.5YR 8/8
06 E 51 Yellow-Red 0860-Y50R 2.5YR 7/11
06 E 56 Yellow-Red 2960-Y43R 5YR 5/12
08 E 51 Yellow-Red 1178-Y16R 10YR 7.5/12
10 E 49 Yellow 0823-G87Y 10Y 9/4
10 E 50 Yellow 0848-Y 5Y 8.5/8
10 E 53 Yellow 0875-G97Y 6.25Y 8.5/13
12 E 51 Green- Yellow 0963-G66Y 2.5GY 8/10
12 E 53 Green- Yellow 1266-G45Y 5GY 7/11
14 E 51 Green 1854-G09Y 2.5G 6.5/8
14 E 53 Green 2854-G5G 5G 5/10
16 E 53 Blue- Green 3049-B50G 7.5BG 5/8
18 E 49 Blue 0710-B64G 5B 9/2
18 E50 Blue 0822-B11G 7.5B 8/4
18 E51 Blue 1847-B06G 7.5B 6/8
18 E53 Blue 2959-B 10B 4/10
20 E 51 Purple-Blue 1548-R89B 5 PB 6/10
00 E 53 Black 9500-N N 1.5
00 E 55 White 0000-N N 9.5
16.3.5 RAL design system

The RAL system is based on an atlas of 1688 colours, the most used of which are shown in Figure
16.20. The system is similar to the Munsell system in that it uses three parameters to define each
colour: hue, lightness and chroma.
271
Figure 16.20 The RAL colour chart (note: colours are approximate)
16.3.6 CIE L*a*b*

The CIE L*a*b* space is a method of describing colours that has been derived as a uniform
colour space, thus not only is it possible to use the space to characterise a colour but it is also
possible to assess differences between colours with some confidence.
The system is based on the tristimulus values of the light reflected from a coloured surface
compared to the light reflected from a perfect white diffuser when illuminated by the same
source. In the following formulae, X, Y and Z are values for the light reflected from a surface and
Xn, Yn and Zn for the light reflected from a white surface.
1
Ê Y ˆ3
L* = 116 Á ˜ - 16
Ë Yn ¯
1 1
È ˘
* Í Ê X ˆ 3 Ê Y 3˙
ˆ
a = 500 Á -Á ˜
ÍË X n ˜¯ Ë Yn ¯ ˙
ÍÎ ˚˙
1 1
È ˘
* Í Ê Y ˆ 3 Ê Z 3˙
ˆ
b = 500 Á ˜ - Á ˜
ÍË Yn ¯ Ë Zn ¯ ˙
ÍÎ ˙˚
Y
Note these formulae are not valid for very dark surfaces where £ 0.008856 .
Yn
In the CIELAB system, L* is the lightness of the sample, a* and b* relate to colour. Other terms
are also defined:
a, b chroma
1
(
Cab* = a* 2 + b* 2 ) 2
272
a, b hue-angle

Ê b* ˆ
hab = tan -1 Á * ˜
Ëa ¯
The L*a*b* colour space is difficult to visualise but Figure 16.21 gives sections through the
diagram at L* values of 25, 50 and 75.
Figure 16.21 Sections through the CIE L*a*b* colour space
273
Chapter Seventeen: Daylight calculations
Chapter 17: Daylight calculations

In the UK, the two most common cases of daylight considered are the overcast sky and clear sky.
The performance of buildings under an overcast sky is often characterised by daylight factor.
Calculating daylight factor at a given point in a room is often quite complex although there have
been a series of tabular and graphic methods used to do this. These methods have generally been
superseded by software calculation tools that generally give better results in less time.
This chapter focuses on two main calculations: that of average daylight factor and the formula
for calculation of the sun position. There is a lot of further information on daylight given in SLL
Lighting Guide 10: Daylighting and window design (SLL, 1999) and the British Standard Code of
practice for daylighting (BSI, 2008).
17.1 Average daylight factor

Daylight factor is the ratio, expressed as a percentage, of illuminance at a point on a given
plane due to light received directly or indirectly from a sky of known or assumed luminance
distribution, to illuminance on a horizontal plane due to an unobstructed hemisphere of the sky.
It is most common to use this ratio only for an overcast sky; however, in principle, it may be used
with a sky of any luminance distribution. There are a number of sky distributions listed in the
ISO/CIE Joint Standard, Spatial distribution of daylight – CIE standard general sky (ISO/CIE, 2003),
however, many of the distributions are a function of sun position, thus, the daylight factor may
be a function of time and date. The distribution of light under an overcast sky is such that the
luminance of the sky at the zenith is three times the luminance of the sky at the horizon. The
distribution of luminance is given in equation 17.1:
LZ (1 + 2 sin c )
Lc = (17.1)
3
where Lc is the luminance at angle c above the horizon and LZ is the luminance of the zenith.
Note that this formula is different to the one given in the CIE Standard, however for all
practical purposes, the distribution of luminance is the same. The CIE formula provides for sky
luminance distributions for 15 different types of sky. The CIE formula uses five parameters to fit
each sky type, however, as the basic formula is exponential in nature, it is not quite a perfect fit to
the trigonometric function used in this Code.
The average daylight factor ( D ) on the working plane of a room may be calculated using
equation 17.2
TAW h
D= (17.2)
(
A 1 - R2 )
where: T is the diffuse light transmittance of the glazing, including the effects of dirt;
Aw is the net glazed area of the window in m2 (the net area of glazing is the area of
windows less any lost to glazing bars or window frame);
h is the angle subtended by the visible sky (degrees). It is measured in a vertical plane
normal to the glass, from the window reference point (geometric centre of the
window), as illustrated in Figure 17.1;
A is the total area of the ceiling, floor and walls, including windows, in m2;
R is the area-weighted average reflectance of the interior surfaces. In initial calculations
for rooms with white ceilings and mid-reflectance walls, this may be taken as 0.5.
274
When two or more windows in a room face different obstructions, or differ in transmittance, the

average daylight factor should be found separately for each window, and the results summed.
Note: The window area below the working plane does not significantly increase the amount of
light falling onto the working plane. This is because the light from the lower part of the windows
has to bounce off at least two room surfaces before it reaches the working plane. A study has
shown that the area of the window below the working plane is only about 15 per cent as effective
at letting light onto the working plane as an equivalent area above the working plane.
Window reference point
h°
Figure 17.1 Angle of visible sky
17.2 Calculation of the sun position

The sun position is generally described by two angles, the solar altitude (a) and the solar azimuth
(g); the two angles are shown in Figure 17.2.
a
S W
E
g N
Figure 17.2 Solar altitude (a) and azimuth (g)

275
The calculation of solar altitude and azimuth is a complex multistep process with a number of
intermediate variables being invoked. The calculations given in equations 17.3 to 17.10 may be
used to calculate the sun position to ±1°.
Day angle
The day angle, td, in radians, is given by equation 17.3:
2p ( J - 1)
td = (17.3)
365
where J is the day number; J is 1 for 1st January and 365 for 31st December. February is taken to
have 28 days.
Solar declination
The solar declination is the angle between the sun’s rays arriving at the earth and the earth’s
equatorial plane. The solar declination, ds, in radians may be calculated using equation 17.4:
ds = 0.006918 − 0.399912costd + 0.070257sintd − 0.006758cos 2 td

(17.4)
+ 0.000907sin 2 td − 0.002697cos 3 td + 0.00148sin 3 td
A plot of solar declination over the course of a year is shown in Figure 17.3.
Solar declination
25
15
Solar declination (deg)
Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
-5
-15
-25
Month
Figure 17.3 Solar declination
Equation of time
The equation of time gives the variation between solar time and clock time that is due to the
eccentricity of the earth’s orbit around the sun. The equation of time, ET, in hours, depends on
the day number J and is given in equation 17.5
Ï 4p ( J - 80 ) ¸ Ï 2p ( J - 8 ) ¸
ET = 0.17 sin Ì ˝ - 0.129 sin Ì ˝ (17.5)
ÔÓ 373 Ô˛ ÔÓ 355 Ô˛
276
Figure 17.4 is a plot of ET values over the course of a year.

20
15
10
Time difference (min)
0
Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
-5
-10
-15
-20
Month
Figure 17.4 Equation of time
True solar time

The true solar time differs from clock time due to a number of factors: the difference in
longitude between the site and the standard meridian for the time zone, the equation of time and
the adoption of clock changes between summer and winter. True solar time, TST, in hours is
given by equation 17.6:
l - ls
TST = LT + + ET + TD (17.6)
15
where: LT is the local clock time in hours from midnight
ET is the equation of time in hours (see equation 17.5)
TD is the daylight savings time difference in hours (for example, –1 for the change
from GMT to BST in the UK)
l is the longitude of the site in degrees (west positive, east negative)
ls is the longitude of the standard meridian of the time zone in degrees
Hour angle
The hour angle, j, in radians is given by equation 17.7:
p ¥ TST
j= (17.7)
12
Solar altitude
Solar altitude, a, may be given either in radians or degrees, depending on which version of the
arcsine function is used. Equation 17.8 may be used to calculate solar altitude:
a = sin -1 (sin Q sin ds - cos Q cos ds cos j ) (17.8)
277
where Q is the latitude (Q is positive in the northern hemisphere and negative in the southern) of
the site. Figure 17.5 gives a plot of solar altitude at Birmingham for 3 days in the year.
Birmingham (Lat: 52.18; Long: 1.90 W)

70
60
21 Jun
50
Solar altitude (deg)
40
21 Mar
30
20
21 Dec
10
0
4 8 12 16 20
Time (GMT) (hours)
Figure 17.5 Solar altitude
Solar azimuth
Solar azimuth g, may be given either in radians or degrees from true north, depending on which
version of the arccosine function is used. The azimuth angle is shown in Figure 17.2. Solar
azimuth may be calculated using equation 17.9 for the northern hemisphere and equation 17.10
for the southern. Note the equations as they stand are in radians, however when solar azimuth is
calculated in degrees the first 2p in some of the equations should be replaced by 360.
Ê - sin Q sin a + sin ds ˆ
g = cos -1 Á ˜¯ , 0<j£p
Ë cos Q cos a
(17.9)
g = 2p - cos -1 Á ˜¯ , p < j £ 2p
Ë cos Q cos a

g = 2p - cos -1 Á ˜¯ , 0<j£p
Ë cos Q cos a
Ê - sin Q sin a + sin ds ˆ (17.10)
g = cos -1 Á ˜¯ , p < j £ 2p
Ë cos Q cos a
where Q is the latitude of the site. Figure 17.6 gives a plot of solar azimuth at Birmingham for
3 days in the year.
278
Birmingham (Lat: 52.48; Long: 1.90 W)
350
300
21 Jun
250
21 Mar
Solar azimuth (deg)
200
21 Dec
150
100
50
0
4 8 12 18 20
Time (GMT) (hours)
Figure 17.6 Solar azimuth
279
Chapter Eighteen: Predicting maintenance factor
Chapter 18: Predicting maintenance factor

During the life of a lighting installation, the light available for the task progressively decreases
due to accumulation of dirt on surfaces and the aging of equipment. The rate of reduction is
influenced by the equipment choice and the environmental and operating conditions. In lighting
scheme design, it is necessary to take account of this fall using a maintenance factor and plan
suitable maintenance schedules to limit the decay. A high maintenance factor together with an
effective maintenance programme promotes energy efficiency, good design of lighting schemes
and limits the installed lighting power requirements.
This chapter of the Code describes the parameters influencing the depreciation process and gives
a method for estimating the maintenance factor for electric lighting systems.
The definition of maintenance factor is ‘the ratio of maintained illuminance to initial

illuminance’, i.e. taking account of all losses including lamp lumen maintenance.
18.1 Determination of maintenance factor

18.1.1 Indoor lighting
The maintenance factor (MF) is a multiple of four factors:
MF = LLMF ¥ LSF ¥ LMF ¥ RSMF
where LLMF is the lamp lumen maintenance factor; LSF is the lamp survival factor (used only if
spot-replacement of lamps is not carried out); LMF is the luminaire maintenance factor; RSMF
is the room surface maintenance factor.
For more information on indoor lighting maintenance factors, see CIE 97:2005 (CIE, 2005).
18.1.2 Outdoor lighting

The maintenance factor in outdoor lighting depends on factors similar to those for indoor
lighting; however, as outdoor lighting does not depend on inter-reflected light, then there is
no need to consider the term for room surface maintenance factor. The LLMF and LSF values
for outdoor lighting are the same as for indoor lighting, however, due to the harsher outdoor
environment, a separate table is used for LMF for outdoor use.
MF = LLMF ¥ LSF ¥ LMF
For more information on outdoor lighting maintenance factors, see CIE 154:2003 (CIE, 2003).
18.2 Lamp lumen maintenance factor and survival factor

Lamp lumen (luminous flux) maintenance factor (LLMF)
The lumen output from all lamp types decreases with time of operation. The rate of fall-off
varies for different lamp types and it is essential to consult the manufacturer’s data. From such
data, it is possible to obtain the lamp lumen maintenance factor for a specific number of hours
of operation. The lamp lumen maintenance factor is therefore the proportion of the initial light
output that is produced after a specified time and, where the rate of fall-off is regular, may be
quoted as a percentage reduction per thousand hours of operation.
280
Manufacturers’ data will normally be based on British Standards test procedures which specify

the ambient temperature in which the lamp will be tested, with a regulated voltage applied to
the lamp and, if appropriate, a reference set of control gear. If any of the aspects of the proposed
design are unusual, e.g. high ambient temperature, vibration, switching cycle, operating attitude,
etc, the manufacturer should be made aware of the conditions and will advise if they affect the
life and/or light output of the lamp.
Lamp survival factor (LSF)

As with lamp lumen maintenance factor, it is essential to consult manufacturer’s data. These
will give the percentage of lamp failures for a specific number of hours operation and is only
applicable where group lamp replacement, without spot replacement, is to be carried out. These
data will also be based on assumptions such as switching cycle, supply voltage and control gear.
Manufacturers should be made aware of these aspects and should advise if these will affect the
lamp life or lamp survival. Typical lumen maintenance and lamp survival data are given in
Table 18.1.
18.3 Luminaire maintenance factor (LMF) – Indoor

Dirt deposited on or in the luminaire will cause a reduction in light output from the luminaire.
The rate at which dirt is deposited depends on the construction of the luminaire and on the
extent to which dirt is present in the atmosphere, which in turn is related to the nature of the dirt
generated in the specific environment. Table 18.2 gives a list of the luminaire classes and
Table 18.3 gives a list of typical locations where the various environmental conditions may be
found. Note that some of the descriptions in Table 18.2 refer to ingress protection classes; these
are discussed in section 18.6.
281
282
Table 18.1 LLMF and LSF values
Burning hours in thousand hours

Luminaire type1 Differences2 0.1 0.5 1 2 4 6 8 10 12 15 20 30
Incandescent LLMF Moderate 1.00 0.97 0.93 – –––– – – – –
LSF Large 1.00 0.98 0.50 – – – – – – – – –
Halogen LLMF Large 1.00 0.99 0.97 0.95 – – – – – – – –
LSF Large 1.00 1.00 0.78 0.50 – – – – – – – –
Fluorescent LLMF Moderate 1.00 0.99 0.98 0.97 0.93 0.92 0.90 0.90 0.90 0.90 0.90 –
tri-phosphor (HF
LSF Moderate 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 0.99 0.98 0.98 0.97 0.94 0.50 –
gear)
Fluorescent LLMF Moderate 1.00 0.99 0.98 0.97 0.93 0.92 0.90 0.90 0.90 0.90 – –
tri-phosphor
LSF Moderate 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 0.99 0.98 0.98 0.92 0.50 – –
Fluorescent LLMF Moderate 1.00 0.98 0.96 0.95 0.87 0.84 0.81 0.79 0.77 0.75 – –
halophosphate
LSF Moderate 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 0.99 0.98 0.98 0.92 0.50 – –
Compact LLMF Large 1.00 0.98 0.97 0.94 0.91 0.89 0.87 0.85 – – – –
fluorescent
LSF Large 1.00 0.99 0.99 0.98 0.97 0.94 0.86 0.50 – – – –
Mercury LLMF Moderate 1.00 0.99 0.97 0.93 0.85 0.82 0.80 0.79 0.78 0.77 0.76 –
LSF Moderate 1.00 1.00 0.99 0.98 0.97 0.94 0.90 0.86 0.79 0.69 0.50 –
Metal halide LLMF Large 1.00 0.98 0.95 0.90 0.87 0.83 0.79 0.65 0.63 0.58 0.50 –
(250/400 W)3
LSF Large 1.00 0.99 0.99 0.98 0.97 0.92 0.86 0.80 0.73 0.66 0.50 –
Ceramic metal LLMF Large 1.00 0.95 0.87 0.75 0.72 0.68 0.64 0.60 0.56 – – –
halide (50/150 W)
LSF Large 1.00 0.99 0.99 0.98 0.98 0.98 0.95 0.80 0.50 – – –
High pressure LLMF Moderate 1.00 1.00 0.98 0.98 0.98 0.97 0.97 0.97 0.97 0.96 0.94 0.90
sodium (250/400
LSF Moderate 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 0.99 0.99 0.99 0.99 0.97 0.95 0.92 0.50
W)
1
Data for LEDs are changing rapidly and no values can be given.
2
Indicates differences in LLMF and LSF among lamps which belong to the same lamp type category.
3
Differences in the group of metal halides are extremely remarkable. Very high and very low wattage lamps live significantly shorter than the values given
here.
Table 18.2 Luminaire classes

Class Description
A Bare lamp batten
B Open top reflector (ventilated self-cleaning)
C Closed top housing (unventilated)
D Enclosed (IP2X)
E Dustproof (IP5X)
F Indirect uplighter
G Air handling and forced ventilated
Table 18.3 Locations of environmental conditions
Environment Typical locations
Very clean (VC) Clean rooms, semiconductor plants, hospital clinical areas, computer
centres
Clean (C) Offices, schools, hospital wards
Normal (N) Shops, laboratories, restaurants, warehouses, assembly areas, workshops
Dirty (D) Steelworks, chemical works, foundries, welding, polishing, woodwork
Table 18.4 shows typical changes in light output from a luminaire caused by dirt deposition, for a
number of luminaire types and environment classes.
18.4 Luminaire maintenance factor (LMF) – Outdoor

Table 18.5 shows typical luminaire maintenance factors, which may be used in design
calculations. It takes into account luminaire IP rating, pollution category and cleaning interval.
See section 18.6 for information on IP classes.
283
284
Table 18.4 LMF values for indoor use
Elapsed 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0

time
between
cleanings /
years
Environment
Luminaire
type
VC C N D VC C N D VC C N D VC C N D VC C N D VC C N D
A 0.98 0.95 0.92 0.88 0.96 0.93 0.89 0.83 0.95 0.91 0.87 0.80 0.94 0.89 0.84 0.78 0.93 0.87 0.82 0.75 0.92 0.85 0.79 0.73
B 0.96 0.95 0.91 0.88 0.95 0.90 0.86 0.83 0.94 0.87 0.83 0.79 0.92 0.84 0.80 0.75 0.91 0.82 0.76 0.71 0.89 0.79 0.74 0.68
C 0.95 0.93 0.89 0.85 0.94 0.89 0.81 0.75 0.93 0.84 0.74 0.66 0.91 0.80 0.69 0.59 0.89 0.77 0.64 0.54 0.87 0.74 0.61 0.52
D 0.94 0.92 0.87 0.83 0.94 0.88 0.82 0.77 0.93 0.85 0.79 0.73 0.91 0.83 0.77 0.71 0.90 0.81 0.75 0.68 0.89 0.79 0.73 0.65
E 0.94 0.96 0.93 0.91 0.96 0.94 0.90 0.86 0.92 0.92 0.88 0.83 0.93 0.91 0.86 0.81 0.92 0.90 0.85 0.80 0.92 0.90 0.84 0.79
F 0.94 0.92 0.89 0.85 0.93 0.86 0.81 0.74 0.91 0.81 0.73 0.65 0.88 0.77 0.66 0.57 0.86 0.73 0.60 0.51 0.85 0.70 0.55 0.45
G 1.00 1.00 0.99 0.98 1.00 0.99 0.96 0.93 0.99 0.97 0.94 0.89 0.99 0.96 0.92 0.87 0.98 0.95 0.91 0.86 0.98 0.95 0.90 0.85
Table 18.5 LMF values for outdoor use

Cleaning Luminaire maintenance factor
interval /
months IP2X minimum (a) IP5X minimum (a) IP6X minimum (a)
High Medium Low High Medium Low High Medium Low

pollution pollution pollution pollution pollution pollution pollution pollution pollution
(b) (c) (d) (b) (c) (d) (b) (c) (d)
12 0.53 0.62 0.82 0.89 0.90 0.92 0.91 0.92 0.93
18 0.48 0.58 0.80 0.87 0.88 0.91 0.90 0.91 0.92
24 0.45 0.56 0.79 0.84 0.86 0.90 0.88 0.89 0.91
36 0.42 0.53 0.78 0.76 0.82 0.88 0.83 0.87 0.90
(a)
Ingress protection code number of lamp housing; see BS EN 60529 (BSI, 1992).
(b)
High pollution generally occurs in the centre of large urban areas and heavy industrial areas.
(c)
Medium pollution generally occurs in semi-urban, residential and light industrial areas.
(d)
Low pollution generally occurs in rural areas.
18.5 Room surface maintenance factor (RSMF)

Changes in room surface reflectance caused by dirt deposition will cause changes in the
illuminance produced by the lighting installation. The magnitude of these changes is governed by
the extent of dirt deposition and the importance of inter-reflection to the illuminance produced.
Inter-reflection is closely related to the distribution of light from the luminaire. For luminaires
that have a strongly downward distribution, i.e. direct luminaires, inter-reflection has little effect
on the illuminance produced on the horizontal working plane. Conversely, indirect lighting
is completely dependent on inter-reflections. Most luminaires lie somewhere between these
extremes so most lighting installations are dependent to some extent on inter-reflection.
Tables 18.6 to 18.8 show the typical changes in illuminance from an installation that occur
with time due to dirt deposition on the room surfaces for very clean, clean, normal and dirty
conditions lit by direct, direct/indirect and indirect luminaires. From the tables, it is possible to
select a room surface maintenance factor appropriate to the circumstances. The areas in which
very clean, clean, normal and dirty environments are found are given in Table 18.3.
285
286
Table 18.6 Room surface maintenance factor (RSMF) for direct flux distribution
Reflectances ceiling/walls/floor Time / years 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5 5.0 5.5 6.0
Environment Room surface maintenance factor

0.80/0.70/0.20 Very clean 0.97 0.96 0.95 0.95 0.95 0.95 0.95 0.95 0.95 0.95 0.95 0.95
Clean 0.93 0.92 0.91 0.91 0.91 0.91 0.91 0.91 0.91 0.91 0.91 0.91
Normal 0.88 0.86 0.86 0.85 0.85 0.85 0.85 0.85 0.85 0.85 0.85 0.85
Dirty 0.81 0.80 0.80 0.80 0.80 0.80 0.80 0.80 0.80 0.80 0.80 0.80
0.80/0.50/0.20 Very clean 0.98 0.97 0.97 0.97 0.97 0.97 0.97 0.97 0.97 0.97 0.97 0.97
Clean 0.95 0.94 0.94 0.94 0.94 0.94 0.94 0.94 0.94 0.94 0.94 0.94
Normal 0.91 0.90 0.90 0.90 0.90 0.90 0.90 0.90 0.90 0.90 0.90 0.90
Dirty 0.86 0.85 0.85 0.85 0.85 0.85 0.85 0.85 0.85 0.85 0.85 0.85
0.80/0.30/0.20 Very clean 0.99 0.98 0.98 0.98 0.98 0.98 0.98 0.98 0.98 0.98 0.98 0.98
Clean 0.97 0.96 0.96 0.96 0.96 0.96 0.96 0.96 0.96 0.96 0.96 0.96
Normal 0.94 0.93 0.93 0.93 0.93 0.93 0.93 0.93 0.93 0.93 0.93 0.93
Dirty 0.91 0.90 0.90 0.90 0.90 0.90 0.90 0.90 0.90 0.90 0.90 0.90
0.70/0.70/0.20 Very clean 0.97 0.96 0.96 0.96 0.96 0.96 0.96 0.96 0.96 0.96 0.96 0.96
Clean 0.94 0.92 0.92 0.92 0.92 0.92 0.92 0.92 0.92 0.92 0.92 0.92
Normal 0.89 0.87 0.87 0.87 0.87 0.87 0.87 0.87 0.87 0.87 0.87 0.87
Dirty 0.83 0.81 0.81 0.81 0.81 0.81 0.81 0.81 0.81 0.81 0.81 0.81
0.70/0.50/0.20 Very clean 0.98 0.97 0.97 0.97 0.97 0.97 0.97 0.97 0.97 0.97 0.97 0.97
Clean 0.96 0.95 0.94 0.94 0.94 0.94 0.94 0.94 0.94 0.94 0.94 0.94
Normal 0.92 0.91 0.90 0.90 0.90 0.90 0.90 0.90 0.90 0.90 0.90 0.90
Dirty 0.87 0.86 0.86 0.86 0.86 0.86 0.86 0.86 0.86 0.86 0.86 0.86

0.70/0.30/0.20 Very clean 0.99 0.98 0.98 0.98 0.98 0.98 0.98 0.98 0.98 0.98 0.98 0.98
Clean 0.97 0.96 0.96 0.96 0.96 0.96 0.96 0.96 0.96 0.96 0.96 0.96
Normal 0.95 0.94 0.94 0.94 0.93 0.93 0.93 0.93 0.93 0.93 0.93 0.93
Dirty 0.92 0.91 0.91 0.91 0.91 0.91 0.91 0.91 0.91 0.91 0.91 0.91
0.50/0.70/0.20 Very clean 0.98 0.97 0.97 0.96 0.96 0.96 0.96 0.96 0.96 0.96 0.96 0.96
Clean 0.95 0.94 0.93 0.93 0.93 0.93 0.93 0.93 0.93 0.93 0.93 0.93
Normal 0.91 0.89 0.89 0.89 0.89 0.89 0.89 0.89 0.89 0.89 0.89 0.89
Dirty 0.85 0.84 0.84 0.84 0.84 0.84 0.84 0.84 0.84 0.84 0.84 0.84
0.50/0.50/0.20 Very clean 0.98 0.98 0.98 0.98 0.97 0.97 0.97 0.97 0.97 0.97 0.97 0.97
Clean 0.97 0.96 0.95 0.95 0.95 0.95 0.95 0.95 0.95 0.95 0.95 0.95
Normal 0.94 0.92 0.92 0.92 0.92 0.92 0.92 0.92 0.92 0.92 0.92 0.92
Dirty 0.89 0.89 0.88 0.88 0.88 0.88 0.88 0.88 0.88 0.88 0.88 0.88
0.50/0.30/0.20 Very clean 0.99 0.99 0.98 0.98 0.98 0.98 0.98 0.98 0.98 0.98 0.98 0.98
Clean 0.98 0.97 0.97 0.97 0.97 0.97 0.97 0.97 0.97 0.97 0.97 0.97
Normal 0.96 0.95 0.95 0.95 0.95 0.95 0.95 0.95 0.95 0.95 0.95 0.95
Dirty 0.93 0.92 0.92 0.92 0.92 0.92 0.92 0.92 0.92 0.92 0.92 0.92
287
288
Table 18.7 Room surface maintenance factor (RSMF) for direct/indirect flux distribution

0.80/0.70/0.20 Very clean 0.95 0.94 0.93 0.93 0.93 0.93 0.93 0.93 0.93 0.93 0.93 0.93
Clean 0.90 0.88 0.87 0.87 0.87 0.87 0.87 0.87 0.87 0.87 0.87 0.87
Normal 0.81 0.78 0.77 0.77 0.77 0.77 0.77 0.77 0.77 0.77 0.77 0.77
Dirty 0.70 0.67 0.67 0.67 0.67 0.67 0.67 0.67 0.67 0.67 0.67 0.67
0.80/0.50/0.20 Very clean 0.96 0.95 0.95 0.95 0.95 0.95 0.95 0.95 0.95 0.95 0.95 0.95
Clean 0.93 0.91 0.90 0.90 0.90 0.90 0.90 0.90 0.90 0.90 0.90 0.90
Normal 0.85 0.83 0.82 0.82 0.82 0.82 0.82 0.82 0.82 0.82 0.82 0.82
Dirty 0.76 0.73 0.73 0.73 0.73 0.73 0.73 0.73 0.73 0.73 0.73 0.73
0.80/0.30/0.20 Very clean 0.97 0.96 0.96 0.96 0.96 0.96 0.96 0.96 0.96 0.96 0.96 0.96
Clean 0.94 0.93 0.92 0.92 0.92 0.92 0.92 0.92 0.92 0.92 0.92 0.92
Normal 0.89 0.87 0.86 0.86 0.86 0.86 0.86 0.86 0.86 0.86 0.86 0.86
Dirty 0.81 0.79 0.78 0.78 0.78 0.78 0.78 0.78 0.78 0.78 0.78 0.78
0.70/0.70/0.20 Very clean 0.96 0.94 0.94 0.93 0.93 0.93 0.93 0.93 0.93 0.93 0.93 0.93
Clean 0.91 0.89 0.88 0.88 0.88 0.88 0.88 0.88 0.88 0.88 0.88 0.88
Normal 0.83 0.80 0.79 0.79 0.79 0.79 0.79 0.79 0.79 0.79 0.79 0.79
Dirty 0.72 0.69 0.69 0.69 0.69 0.69 0.69 0.69 0.69 0.69 0.69 0.69
0.70/0.50/0.20 Very clean 0.97 0.96 0.95 0.95 0.95 0.95 0.95 0.95 0.95 0.95 0.95 0.95
Clean 0.93 0.91 0.91 0.91 0.91 0.91 0.91 0.91 0.91 0.91 0.91 0.91
Normal 0.87 0.84 0.84 0.83 0.83 0.83 0.83 0.83 0.83 0.83 0.83 0.83
Dirty 0.77 0.75 0.75 0.75 0.75 0.75 0.75 0.75 0.75 0.75 0.75 0.75

0.70/0.30/0.20 Very clean 0.98 0.97 0.96 0.96 0.96 0.96 0.96 0.96 0.96 0.96 0.96 0.96
Clean 0.95 0.93 0.93 0.93 0.93 0.93 0.93 0.93 0.93 0.93 0.93 0.93
Normal 0.90 0.88 0.87 0.87 0.87 0.87 0.87 0.87 0.87 0.87 0.87 0.87
Dirty 0.82 0.80 0.80 0.80 0.80 0.80 0.80 0.80 0.80 0.80 0.80 0.80
0.50/0.70/0.20 Very clean 0.97 0.95 0.95 0.95 0.95 0.95 0.95 0.95 0.95 0.95 0.95 0.95
Clean 0.93 0.91 0.90 0.90 0.90 0.90 0.90 0.90 0.90 0.90 0.90 0.90
Normal 0.86 0.83 0.83 0.83 0.83 0.83 0.83 0.83 0.83 0.83 0.83 0.83
Dirty 0.76 0.74 0.74 0.74 0.74 0.74 0.74 0.74 0.74 0.74 0.74 0.74
0.50/0.50/0.20 Very clean 0.97 0.96 0.96 0.96 0.96 0.96 0.96 0.96 0.96 0.96 0.96 0.96
Clean 0.94 0.93 0.92 0.92 0.92 0.92 0.92 0.92 0.92 0.92 0.92 0.92
Normal 0.89 0.87 0.86 0.86 0.86 0.86 0.86 0.86 0.86 0.86 0.86 0.86
Dirty 0.81 0.79 0.79 0.79 0.79 0.79 0.79 0.79 0.79 0.79 0.79 0.79
0.50/0.30/0.20 Very clean 0.98 0.97 0.97 0.97 0.97 0.97 0.97 0.97 0.97 0.97 0.97 0.97
Clean 0.96 0.95 0.94 0.94 0.94 0.94 0.94 0.94 0.94 0.94 0.94 0.94
Normal 0.92 0.90 0.90 0.90 0.90 0.90 0.90 0.90 0.90 0.90 0.90 0.90
Dirty 0.85 0.84 0.84 0.84 0.84 0.84 0.84 0.84 0.84 0.84 0.84 0.84
289
290
Table 18.8 Room surface maintenance factor (RSMF) for indirect flux distribution

0.80/0.70/0.20 Very clean 0.93 0.91 0.90 0.90 0.90 0.90 0.89 0.89 0.89 0.89 0.89 0.89
Clean 0.86 0.82 0.81 0.81 0.81 0.81 0.81 0.81 0.81 0.81 0.81 0.81
Normal 0.72 0.67 0.66 0.66 0.66 0.66 0.66 0.66 0.66 0.66 0.66 0.66
Dirty 0.54 0.50 0.49 0.49 0.49 0.49 0.49 0.49 0.49 0.49 0.49 0.49
0.80/0.50/0.20 Very clean 0.94 0.93 0.92 0.92 0.92 0.91 0.91 0.91 0.91 0.91 0.91 0.91
Clean 0.88 0.85 0.84 0.84 0.84 0.84 0.84 0.84 0.84 0.84 0.84 0.84
Normal 0.76 0.72 0.71 0.71 0.71 0.71 0.71 0.71 0.71 0.71 0.71 0.71
Dirty 0.59 0.55 0.55 0.55 0.55 0.55 0.55 0.55 0.55 0.55 0.55 0.55
0.80/0.30/0.20 Very clean 0.96 0.94 0.93 0.93 0.93 0.93 0.93 0.93 0.93 0.93 0.93 0.93
Clean 0.90 0.88 0.87 0.87 0.87 0.87 0.87 0.87 0.87 0.87 0.87 0.87
Normal 0.80 0.76 0.75 0.75 0.75 0.75 0.75 0.75 0.75 0.75 0.75 0.75
Dirty 0.64 0.60 0.60 0.60 0.60 0.60 0.60 0.60 0.60 0.60 0.60 0.60
0.70/0.70/0.20 Very clean 0.93 0.91 0.90 0.90 0.90 0.90 0.90 0.90 0.90 0.90 0.90 0.90
Clean 0.86 0.83 0.82 0.81 0.81 0.81 0.81 0.81 0.81 0.81 0.81 0.81
Normal 0.73 0.68 0.67 0.67 0.67 0.67 0.67 0.67 0.67 0.67 0.67 0.67
Dirty 0.55 0.51 0.50 0.50 0.50 0.50 0.50 0.50 0.50 0.50 0.50 0.50
0.70/0.50/0.20 Very clean 0.95 0.93 0.92 0.92 0.92 0.92 0.92 0.92 0.92 0.92 0.92 0.92
Clean 0.89 0.86 0.85 0.85 0.84 0.84 0.84 0.84 0.84 0.84 0.84 0.84
Normal 0.77 0.73 0.72 0.72 0.72 0.72 0.72 0.72 0.72 0.72 0.72 0.72
Dirty 0.60 0.56 0.55 0.55 0.55 0.55 0.55 0.55 0.55 0.55 0.55 0.55
0.70/0.30/0.20 Very clean 0.96 0.94 0.94 0.93 0.93 0.93 0.93 0.93 0.93 0.93 0.93 0.93
Clean 0.91 0.88 0.87 0.87 0.87 0.87 0.87 0.87 0.87 0.87 0.87 0.87
Normal 0.80 0.77 0.76 0.76 0.76 0.76 0.76 0.75 0.75 0.75 0.75 0.75
Dirty 0.65 0.61 0.60 0.60 0.60 0.60 0.60 0.60 0.60 0.60 0.60 0.60

0.50/0.70/0.20 Very clean 0.94 0.92 0.91 0.91 0.91 0.91 0.91 0.91 0.91 0.91 0.91 0.91
Clean 0.87 0.84 0.83 0.83 0.83 0.83 0.83 0.83 0.83 0.83 0.83 0.83
Normal 0.75 0.70 0.69 0.69 0.69 0.69 0.69 0.69 0.69 0.69 0.69 0.69
Dirty 0.57 0.52 0.52 0.52 0.52 0.52 0.52 0.52 0.52 0.52 0.52 0.52
0.50/0.50/0.20 Very clean 0.95 0.93 0.93 0.93 0.92 0.92 0.92 0.92 0.92 0.92 0.92 0.92
Clean 0.90 0.87 0.86 0.86 0.85 0.85 0.85 0.85 0.85 0.85 0.85 0.85
Normal 0.78 0.74 0.73 0.73 0.73 0.73 0.73 0.73 0.73 0.73 0.73 0.73
Dirty 0.61 0.57 0.57 0.57 0.57 0.57 0.57 0.57 0.57 0.57 0.57 0.57
0.50/0.30/0.20 Very clean 0.96 0.95 0.94 0.94 0.94 0.94 0.94 0.94 0.94 0.94 0.94 0.94
Clean 0.91 0.89 0.88 0.88 0.88 0.88 0.88 0.88 0.88 0.88 0.88 0.88
Normal 0.81 0.78 0.77 0.77 0.77 0.77 0.77 0.77 0.77 0.77 0.77 0.77
Dirty 0.66 0.62 0.61 0.61 0.61 0.61 0.61 0.61 0.61 0.61 0.61 0.61
291
18.6 Ingress protection (IP) classes

The Ingress Protection (IP) system, see BS EN 60529 (BSI, 1992), classifies luminaires according
to the degree of protection provided against the ingress of foreign bodies, dust and moisture.
The degree of protection is indicated by the letters IP followed by two numbers. The first
number indicates the degree of protection against the ingress of foreign bodies and dust. The
second indicates the protection against the ingress of moisture. Table 18.9 shows the degree of
protection indicated by each number. Using this table, it can be seen that a luminaire classified as
IP55 is dust protected and able to withstand water jets.
Table 18.9 IP Classification of luminaires
First Degree of protection Second Degree of protection

number number
0 Not protected 0 Not protected
1 Protected against solid objects 1 Protected against dripping water

greater than 50 mm
2 Protected against solid objects 2 Protected against dripping water

greater than 12 mm when tilted up to 15 degrees
3 Protected against solid objects 3 Protected against spraying water

greater than 2.5 mm
4 Protected against solid objects 4 Protected against splashing

greater than 1.0 mm
5 Dust-protected 5 Protected against water jets
6 Dust-tight 6 Protected against heavy seas
7 Protected against the effects of

immersion
8 Protected against submersion to a

specified depth
292
Chapter Nineteen: Glossary
Chapter 19: Glossary
The following definitions for lighting terms are taken from BS EN 12665: 2011 (BSI, 2011b).
The list includes some definitions that are not used within the SLL Code, however, some
specialised terms, mainly relating to tunnel lighting, are not given in this glossary. Note that for
some terms, an additional or alternative definition is given.
Absence factor (FA)

Factor indicating the proportion of time that a space is unoccupied
Absorptance
Ratio of the luminous flux absorbed in a body to the luminous flux incident on it
Accommodation
Adjustment of the dioptric power of the crystalline lens by which the image of an object, at a
given distance, is focused on the retina
or
Adjustment of the power of the lens of the eye for focusing an image of an object on the retina
Acuity
See visual acuity
Annual operating time (to)

Number of hours per annum for which the lamps are operating (unit: h)
Atmospheric luminance (Latm)

Light veil as a result of the scatter in the atmosphere expressed as a luminance (unit: cd·m–2)
Average illuminance (Ē)

Illuminance averaged over the specified surface (unit: lx)
Average luminance ( L )
Luminance averaged over the specified surface or solid angle (unit: cd·m–2)
Background area
Area in the workplace adjacent to the immediate surrounding area
Ballast
Device connected between the supply and one or more discharge lamps which serves mainly to
limit the current of the lamp(s) to the required value
Note: A ballast may also include means for transforming the supply voltage, correcting the power factor and,
either alone or in combination with a starting device, provide the necessary conditions for starting the lamp(s)
Ballast lumen factor (FBallast)

Ratio of the luminous flux emitted by a reference lamp when operated with a particular
production ballast to the luminous flux emitted by the same lamp when operated with its
reference ballast
Note: Ballast lumen factor is sometimes signified by the abbreviation BLF
293
Brightness
Attribute of a visual sensation according to which an area appears to emit more or less light
Note: obsolete term – luminosity
Brightness contrast
Subjective assessment of the difference in brightness between two or more surfaces seen
simultaneously or successively
Built-in luminaire
Fixed luminaire installed into structure or equipment to provide illumination
Carriageway
Part of the road normally used by vehicular traffic
Chromaticity
Property of a colour stimulus defined by its chromaticity coordinates, or by its dominant or
complementary wavelength and purity taken together
See also CIE 15: 2004 (CIE, 2004b)
Chromaticity coordinates
Ratio of each of a set of three tristimulus values to their sum
Note 1: As the sum of the three chromaticity coordinates equals 1, two of them are sufficient to define a
chromaticity
Note 2: In the CIE standard colorimetric systems, the chromaticity coordinates are presented by the symbols x,
y, z and x10, y10, z10
CIE 1974 general colour rendering index (Ra)

Mean of the CIE 1974 special colour rendering indices for a specified set of eight test colour
samples
or
Value intended to specify the degree to which objects illuminated by a light source have an
expected colour relative to their colour under a reference light source
Note: Ra is derived from the colour rendering indices for a specified set of 8 test colour samples. Ra has a
maximum of 100, which generally occurs when the spectral distributions of the light source and the reference
light source are substantially identical
Circuit luminous efficacy of a source (c)

Quotient of the luminous flux emitted by the power absorbed by the source and associated
circuits (unit: lm·W–1)
Cold spot
Coldest point on lamp surface
Colorimeter
Instrument for measuring colorimetric quantities, such as the tristimulus values of a colour
stimulus
294
Colour contrast

Subjective assessment of the difference in colour between two or more surfaces seen
simultaneously or successively
Colour rendering
Effect of an illuminant on the colour appearance of objects by conscious or subconscious
comparison with their colour appearance under a reference illuminant
For design purposes, colour rendering requirements shall be specified using the general colour
rendering index and shall take one of the following values of Ra: 20; 40; 60; 80; 90
Colour rendering index

See CIE 1974 general colour rendering index
Colour stimulus
Visible radiation entering the eye and producing a sensation of colour, either chromatic or
achromatic
Colour temperature (Tc)

Temperature of a Planckian radiator whose radiation has the same chromaticity as that of a given
stimulus (unit: K)
Note: The reciprocal colour temperature is also used, unit: K–1
Constant illuminance factor (FC)

Ratio of the average input power over a given time to the initial installed power to the luminaire
Contrast
1. In the perceptual sense: assessment of the difference in appearance of two or more parts of a
field seen simultaneously or successively (hence: brightness contrast, lightness contrast, colour
contrast, simultaneous contrast, successive contrast, etc)
2. In the physical sense: quantity intended to correlate with the perceived brightness contrast,
usually defined by one of a number of formulae which involve the luminances of the stimuli
considered, for example: ∆L/L near the luminance threshold, or L1/L2 for much higher
luminances
Contrast revealing coefficient (qc)

Quotient between the luminance (L) of the road surface, and the vertical illuminance (Ev) at that
point (unit: cd·m–2·lx–1)
L
qc =
Ev
where:
qc is the contrast revealing coefficient;
L is the luminance of the road surface at the point;
Ev is the vertical illuminance at the point
Control gear
Components required to control the electrical operation of the lamp(s)
295
Note: Control gear may also include means for transforming the supply voltage, correcting the power factor
and, either alone or in combination with a starting device, provide the necessary conditions for starting the
lamp(s)
Correction factor
Factor to modify the luminaire data as presented on a particular photometric data sheet to those
of similar luminaires
Note: Examples are ballast lumen factor, length, lumen corrections
Correlated colour temperature (Tcp)

Temperature of the Planckian radiator whose perceived colour most closely resembles that of a
given stimulus at the same brightness and under specified viewing conditions (unit: K)
Note 1: The recommended method of calculating the correlated colour temperature of a stimulus is to de-
termine on a chromaticity diagram the temperature corresponding to the point on the Planckian locus that is
intersected by the agreed isotemperature line containing the point representing the stimulus (see CIE Publication
No 15; CIE, 2004b)
Note 2: Reciprocal correlated colour temperature is used rather than reciprocal colour temperature whenever
correlated colour temperature is appropriate
Cosine correction
Correction of a detector for the influence of the incident direction of the light
Note: For the ideal detector, the measured illuminance is proportional to the cosine of the angle of incidence of
the light. The angle of incidence is the angle between the direction of the light and the normal to the surface of
the detector
Critical flicker frequency

See fusion frequency
Curfew
Time period during which stricter requirements (for the control of obtrusive light) will apply
Note: It is often a condition of use of lighting applied by a government controlling authority, usually the local
government
Cut-off
Technique used for concealing lamps and surfaces of high luminance from direct view in order to
reduce glare
Note: In public lighting, distinction is made between full-cut-off luminaires, semi-cut-off luminaires and
non-cut-off luminaires
Cut-off angle (of a luminaire)

Angle, measured up from nadir, between the vertical axis and the first line of sight at which the
lamps and the surfaces of high luminance are not visible (unit: degree)
Cylindrical illuminance (at a point, for a direction) (Ez)

Total luminous flux falling on the curved surface of a very small cylinder located at the specified
point divided by the curved surface area of the cylinder (unit: lx)
296
Daylight

Visible part of global solar radiation
Daylight dependency factor (FD)

Level of efficiency that a control system or control strategy achieves in exploiting the saving
potential of daylight in a space
Daylight factor (D or DF)

Ratio of the illuminance at a point on a given plane due to the light received directly or indirectly
from a sky of assumed or known luminance distribution, to the illuminance on a horizontal plane
due to an unobstructed hemisphere of this sky, excluding the contribution of direct sunlight to
both illuminances
Note 1: Glazing, dirt effects, etc are included
Note 2: When calculating the lighting of interiors, the contribution of direct sunlight needs to be considered
separately
Daylight time usage (tD)

Annual operating hours during the daylight time, measured in hours (unit: h)
Daylight screens/daylight louvres

Devices that transmit (part of) the ambient daylight
Design speed
Speed adopted for a particular stated purpose in designing a road (unit: km·h–1)
Diffuse sky radiation

That part of solar radiation which reaches the earth as a result of being scattered by the air
molecules, aerosol particles, cloud particles or other particles
Diffused lighting
Lighting in which the light on the working plane or on an object is not incident predominantly
from a particular direction
Direct lighting
Lighting by means of luminaires having a distribution of luminous intensity such that the
fraction of the emitted luminous flux directly reaching the working plane, assumed to be
unbounded, is 90 to 100 per cent
Direct solar radiation

That part of the extraterrestrial solar radiation which, as a collimated beam, reaches the earth’s
surface after selective attenuation by the atmosphere
Directional lighting
Lighting in which the light on the working plane or on an object is incident predominantly from
a particular direction
Disability glare
Glare that impairs the vision of objects without necessarily causing discomfort. Disability glare
can be produced directly or by reflection
297
Discomfort glare
Glare that causes discomfort without necessarily impairing the vision of objects. Discomfort glare
can be produced directly or by reflection
Display screen equipment

Alphanumeric or graphic display screen, regardless of the display process employed
Note: Display screen equipment is sometimes signified by the abbreviation DSE
Diversity (luminance, illuminance) (Ud) (Extreme uniformity)

Ratio of minimum illuminance (luminance) to maximum illuminance (luminance) on (of) a
surface
See also uniformity
Downward light output ratio (of a luminaire) (RDLO)

Ratio of the downward flux of the luminaire, measured under specified practical conditions with
its own lamps and equipment, to the sum of the individual luminous fluxes of the same lamps
when operated outside the luminaire with the same equipment, under specified conditions
Note 1: The luminaire attitude should be declared so that appropriate corrections to the DLOR can be made
if, in application, the installed attitude is different
Note 2: Downward light output ratio is sometimes signified by the abbreviation DLOR
Efficacy
See luminous efficacy of a source
Emergency ballast lumen factor (FEBallast)

Ratio of the luminous flux of the lamp, operated with ballast under test, at the lowest voltage
which can occur during emergency mode, after failure of the normal supply (for the appropri-
ate start time for the application requirement) and continuously to the end of rated duration of
operation, to the luminous flux of the same lamp operated with the appropriate reference ballast
supplied at its rated voltage and frequency
FEBallast = FBallast × Fmin
where:
FEBallast is the emergency ballast lumen factor;
FBallast is the ballast lumen factor;
Fmin is the worst case of the emergency time-dependent factors
Emergency escape lighting

Part of emergency lighting that provides illumination for visibility for people leaving a location or
attempting to terminate a potentially dangerous process before doing so
Emergency exit
Way out that is intended to be used during an emergency
Emergency lamp flux

See practical emergency lamp flux
298
Emergency lane (hard shoulder)

Lane parallel to the traffic lane(s) provided for emergency and/or broken-down vehicles only
Emergency lighting
Lighting provided for use when the supply to the normal lighting fails
Emergency lighting charge time (tem)

Operating hours during which the emergency lighting batteries are being charged (unit: h)
Emergency lighting charging power (Pei)

Input power to the charging circuit of emergency luminaires when the lamps are not operating
(unit: W)
Emergency lighting, total installed charging power

See total installed charging power of the emergency lighting luminaires in the room or zone
Energy consumption used for illumination (WL,t)

Energy consumed in period t, by the luminaires when the lamps are operating, to fulfil the
illumination function and purpose in the building (unit: kW·h)
Equivalent veiling luminance (for disability glare or veiling reflections) (Lve)

Luminance that, when added by superposition to the luminance of both the adapting background
and the object, makes the luminance threshold or the luminance difference threshold the same
under the two following conditions: (1) glare present, but no additional luminance; (2) additional
luminance present, but no glare (unit: cd·m–2)
Escape route
Route designated for escape in the event of an emergency
Escape route lighting

Part of emergency escape lighting provided to ensure that the means of escape can be effectively
identified and safely used when the location is occupied
Essential data
Lamp and luminaire data required for the verification of conformity to requirements
Externally illuminated safety sign

Safety sign that is illuminated, when it is required, by an external source
Extreme uniformity
See diversity
Flicker
Impression of unsteadiness of visual sensation induced by a light stimulus whose luminance or
spectral distribution fluctuates with time
Flicker frequency
See fusion frequency
299
Floodlighting
Lighting of a scene or object, usually by projectors, in order to increase considerably its

illuminance relative to its surroundings
Flux
See luminous flux, rated lamp luminous flux
Fmin
See minimum value emergency factor
Fusion frequency
Critical flicker frequency (for a given set of conditions)
Frequency of alternation of stimuli above which flicker is not perceptible (unit: Hz)
General colour rendering index

See CIE 1974 general colour rendering index
General lighting
Substantially uniform lighting of an area without provision for special local requirements
Glare
Condition of vision in which there is discomfort or a reduction in the ability to see details or
objects, caused by an unsuitable distribution or range of luminance, or extreme contrasts
See also disability glare and discomfort glare
Glare rating limit (RGL)

Upper limit of glare by the CIE Glare Rating system
Global solar radiation

Combined direct solar radiation and diffuse sky radiation
Grid points for measurement and calculation

Arrangement of calculation and measurement points and their number in each dimension of the
reference surface or plane
Hemispherical illuminance (at a point) (Ehs)

Total luminous flux falling on the curved surface of a very small hemisphere located at the
specified point divided by the curved surface area of the hemisphere (unit: lx)
High risk task area lighting

Part of emergency escape lighting that provides illumination for visibility for people involved in a
potentially dangerous process or situation and facilitates safe termination of activities
Note: In sports lighting, it is referred to as ‘Safety lighting for participants’
Illuminance (at a point of a surface) (E)

Quotient of the luminous flux dW incident on an element of the surface containing the point, by
the area dA of that element (unit: lx = lm·m–2)
300
Note 1: Equivalent definition: Integral, taken over the hemisphere visible from the given point, of the

expression L⋅ cosh ⋅ dV , where L is the luminance at the given point in the various directions of the incident
elementary beams of solid angle dΩ, and θ is the angle between any of these beams and the normal to the surface
at the given point
dV
dA 2p∫sr
E= = L coshdV
where
E is the illuminance at a point on a surface;
L is the luminance at the given point in the various directions of the incident elementary beams of
solid angle dΩ;
θ is the angle between an incident beam and the normal to the surface at the given point;
dΩ is the solid angle
Note 2: The orientation of the surface may be defined, e.g. horizontal, vertical, hence horizontal illuminance,
vertical illuminance
See also average illuminance, cylindrical illuminance, hemispherical illuminance, initial illumi-
nance, maintained illuminance, maximum illuminance, minimum illuminance, semi-cylindrical
illuminance and spherical illuminance
Illuminance meter
Instrument for measuring illuminance
Immediate surrounding area

See surrounding area
Indirect lighting
Initial average luminance ( Li )

Average luminance when the installation is new (unit: cd·m–2)
Initial illuminance (Ēi)

Average illuminance on the specified surface when the installation is new (unit: lx)
Initial luminous flux

See rated luminous flux
Installed loading
Installed power of the lighting installation per unit area (for interior and exterior areas) or per
unit length (for road lighting) (unit: W·m–2 (for areas) or kW·km–1 (for road lighting))
Integral lighting system (of a machine)

Lighting system consisting of lamp(s), luminaire(s) and associated mechanical and electrical
control devices which forms a permanent part of the machine, designed to provide illumination
in and/or at the machine
301
Intensity
See luminous intensity
Intensity distribution
See luminous intensity distribution
Internally illuminated safety sign

Safety sign that is illuminated, when it is required, by an internal source
Lamp
Source made in order to produce an optical radiation, usually visible
Note: This term is also sometimes used for certain types of luminaires
Lamp code
Any combination of letters and numbers by which the lamp type is identified
Lamp dimensions
All dimensions of the lamp that are relevant for the luminaire
Lamp lumen maintenance factor (FLLM)

Ratio of the luminous flux of a lamp at a given time in its life to the initial luminous flux
Note: Lamp lumen maintenance factor is sometimes signified by the abbreviation LLMF
Lamp luminous flux

See rated luminous flux
Lamp survival factor (FLS)

Fraction of the total number of lamps which continue to operate at a given time under defined
conditions and switching frequency
Note: Lamp survival factor is sometimes signified by the abbreviation LSF
Lamp wattage
See nominal lamp wattage
LENI
See Lighting Energy Numeric Indicator
Life of lighting installation

Period after which the installation cannot be restored to satisfy the required performance because
of non-recoverable deteriorations
Light centre
Point used as origin for photometric measurements and calculations
Light loss factor

See maintenance factor
302
Light output ratio (of a luminaire) (RLO)

Ratio of the total flux of the luminaire, measured under specified practical conditions with its
own lamps and equipment, to the sum of the individual luminous fluxes of the same lamps when
operated outside the luminaire with the same equipment, under specified conditions
Note 1: For luminaires using incandescent lamps only, the optical light output ratio and the light output ratio
are the same in practice
Note 2: Light output ratio is sometimes signified by the abbreviation LOR
See also downward light output ratio and upward light output ratio
Light output ratio working (of a luminaire) (RLOW)

Ratio of the total flux of the luminaire, measured under specified practical conditions with its
operating outside the luminaire with a reference ballast, under reference conditions
Light source
See source
Light source colour

The colour of a light source can be expressed by its correlated colour temperature
Loading
See installed loading
Lighting Energy Numeric Indicator (LENI)

A numerical indicator that expresses the total amount of energy used by a lighting system per
square metre per year
Local lighting
Lighting for a specific visual task, additional to and controlled separately from the general lighting
Localised lighting
Lighting designed to illuminate an area with a higher illuminance at certain specified positions,
for instance, those at which work is carried out
Longitudinal uniformity (of road surface luminance of a carriageway) (Ul)

Ratio of the minimum to the maximum road surface luminance found in a line in the centre
along a driving lane
Note: The longitudinal uniformity is considered for each driving lane
Louvres
See daylight screens
Luminaire
Apparatus which distributes, filters or transforms the light transmitted from one or more lamps
and which includes, except the lamps themselves, all of the parts necessary for fixing and protect-
ing the lamps and, where necessary, circuit auxiliaries together with the means for connecting
them to the electric supply
303
Luminaire code
Any combination of letters and numbers by which the luminaire type is identified
Luminaire maintenance factor (FLM)

Ratio of the light output ratio of a luminaire at a given time to the initial light output ratio
Note: Luminaire maintenance factor is sometimes signified by the abbreviation LMF
Luminaire luminous efficacy (l)

Quotient of the luminous flux emitted by the luminaire by the power absorbed by the lamp and
associated circuits of the luminaire (unit: lm·W–1)
Luminaire parasitic energy consumption (WP,t)

Parasitic energy consumed in period t, by the luminaire emergency lighting charging circuit
plus the standby control system controlling the luminaires when the lamps are not operating
(unit: kW·h)
Luminaire parasitic power (Ppi)

Input power consumed by the charging circuit of emergency lighting luminaires and the standby
power for automatic controls in the luminaire when lamps are not operating (unit: W)
Ppi = Pci + Pei
where
Ppi is the luminaire parasitic power consumed by the luminaire with the lamps off,
expressed in watts;
Pci is the parasitic power of the controls only during the time with the lamps off,
expressed in watts;
Pei is the emergency lighting charging power, expressed in watts
Luminaire power (Pi)

Input power consumed by the lamp(s), control gear and control circuit in or associated with the
luminaire, which includes any parasitic power when the luminaire is turned on (unit: W)
Note: The rated luminaire power (Pi) for a specific luminaire may be obtained from the luminaire
manufacturer
Luminance (in a given direction, at a given point of a real or imaginary surface) (L)
Quantity defined by the equation (unit: cd·m–2 = lm·m–2·sr–1)
dW
L=
dA cos hdV
where
L is the luminance in a given direction or at a given point of a surface;
dW is the luminous flux transmitted by an elementary beam passing through the given
point and propagating in the solid angle dV containing the given direction;
dA is the area of a section of that beam containing the given point;
dV is the solid angle;
h is the angle between the normal to that section and the direction of the beam
Luminance shall be specified as maintained luminance and shall take one of the following values:
1 × 10N cd·m–2; 1.5 × 10N cd·m–2; 2.0 × 10N cd·m–2; 3.0 × 10N cd·m–2; 5.0 × 10N cd·m–2;
7.5 × 10N cd·m–2 (where N is an integer)
304
The area over which the luminance is to be calculated or measured shall be specified

See also atmospheric luminance, average luminance, equivalent luminance, initial luminance,
interior luminance, maintained luminance, maximum luminance and minimum luminance
Luminance contrast
Photometric quantity intended to correlate with brightness contrast, usually defined by one of a
number of equations which involve the luminances of the stimuli considered
Note: Luminance contrast can be defined as luminance ratio
L2 (usually for successive stimuli)

C1 =
L1
or by the following equation:
L2 − L1 (usually for surfaces viewed simultaneously)

C2 =
L1
When the areas of different luminance are comparable in size and it is desired to take an average,
the following equation can be used instead:
L2 − L1
C2 =
0.5 × ( L2 + L1 )
where
L1 is the luminance of the background, or largest part of the visual field;
L2 is the luminance of the object
Luminance meter
Instrument for measuring luminance
Luminosity
See brightness
Luminous efficacy of a source (g)

Quotient of the luminous flux emitted by the power absorbed by the source (unit: lm·W–1)
Luminous environment
Lighting considered in relation to its physiological and psychological effects
Luminous flux (W)

Quantity derived from radiant flux We by evaluating the radiation according to its action upon the
CIE standard photometric observer (unit: lm)
Note 1: For photopic vision

 dW ( l ) 
∞
W = Km ∫  e × v (l )
0
dl 
where
W is the luminous flux;
dWe ( l )
is the spectral distribution of the radiant flux;
dl
V(l) is the spectral luminous efficiency function
305
Note 2: For the values of Km (photopic vision) and K′m (scotopic vision), see BS ISO 23539 (ISO, 2005)
or
Quantity derived from radiant flux (radiant power) by evaluating the radiation according to the
spectral sensitivity of the human eye (as defined by the CIE standard photometric observer). It is
the light power emitted by a source or received by a surface (unit: lumen, lm)
See also initial luminous flux and rated luminous flux
Luminous intensity (of a source, in a given direction) (I)

Quotient of the luminous flux dW leaving the source and propagated in the element of solid
angle dV containing the given direction, by the element of solid angle (unit: cd = lm sr –1)
dW
I=
dV
where
I is the luminous intensity of a source in a given direction;
dW is the luminous flux leaving the source;
dV is the solid angle
or
Luminous flux per unit solid angle in the direction in question, i.e. the luminous flux on a small
surface, divided by the solid angle that the surface subtends at the source
(Spatial) Distribution of luminous intensity (of a source)

Display, by means of curves or tables, of the value of the luminous intensity of the source as a
function of direction in space
or
Luminous intensity of a source (lamp or luminaire) as a function of direction in space
Machinery, Machine
Assembly of linked parts or components, at least one of which moves, with the appropriate
machine actuators, control and power circuits, etc joined together for a specific application, in
particular, for the processing, treatment, moving or packaging of a material
Note: The term ‘machinery’ also covers an assembly of machines which, in order to achieve the same end, are
arranged and controlled so that they function as an integral whole
Maintained illuminance (Ēm)

Minimum average illuminance (unit: lx)
Note 1: Value below which the average illuminance on the specified area should not fall
Note 2: It is the average illuminance at the time maintenance should be carried out
306
Maintained luminance ( L m)
Minimum average luminance (unit: cd⋅m–2)
Note 1: Value below which the average luminance on the specified area should not fall
Note 2: It is the average luminance at the time maintenance should be carried out
Maintenance cycle
Repetition of lamp replacement, lamp/luminaire cleaning and room surface cleaning intervals
Maintenance factor
(Light loss factor) (obsolete)
Ratio of the average illuminance on the working plane after a certain period of use of a lighting
installation to the initial average illuminance obtained under the same conditions for the
installation
Note 1: The term depreciation factor has been formerly used to designate the reciprocal of the above ratio
Note 2: The light losses take into account dirt accumulation on luminaire and room surfaces and lamp
depreciation
or
Ratio of maintained illuminance to initial illuminance
Note: Maintenance factor of an installation depends on lamp lumen maintenance factor, lamp survival factor,
luminaire maintenance factor and (for an interior lighting installation) room surface maintenance factor
See also lamp lumen maintenance factor, luminaire maintenance factor and room surface
maintenance factor
Maintenance schedule
Set of instructions specifying maintenance cycle and servicing procedures
Maximum illuminance (Emax)

Highest illuminance at any relevant point on the specified surface (unit: lx)
Maximum luminance (Lmax)

Highest luminance of any relevant point on the specified surface (unit: cd·m–2)
Measurement field (of a photometer)

Area including all points in object space, radiating towards the acceptance area of the detector
Minimum illuminance (Emin)

Lowest illuminance at any relevant point on the specified surface (unit: lx)
Minimum luminance (Lmin)

Lowest luminance at any relevant point on the specified surface (unit: cd·m–2)
Minimum value emergency factor (Fmin)

Worst case of the emergency time-dependent factors
307
Mixed traffic
Traffic that consists of motor vehicles, cyclists, pedestrians, etc
Motor traffic (motorised traffic)

Traffic that consists of motorised vehicles only
Nominal lamp wattage (Wlamp)

Approximate wattage used to designate or identify the lamp (unit: W)
Non-daylight time usage (tN)

Annual operating hours during the non-daylight time (unit: h)
Obtrusive light
Spill light which because of quantitative, directional or spectral attributes in a given context gives
rise to annoyance, discomfort, distraction or reduction in the ability to see essential information
Note 1: In the case of outdoor sports lighting installations, obtrusive light is considered around the
installation and not for spectators, referees or players within the sports area
Note 2: In the case of large tertiary buildings with predominantly glazed facades, interior lighting may be
considered as obtrusive light if it gives rise to annoyance, discomfort, distraction or a reduction in the ability to see
essential information due to light spilling outside of the building structure
Occupancy dependency factor (Fo)

Factor indicating the proportion of time that a space is occupied and lighting is required
Open area lighting (anti-panic lighting)

Part of emergency escape lighting provided to avoid panic and provide illumination allowing
people to see their way to an escape route
Operating time (t)

Time period for the energy consumption (unit: h)
See also annual operating time
Parasitic energy consumption

See luminaire parasitic energy consumption
Parasitic power
See luminaire parasitic power
Parasitic power of the controls (with the lamps off) (Pci)

Parasitic input power to the control system in the luminaires during the period with the lamps
not operating (unit: W)
Principal area (APrincipal)

Actual playing area needed for the performance of a certain sport
Note: Usually this means the actual marked out ‘field’ area for that sport (for instance football), but in some
cases, this area comprises an extra playing area around the marked area (e.g. tennis, volleyball, table
tennis). The dimensions of the particular area should be checked at the time when a lighting installation is being
installed
308
Performance

See visual performance
Photometer
Instrument for measuring photometric quantities
Photometric observer
See luminous flux
Photometry
Measurement of quantities referring to radiation as evaluated according to a given spectral
luminous efficiency function, e.g. V(l) or V′(l)
Photopic vision
See luminous flux
Practical emergency lamp flux (WPEL)

Lowest luminous flux of the lamp observed during the rated duration of the emergency mode
(unit: lm)
WPEL = WLD × FEBallast
where
WPEL is the practical emergency lamp flux, expressed in lumens;
WLD is the initial lighting design lumens at 100 h;
FEBallast is the emergency ballast lumen factor
Radiant flux
See luminous flux
Rated luminous flux (of a type of lamp)

Value of the initial luminous flux of a given type of lamp declared by the manufacturer or the
responsible vendor, the lamp being operated under specified conditions (unit: lm)
Note 1: The initial luminous flux is the luminous flux of a lamp after a short ageing period as specified in the
relevant lamp standard
Note 2: The rated luminous flux is sometimes marked on the lamp
Reference ballast
Special type ballast designed for providing comparison standards for use in testing ballasts, for
the selection of reference lamps and for testing regular production lamps under standardised
conditions
Reference surface
Surface on which illuminance is measured or specified
Reflectance (for incident radiation of given spectral composition, polarisation and geometrical
distribution) (r)
Ratio of the reflected radiant or luminous flux to the incident flux in the given conditions
309
Reflections
See veiling reflections
Reflectometer
Instrument for measuring quantities pertaining to reflection
Rooflight
Daylight opening on the roof or on a horizontal surface of a building
Room surface maintenance factor (FRSM)

Ratio of room surface reflectance at a given time to the initial reflectance value
Note: Room surface maintenance factor is sometimes signified by the abbreviation RSMF
Safety sign
Sign which gives a general safety message, obtained by a combination of colour and geometric
shape and which, by the addition of a graphic symbol or text, gives a particular safety message
Scene setting operation time (ts)

Operating hours of the scene setting controls (unit: h)
Scotopic observer
See luminous flux
Screens
See daylight screens
Semi-cylindrical illuminance (at a point) (Esz)

Total luminous flux falling on the curved surface of a very small semi-cylinder located at the
specified point, divided by the curved surface area of the semi-cylinder (unit: lx)
Note: The axis of the semi-cylinder is taken to be vertical unless stated otherwise. The direction of the curved
surface should be specified
Semi-direct lighting
Semi-indirect lighting
Shielding angle
The angle between the horizontal plane and the first line of sight at which the luminous parts of
the lamps in the luminaire are directly visible (unit: degrees)
Note: The complementary angle to the shielding angle is named cut-off angle
310
Skylight

Visible part of diffuse sky radiation
Source (light source)

Object that produces light or other radiant flux
Note: The term light source indicates the source is essentially intended for illuminating and signalling
purposes
Solar radiation
Electromagnetic radiation from the sun
See also direct solar radiation and global solar radiation
Spacing (in an installation)

Distance between the light centres of adjacent luminaires of the installation
Spacing to height ratio

Ratio of spacing to the height of the geometric centres of the luminaires above the reference
plane
Note: For indoor lighting, the reference plane is usually the horizontal working plane; for exterior lighting,
the reference plane is usually the ground
Spectral luminous efficiency

See luminous flux
Spherical illuminance (at a point) (Eo)

Total luminous flux falling on the whole surface of a very small sphere located at the specified
point divided by the surface area of the sphere (unit: lx)
Spill light (stray light)

Light emitted by a lighting installation which falls outside the boundaries of the property for
which the lighting installation is designed
Spotlighting
Lighting designed to increase considerably the illuminance of a limited area or of an object
relative to the surroundings, with minimum diffused lighting
Stroboscopic effect
Apparent change of motion and/or appearance of a moving object when the object is illuminated
by a light of varying intensity
Note: To obtain apparent immobilisation or constant change of movement, it is necessary that both the object
movement and the light intensity variation are periodic, and some specific relation between the object movement
and light variation frequencies exists. The effect is only observable if the amplitude of the light variation is above
certain limits. The motion of the object can be rotational or translational
Standard photometric observer

See luminous flux
311
Standard year time (ty)

Time taken for one standard year to pass, taken as 8760 h
Standby lighting
That part of emergency lighting provided to enable normal activities to continue substantially
unchanged
Stray light
See spill light
Sunlight
Visible part of direct solar radiation
Surrounding area (immediate surrounding area)

Band surrounding the task area within the field of vision
Survival factor
See lamp survival factor
Task area
Area within which the visual task is carried out
Total energy used for lighting (Wt)

Energy consumed in period t, by the luminaires, when the lamps are operating plus the parasitic
loads when the lamps are not operating, in a room or zone (unit: kW·h)
Total installed charging power of the emergency lighting luminaires in the room or
zone (Pem)
Input charging power of all emergency lighting luminaires (unit: W)
Pem = ∑ Pe,i
i
where
Pem is the total installed charging power of the emergency lighting luminaires in the
room or zone, expressed in watts;
Pe,i is the emergency lighting charging power of the individual luminaires, expressed
in watts
Total installed lighting power in the room or zone (Pn)

Power of all luminaires (unit: W)
Pn = ∑ Pi
i
where
Pn is the total installed lighting power in the room or zone, expressed in watts;
Pi is the luminaire power expressed in watts
Total installed parasitic power of the controls in the room or zone (Ppc)
Input power of all control systems in luminaires when the lamps are not operating (unit: W)
312
Ppc = ∑ Pc,i

i
where
Ppc is the total installed parasitic power of the controls in the room or zone, expressed
in watts;
Pc,i is the parasitic power of the controls only during the time with the lamps off,
expressed in watts
Traffic lane
Strip of carriageway intended to accommodate a single line of moving vehicles
Transmittance (for incident radiation of given spectral composition, polarisation and

geometrical distribution) (t)
Ratio of the transmitted radiant or luminous flux to the incident flux in the given conditions
Tristimulus values (of a colour stimulus)
Amounts of the three reference colour stimuli, in a given trichromatic system, required to match
the colour of the stimulus considered
Note 1: In the CIE standard colorimetric systems, the tristimulus values are represented by the symbols X, Y,
Z and X10, Y10, Z10
Note 2: See also CIE 15 (CIE, 2004b)
Unified glare rating limit (RUGL)

Upper limit of glare by the CIE Unified Glare Rating system
Uniformity (luminance, illuminance) (Uo)

Ratio of minimum illuminance (luminance) to average illuminance (luminance) on (of) a surface
Upward flux maximum

Maximum possible value of flux in an installation that is potentially emitted above the
horizontal both directly from the luminaire(s) mounted in their installed attitude, and indirectly
due to reflection from lit surfaces within the space (unit: lm)
Upward flux minimum

Minimum possible value of flux in an installation that is emitted above the horizontal (unit: lm)
Upward flux ratio

Ratio between the flux from all considered luminaires above the horizontal plane passing through
the luminaires in their installed position on site plus their flux reflected by the ground and the
minimal irreducible flux reflected towards the sky by the sole reference surface
Note: Upward flux ratio is sometimes signified by the abbreviation UFR
Upward light output ratio (of a luminaire) (RULO)

Ratio of the upward flux of the luminaire, measured under specified practical conditions with its
operated outside the luminaire with the same equipment, under specified conditions
313
Note 1: Upward light output ratio is sometimes signified by the abbreviation ULOR
Note 2: The luminaire attitude should be declared so that appropriate corrections to the ULOR can be made
if, in application, the installed attitude is different
Upward light ratio (RUL)

Proportion of the total luminaire flux that is emitted above the horizontal by all luminaires to the
total luminaire flux from all luminaires in an installation, when the luminaires are mounted in
their installed attitudes
Useful area (A)

Floor area inside the outer walls excluding non-habitable cellars and un-illuminated spaces
(unit: m2)
Useful data
Lamp and luminaire data beneficial to the designers and users in the planning and operation of
lighting installations
Utilance (of an installation, for a reference surface) (U)

Ratio of the luminous flux received by the reference surface to the sum of the individual total
fluxes of the luminaires of the installation
Utilisation factor (of an installation, for a reference surface) (FU)

Ratio of the luminous flux received by the reference surface to the sum of the individual fluxes of
the lamps of the installation
V(l) correction
Correction of the spectral responsivity of a detector to match the photopic spectral sensitivity of
the human eye
Veiling luminance
See equivalent veiling luminance
Veiling reflections
Specular reflections that appear on the object viewed and that partially or wholly obscure the
details by reducing contrast
Visual acuity
1. Qualitatively: capacity for seeing distinctly fine details that have very small angular separation
2. Quantitatively: any of a number of measures of spatial discrimination such as the reciprocal of

the value of the angular separation in minutes of arc of two neighbouring objects (points or lines
or other specified stimuli) which the observer can just perceive to be separate
Visual comfort
Subjective condition of visual well-being induced by the visual environment
Visual field
Area or extent of physical space visible to an eye at a given position and direction of view
Note: It should be stated whether the visual field is monocular or binocular

314
Visual performance

Performance of the visual system as measured for instance by the speed and accuracy with which
a visual task is performed
Visual task
Visual elements of the activity being undertaken
Note: The main visual elements are the size of the structure, its luminance, its contrast against the
background and its duration
Window
Daylight opening on a vertical or nearly vertical area of a room envelope
Work place
Place intended to house work stations on the premises of the undertaking and/or establishment
and any other place within the area of undertaking and/or establishment to which the worker has
access in the course of his employment
Work plane (working plane)

Reference surface defined as the plane at which work is normally done
Work station
Combination and spatial arrangement of work equipment, surrounded by the work environment
under the conditions imposed by the work tasks
315
Chapter Twenty: Bibliography
Chapter 20: Bibliography

20.1 Standards
British Standards Institution (1976) BS 5252: 1976: Framework for colour co-ordination for building
purposes, London: BSI.
British Standards Institution (1992) BS EN 60529: 1992: Specification for degrees of protection provided
by enclosures (IP code), London: BSI.
British Standards Institution (1998) BS EN 60598-2-5: 1998: Luminaires. Particular requirements.

Floodlights, London: BSI.
British Standards Institution (2003a) BS EN 13201-2: 2003: Road lighting. Performance requirements,
London: BSI.
British Standards Institution (2003b) BS EN 60598-2-3: 2003: Luminaires. Particular requirements.

Luminaires for road and street lighting, London: BSI.
British Standards Institution (2003c) BS EN 13201-3: 2003: Road lighting. Calculation of

performance, London: BSI.
British Standards Institution (2003d) BS EN 13201-4: 2003: Road lighting. Methods of measuring
lighting performance, London: BSI.
British Standards Institution (2003e) BS 5489-1:2003+A2: 2008: Code of practice for the design of
road lighting. Lighting of roads and public amenity areas, London: BSI.
British Standards Institution (2004a) BS EN 13032-1: 2004: Light and lighting. Measurement and
presentation of photometric data of lamps and luminaires. Measurement and file format, London: BSI.
British Standards Institution (2004b) BS EN 13032-2: 2004: Light and lighting. Measurement and
presentation of photometric data of lamps and luminaires. Presentation of data for indoor and outdoor work
places, London: BSI.
British Standards Institution (2005a) BS EN 14225: Measurement and assessment of personal exposure
to incoherent optical radiation, Parts 1 to 4, London: BSI.
British Standards Institution (2005b) BS 667: Illuminance meters. Requirements and test methods,
London: BSI.
British Standards Institution (2005c) BS 7920: Luminance meters. Requirements and test methods,
London: BSI.
British Standards Institution (2007a) BS EN 15193: 2007: Energy performance of buildings. Energy
requirements for lighting, London: BSI.
British Standards Institution (2007b) BS EN 12193: 2007: Light and lighting. Sports lighting,
London: BSI.
316
British Standards Institution (2007c) BS EN 12464-2: 2007: Light and lighting – Lighting of work

places – Part 2: Outdoor work places, London: BSI.
British Standards Institution (2007d) BS EN 13032-3: 2007: Measurement and presentation of

photometric data of lamps and luminaires. Presentation of data for emergency lighting of work places,
London: BSI.
British Standards Institution (2008) BS 8206-2: 2008: Lighting for buildings – Part 2: Code of practice
for daylighting, London: BSI.
British Standards Institution (2011a) BS EN 12464-1: 2011: Light and lighting – Lighting of work
places – Part 1: Indoor work places, London: BSI.
British Standards Institution (2011b) BS EN 12665: 2011: Light and lighting. Basic terms and criteria
for specifying lighting requirements, London: BSI.
International Standards Organisation / Commission Internationale de l’Eclairage (2003)

ISO 15469: 2004 (E) / CIE S 011/E: 2003, Spatial distribution of daylight – CIE standard general sky,
Geneva: ISO, Vienna: CIE.
International Standards Organisation (2005) BS EN ISO 23539: 2005: Photometry – The CIE
system of physical photometry, Geneva: ISO.
International Standards Organisation (2007) BS EN ISO 9680: 2007: Dentistry. Operating lights,
Geneva: ISO.
International Standards Organisation (2008a) BS EN ISO 9241-307: 2008: Ergonomics of

human–system interaction. Analysis and compliance test methods for electronic visual displays, Geneva: ISO.
International Standards Organisation (2008b) BS EN ISO 9241-302: 2008: Ergonomics of

human–system interaction. Terminology for electronic visual displays, Geneva: ISO.
International Standards Organisation (2009) BS ISO 3864-1: 2009: Graphical symbols. Safety colours
and safety signs. Part 1. Design principles for safety signs and safety markings, Geneva: ISO.
20.2 Guidance
Commission Internationale de l’Eclairage CIE (1978) CIE Publication 40: 1978: Calculations for
interior lighting: Basic method, Vienna: CIE.
Commission Internationale de l’Eclairage CIE (1994) CIE Publication 112: 1994: Glare evaluation
system for use within outdoor sports and area lighting, Vienna: CIE.
Commission Internationale de l’Eclairage CIE (1995a) CIE Publication 117: 1995: Discomfort glare
in interior lighting, Vienna: CIE.
Commission Internationale de l’Eclairage CIE (1995b) CIE Publication 13-3: 1995: Method of
measuring and specifying colour rendering properties of light sources, Vienna: CIE.
317
Commission Internationale de l’Eclairage (CIE) (1997) CIE Publication 126: 1997: Guidelines for
minimizing sky glow, Vienna: CIE.
Commission Internationale de l’Eclairage (CIE) (2000) CIE Publication 140: 2000: Road lighting
calculations, Vienna: CIE.
Commission Internationale de l’Eclairage CIE (2003) CIE Publication 154: 2003: The maintenance
of outdoor lighting systems, Vienna: CIE.
Commission Internationale de l’Eclairage (CIE) (2004a) CIE Publication 158: 2004: Ocular
lighting effects on human physiology and behaviour, Vienna: CIE.
Commission Internationale de l’Eclairage (CIE) (2004b) CIE Publication 15: 2004: Colorimetry,
3rd edition, Vienna: CIE.
Commission Internationale de l’Eclairage CIE (2005) CIE Publication 97: 2005: Guide on the
maintenance of indoor electric lighting systems, Vienna: CIE.
Commission Internationale de l’Eclairage (CIE) (2006) CIE Publication S009: 2006: Photobiologic
safety of lamps and lamp systems, Vienna: CIE.
Commission Internationale de l’Eclairage (CIE) (2010) CIE Publication 190: 2010: Calculation
and presentation of unified glare rating tables for indoor lighting luminaires, Vienna: CIE.
The Society of Light and Lighting (SLL) (1999) SLL Lighting Guide 10: Daylighting and window
design. ISBN 0 900953 98 5, London: CIBSE.
The Society of Light and Lighting (SLL) (2001) SLL Lighting Guide 11: Surface reflectance and
colour. ISBN 1 903287 14 6, London: CIBSE.
The Society of Light and Lighting (SLL) (2004) SLL Lighting Guide 12: Emergency lighting design
guide. ISBN 1 903287 51 0, London: CIBSE.
The Society of Light and Lighting (SLL) (2006) SLL Lighting Guide 4: Sports.
ISBN 1 903287 78 2, London: CIBSE.
The Society of Light and Lighting (SLL) (2008) SLL Lighting Guide 2: Hospital and health care
buildings. ISBN 978 1 903287 99 6, London: CIBSE.
The Society of Light and Lighting (SLL) (2009) The SLL Lighting Handbook.
ISBN: 9781906846022, London: The Society of Light and Lighting.
The Society of Light and Lighting (SLL) (2011) SLL Lighting Guide 5: Lighting for education.
ISBN 978 1 906846 17 6, London: CIBSE.
20.3 References
Akashi, Y., Myer, M. and Boyce, P.R. (2006) Identifying sparkle. Lighting Research and Technology,
38, 325–340.
318
Akashi, Y., Rea, M.S. and Bullough, J.D. (2007) Driver decision making in response to peripheral

moving targets under mesopic lighting levels. Lighting Research and Technology, 39, 53–67.
American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists (ACGIH) (2010) TLVs and BEIs
threshold limit values for chemical substances and physical agents, biological exposure indices, Cincinnati,
OH: ACGIH.
Badia, P., Myers, B., Boecker, M. and Culpeper, J. (1991) Bright light effects on body
temperature, alertness, EEG and behavior. Physiology and Behavior, 50, 583–588.
Baron, R. A. (1990) Environmentally induced positive affect: Its impact on self-efficacy, task
performance, negotiation, and conflict. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 20(5), 368–384.
Baron, R.A. and Thomley, J. (1994) A whiff of reality: Positive affect as a potential mediator of
the effects of pleasant fragrances on task performance and helping. Environment and Behavior,
26(6), 766–784.
Baron, R.A., Rea, M.S. and Daniels, S.G. (1992) Effects of indoor lighting (illuminance and
spectral distribution) on the performance of cognitive tasks and interpersonal behaviors:
The potential mediating role of positive affect. Motivation and Emotion, 16, 1–33.
Begley, K. and Linderson, T. (1991) Management of mercury in lighting products, Proceedings

of the 1st European Conference on Energy-Efficient Lighting. Stockholm, Sweden: Swedish National
Board for Industrial and Technical Development.
Berman, S.M. (1992) Energy efficiency consequences of scotopic sensitivity. Journal of the
Illuminating Engineering Society, 21, 3–14.
Berman, S.M., Navvab, M., Martin, M.J., Sheedy, J. and Tithof, W. (2006) A comparison of
traditional and high colour temperature lighting on the near acuity of elementary school children.
Lighting Research and Technology, 38, 41–52.
Berson, D.M., Dunn, F.A. and Takao, M. (2002) Phototransduction by retinal ganglion cells that
set the circadian clock. Science, 295, (5557), 1070–1073.
Boyce, P.R. (1996) Illuminance selection based on visual performance – and other fairy stories.
Journal of the Illuminating Engineering Society, 25, 41–49.
Boyce, P.R. (2003) Human factors in lighting. London: Taylor and Francis.
Boyce, P.R. (2006) Lemmings, light and health. Leukos, 2(3), 175–184.
Boyce, P.R. and Rea, M.S. (1987) Plateau and escarpment: The shape of visual performance,
Proceedings of the CIE 21st Session, Venice. Vienna: CIE.
Boyce, P.R., Beckstead, J.W., Eklund, N.H., Strobel, R.W. and Rea, M.S. (1997) Lighting the
graveyard shift: the influence of a daylight-simulating skylight on the task performance and mood
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Index
Index
Note: page numbers in italics refer to figures; page numbers in bold refer to tables.
absence factor 293 CIE

absorptance 293 chromaticity (1931) diagram 243, 243, 244
absorption 145 Colour Rendering Index (CRI) 249–255, 294
accent lighting 13 colour-matching functions 241–243
accommodation, definition 293 daylight calculations 274
acuity see visual acuity environmental zones 27, 27
adaptation luminances 4, 8, 10–11 glare rating (GR) 89
agricultural premises 52, 97 L*a*b* colour space 272–273
airports 83, 96 maintenance factors (MF) 280
angular co-ordinate systems 187–189 UCS (1976) diagram 244–247
annual operating time 293 Unified Glare Rating (UGR) 36–37
area sources 167 cinemas 70
aspect factors 166 circadian system 5, 21–23, 45, 115
assembly buildings 69–72 circuit luminous efficacy 294
atmospheric luminance 293 circulation areas 49, 74, 96, 129
average daylight factor 119–120, 120, 274–275 classrooms 13, 73
average illuminance 293 client duties 137–138
average luminance 112, 293 cold spot 294
colorimeter 294
background area 35, 293 colour 241–273
bakeries 53 colour appearance 40–41
ballast 293 chromaticity diagrams 241–247
ballast lumen factor (BLF) 293 daylighting 123
behavioural effects 6, 12–14, 18–19, 115 groups 41, 92
BREEAM 134 verification 85
brick industry 53 colour contrast 295
brightness 294 colour perception 4, 16
brightness contrast 294 colour properties of surfaces 263–273
brightness perception 16, 119 Colour Quality Scale (CQS) 255–263
colour rendering 41, 248–263, 295
British Standards 316–317
Colour Rendering Index (CRI) 41, 249–255
colour co-ordination 267–272
calculation 251–263
daylighting 115
limiting values 49–84, 96–105
energy performance of buildings 130–133
verification 85, 105
ingress protection (IP) 292
colour spaces 263–273
lighting of indoor workplaces 29
colour stimulus 295
lighting of outdoor workplaces 86 colour temperature 41, 247–248, 295
luminaire tests 94 communication performance 13–14
photometric measurements 187, 234 compact fluorescent lamps 263, 282
road lighting 106 competent person 136–137
safety colours 41 computer display screens 21, 42–43, 122, 195
sports lighting 232 concert halls 70
visual display units 43 constant illuminance factor 131, 295
building energy rating (BER) 129 constant illuminance systems 126
Building Regulations 127 Construction (Design and Management) Regulations
building sites 97 135–142
built-in luminaire 294 contractor duties 138–139, 140, 141
contrast 295
calibration, photometers 235 see also luminance contrast
canals 97 contrast revealing coefficient 295
candela 156 control gear 295–296
canteens 50 control rooms 51
car parks 72, 100 control systems 125, 126, 130
carriageway 294 co-ordinate systems 187–189, 223–225
CDM co-ordinator 139, 140 correction factors 296
CDM regulations 135–142 spectral correction factor 235
CE classes 110, 111, 114 UGR metrics 198
cement industry 53 correlated colour temperature (CCT) 241, 247, 296
ceramic metal halide lamps 11, 263, 282 cosine correction 296
ceramics industry 54 cosine error 235–236
chemical industry 55 costs of lighting 24–28
chemical pollution 26 crime prevention 15, 109
chromatic adaptation 16, 251 see also security lighting
chromaticity 294 critical flicker frequency see fusion frequency
chromaticity coordinates 243, 251, 294 cubic illuminance 219–220
chromaticity diagrams 243–247 curfew 28, 90, 296
325
cut-off 296 emergency lighting charge time 299

Index
cut-off angle 296 emergency lighting charging power 299

cylindrical illuminance 17, 39, 162, 222, 296 energy consumption 25–26, 299
standardised calculation method 126, 131–133
daylight 44, 115–123 energy efficiency 25, 44–45, 93
benefits 45, 115–116 guidance 124–126
calculations 274–279 regulations and standards 126–134
definitions 297 entertainment premises 70
with electric lighting 122–123 environment classes 283
reference spectrum 249, 250 environmental issues 2, 26
and room brightness 118–121 environmental zones (CIE) 27, 27
task area 121–122 equivalent veiling luminance 299
windows and view 116–118 escalators 49
daylight dependency factor 131, 297 escape route lighting 14, 299
daylight factor 274–275, 297 escape routes 299
daylight screens/louvres 123, 297 essential data 299
daylight time usage 297 European Directive on the Energy Performance of
design criteria Buildings 130
indoor workplaces 29–85 exhibition halls 70
outdoor workplaces 86–94 exterior lighting see outdoor lighting
design speed 297 externally illuminated safety sign 299
designer duties 138, 139 extreme uniformity see diversity (luminance, illuminance)
diffraction 146 eyestrain 20–21
diffuse reflection and transmission 146
diffuse sky radiation 297 factories see industrial premises
diffused lighting 297 farms 52, 97
dimming systems 126 field measurements 238–240
DIN colour system 266–267 filling stations 98
direct lighting 297 financial costs 25
illuminance calculations first aid rooms 50
area sources 167 flashing lights 13
non point sources 164–167 flicker 21, 42, 93
point sources 161–164 flicker frequency see fusion frequency
direct solar radiation 297 floodlighting 300
directional lighting 40, 91–92, 297 fluorescent lamps 11, 263, 282
disability glare 297 flux see luminous flux
outdoor workplaces 89 focus error 238
road lighting 107, 112, 113, 114, 232 food industry 57
discomfort glare 36, 36–37, 121–122, 298 form, perception of 16–17
dispersion 145 form factors 172–175, 176
Display Energy Certificates (DEC) 134 foundries 58
display lighting 13, 130 fuel filling stations 98
display screen equipment (DSE) 42–43, 122, 195, 298 fusion frequency 300
disposal of equipment 25, 26
diversity (luminance, illuminance) 89, 298 G classes 114
docks (shipping) 103 gas plants 101
downward light output ratio (DLOR) 193, 298 general lighting 300
dry cleaning premises 59 glare
dwellings control 37–38, 120, 121–122
energy efficiency requirements 127, 128, 128–129 daylight 120, 121–122
recommended daylight factors 120 definition 300
indoor workplaces 36–39
educational premises 73–75, 133 outdoor workplaces 89–90
efficacy see luminous efficacy Glare Rating (GR) 89, 232
electric lighting, with daylighting 122–123 limiting values 96–105, 300
electrical and electronic industry 56 verification 105
electrical installations 101 see also Unified Glare Rating (UGR)
electrical safety 142 glass industry 54
electricity consumption 25–26 global solar radiation 300
see also energy efficiency grid points 35–36, 89, 238–240, 300
electromagnetic spectrum 143 guidance, published 317–318
electromagnetic waves 143–146 gyms 50
elevators 49
emergency ballast lumen factor 298 hairdressers 59
emergency exit 298 halogen lamps 11, 263, 282
emergency lamp flux see practical emergency lamp flux harbours 97
emergency lane (hard shoulder) 299 hazardous industries 100
emergency lighting 94, 142, 299 health and safety 141–142
escape lighting 14, 298 health care premises 76–82, 133
spacing tables 199–200 health effects 20–24, 115–116
total installed charging power 299 hearing impairments 14
326
heat plants 101 interior space see dwellings; indoor workplaces
Index
hemispherical illuminance 163–164, 221, 300 internally illuminated safety sign 302
high pressure sodium lamps 11, 282 international standards 316–317
high risk task area lighting 300 iron and steel works 64
hospitals see health care premises ISO standards 317
hotels 69, 133
human circadian system see circadian system jewellery manufacturing 59
human face, visual perception 16–17, 17
human perceptual system 5–6 kerbside light output ratio 193
human performance 3–14
see also visual performance Lambertian radiator 158–159
human vision see visual system lamp, definition 302
lamp code 302
illuminance 157, 159–160, 300–301 lamp dimensions 302
brightness perception 16 lamp lumen maintenance factor (LLMF) 280–281, 282,
calculations 302
direct lighting 161–168 lamp luminous flux see rated luminous flux
indirect lighting 169–186 lamp survival factor (LSF) 281, 282, 302
indoor lighting 217–222 lamp wattage see nominal lamp wattage
outdoor lighting 229–230 lamps 73
measurement 238–240 choosing 126
and safety perception 19, 19, 20 colour properties 40–41, 92, 123, 263
scale of 32 LLMF and LSF values 282
verification 85, 105 luminous efficacy 128, 130
and visual performance 7–9 rated luminous flux 309
see also maintained illuminance scotopic/photopic ratio 11
illuminance grid 35–36, 89 Landolt C matrices 7, 8
illuminance meters 234–236, 301 laundries 59
illuminance uniformity 8, 35 leather industry 60
indoor workplaces 35, 49–84 LED lamps 11, 263
outdoor workplaces 89, 96–105 LEED (Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design)
road lighting 107, 110 134
illumination vector 219 LENI see Lighting Energy Numeric Indicator (LENI)
immediate surrounding area see surrounding area libraries 71
incandescent lamps 25–26, 282 life cycle costs 25
indirect lighting 301 life of lighting installation 302
illuminance calculations see also lamp survival factor (LSF)
Sumpner’s method 169–170 lifts 49
transfer factors 170–179 light boxes 23, 24
indoor lighting light centre 302
maintenance factors (MF) 280, 281, 282 light distribution see luminance distribution
photometric calculations 217–222 light exposure patterns 21–22
recommended standards for dwellings 128 light loss factor see maintenance factors (MF)
room surface maintenance factor (RSMF) 285, light measuring equipment 234–240
286–291 light output ratio (LOR) 27–28, 192–193, 303
indoor workplaces 29–85 light pollution 26–28, 90–91, 105
colour aspects 40–41 light radiation 143–147
daylight 44, 45, 121–122 light spectrum
energy efficiency 44–45, 124–125 brightness perception 16
flicker and stroboscopic effects 42 and human performance 5
glare 36–39 UV and IR tissue damage 24
illuminance 31–36 and visual perception 17
lighting in the interior space 39–40 and visual performance 9
lighting requirements 45–48, 49–84 lighting design criteria
luminance distribution 30–32 indoor workplaces 29–85
luminous environment 29–30 outdoor workplaces 86–94
maintenance factor (MF) 44 Lighting Energy Numeric Indicator (LENI) 45, 131,
variability of light 45 133, 303
industrial premises 53–67, 98, 100 lighting quality 1–2
lighting energy requirements 133 lighting requirements
minimum lighting efficacy 130 indoor workplaces 45–48, 49–84
infrared (IR) radiation 24 outdoor workplaces 94–95, 96–105
ingress protection (IP) classes 292 line sources 164–167
initial average luminance 301 linearity error 235
initial illuminance 301 loading see installed loading
initial luminous flux see rated luminous flux loading ramps/bays 49
installed loading 301 local lighting 303
integral lighting system 301 see also task area
intensity see luminous intensity localised lighting 303
intensity diagrams 192 longitudinal uniformity 113, 303
interference 146 louvres see daylight screens/louvres
327
lumen (unit) 156 maximum illuminance 307

Index
luminaire code 304 maximum luminance 307

luminaire maintenance factor (LMF) 199, 304 ME classes 107–108, 112
indoor lighting 281, 284 measurement field 237, 307
outdoor lighting 283, 285 measurement grids 238–239
luminaire parasitic energy consumption 132–133, 304 mercury, environmental impact 26
luminaire parasitic power 304 mercury vapour lamps 282
luminaire power 304 mesopic vision 10–11, 147
luminaires metal casting 58
choosing 125–126 metal halide lamps 11, 282
classification 283, 292 metal working and processing 61, 64
definitions 303–304 minimum illuminance 307
durability 94 minimum luminance 307
luminance limits for DSE 43, 43 minimum value emergency factor 307
luminance verification 85 mixed traffic 308
luminous efficacy 128, 130, 304 modelling
luminous intensity 159 daylighting 122
photometric datasheets 191–217 indoor workplaces 40
photometric measurements 187–189, 190 outdoor workplaces 91–92
recommended standards 128 mood, and lighting quality 6, 18–19, 115
shielding angles 38, 38, 194–195, 310 motion of object 5
upward light output ratio (ULOR) 193, 313–314 motivation, and lighting quality 6, 18–19
luminance 4, 157–158, 304–305 motor traffic/motorised traffic 308
measurement 240 movement direction 13
normalised 195, 206 multi phosphor fluorescent lamps 263, 282
road surfaces 231, 240 Munsell system 263–264
verification 85 museums 71
luminance coefficients 228–229
luminance contrast 4, 7–8, 305 national calculation method (NCM) 129
between interior and view outside 120–121, 122 Natural Colour System (NCS) 264–265
luminance distribution 30–32 nominal lamp wattage 308
and visual perception 16–17, 17, 30 non point sources 164–167
see also illuminance uniformity non-daylight time usage 308
luminance meters 236–238, 305 non-domestic buildings
luminance uniformity 103, 107 Display Energy Certificates (DEC) 134
luminosity see brightness minimum lighting efficacy 130
luminous efficacy 128, 130, 305 recommended standards 129–130, 130
luminous environment 29–30, 305 non-visual effects 5, 21–23
luminous flux 147, 156, 305–306 normalised intensity tables 191–192
calculations 200–201 normalised luminance 195, 206
luminous intensity 156, 158–159, 306 Northern Ireland, energy efficiency requirements 127
calculations 223–233
G classes 114 obtrusive light 26–28, 90–91, 105, 308
(spacial) distribution 306 occupancy dependency factor 131, 308
lux (unit) 157 occupant behaviour 6, 12–14, 18–19, 115
occupant preferences 18
MacAdam ellipses 244–245 offices
machinery/machine, definition 306 lighting energy requirements 133
mail rooms 51 lighting requirements 84
maintained illuminance minimum lighting efficacy 130
definition 306 occupant preferences 18
indoor workplaces 31–35, 49–84, 96–105 offshore gas and oil structures 99
background area 35 open area lighting 308
illuminance on surfaces 31–32 operating costs 25
illuminance uniformity 35 operating time 308
immediate surrounding area 33–35 outdoor lighting
interior space 39–40 energy efficiency requirements 128
task area 32–33 maintenance factor (MF) 280
outdoor workplaces 87–89 photometric calculations 223–233
surrounding area 88 road lighting 223–232
task area 87–88 other outdoor areas 232–233
maintained luminance 307 see also road lighting
maintenance, luminaires 126 outdoor workplaces 86–114
maintenance costs 25 colour aspects 92–93
maintenance cycle 307 directional lighting 91–92
maintenance factors (MF) 280–285, 282, 307 energy considerations 93
indoor lighting 44, 280, 281, 284 flicker and stroboscopic effects 93
outdoor lighting 93, 280, 283, 285 glare 89–90
see also room surface maintenance factor (RSMF) illuminance 87–89
maintenance schedules 85, 307 lighting requirements 94–95, 96–105
manufacturing premises see industrial premises luminance distribution 87
328
luminous environment parameters 86 reflectometers 310
Index
maintenance factor (MF) 93 refraction 144–145
obtrusive light 90–91 Relative Visual Performance (RVP) model 8–9, 9
photometric calculations 232 residential buildings see dwellings
outside view 116–118 rest rooms 50
overall uniformity 113 restaurants 69, 133
retail premises 13, 68, 133
parasitic energy consumption see luminaire parasitic retinal illumination 4–5
energy consumption retinal image quality 4–5
parasitic power see luminaire parasitic power road lighting 15, 106–114
parking areas 72, 100 calculations 223–233
perceptual system 5–6 classification of roads 106–111
performance see visual performance conflict areas 110, 110–111, 111, 114
peripheral vision 4, 147 lighting classes 112–114
petrochemical industry 100 measurement grids 239
photometers 309 subsidiary roads 109, 109, 113
see also luminance meters threshold increment (TI) 91, 232
photometric angles 187–189, 223–225
town and city centres 111
photometric calculations 200–212
traffic routes 106–107, 107–108, 112
indoor lighting 217–222
veiling luminance 91, 232
outdoor lighting 223–233
photometric centres 187–189, 190 road surfaces
photometric datasheets 191–217 luminance measurement 240
photometric measurements 187–189 reflective properties 228–229
field measurements 238–240 roadside light output ratio 193
light measuring equipment 234–240 rolling mills 64
photometric observer see luminous flux rooflights 120, 121, 122, 310
photometric quantities 156–160 room surface maintenance factor (RSMF) 285, 286–291,
photometry 309 310
photons 146 room surfaces
photopic vision 10, 147, 148–151 illuminance calculations 169–170
planar illuminance 159–160, 161–162, 221 maintained illuminances 31–32
Planck’s law 247 rubber industry 55
plant rooms 51
plastics industry 55 S classes 109, 113
point sources 161–164 safety
polar curve 192 lighting for 14–15, 104–105
polarisation 146 perception of 19, 19, 20
‘positive affect’ 19 safety sign 310
post rooms 51 sanitary facilities 50
power consumption 25–26 saw mills 103
see also energy efficiency SBEM (Simplified Building Energy Model) 129
power plants/stations 62, 101 scalar illuminance 221
practical emergency lamp flux 309 scattering 145
principal area 308 scene setting operation time 310
printers 62 schools 73–75
project management 137–138 Scotland, energy efficiency requirements 127, 129
protection of luminaires 292 scotopic vision 10, 147, 152–155
psychological effects 5–6, 17–18, 21–23 scotopic/photopic (S/P) ratios 9, 11
public assembly buildings 69–72 screens see daylight screens/louvres
public car parks 72, 100 Seasonal Affective Disorder (SAD) 23, 115
security lighting 15, 104–105
quality of lighting 1–2
see also crime prevention
quantum phenomena 146
semi-cylindrical illuminance 162–163, 222, 310
quartz metal halide lamps 11
semi-direct lighting 310
radiant flux see luminous flux semi-indirect lighting 310
railway installations 84, 101–102 sewage plants 104
RAL design system 271–272 shading devices 123
rated luminous flux 309 shielding against glare 37–38
recursive source subdivision 167–168 shielding angles 38, 38, 194–195, 310
reference ballast 309 shipyards 103
reference surface 32, 87, 309 shops see retail premises
reflectance 31, 309 signals, illuminated 13
glare control 37, 120 sky glow 26–28, 90–91
transfer factors 170–179, 179–186, 214–216 skylight 119–120, 311
reflected glare 38–39, 89–90 sleep phase disorder 22
reflections see veiling reflections Snell’s law 145
reflective properties solar altitude and azimuth 275–279
road surfaces 228–229 solar radiation 311
spectral reflectance values 252–254, 257–259 see also direct solar radiation; global solar radiation
329
solar shading 123 tristimulus values 241–243, 313

Index
source (light source) 311 tungsten halogen lamps 11, 263

spacing (in an installation) 311
spacing tables (emergency lighting) 199–200, 200 ultra-violet (UV) radiation 24, 116
spacing to height ratio (SHR) 193, 201–203, 311 Unified Glare Rating (UGR) 36–37
spectral correction factor 235 calculation 206–212
spectral luminous efficiency 147, 148–155 limiting values 49–84, 313
spectral power distribution 247 photometric datasheets 196–198, 197
spectral reflectance 252–254, 257–259 verification 85
spectral sensitivities 11, 147 uniformity 313
specular reflection 122, 144 see also illuminance uniformity; luminance uniformity
see also veiling reflections upward flux maximum 313
spherical illuminance 163, 311 upward flux minimum 313
spill light 311 upward flux ratio (UFR) 313
sports facilities 75, 232 upward light output ratio (ULOR) 193, 313–314
lighting energy requirements 133 upward light ratio 314
measurement grids 239 useful area 131, 314
spotlighting 13, 311 useful data 314
stairs 49, 74, 102, 129 utilance 314
standard year time 312 utilisation factors (UF) 193, 203–206, 314
standards see British Standards
standby lighting 312 variability of light 45
steradian 156 vehicle construction and repair 66
storage areas 52, 98, 130 veiling luminance 91, 232, 233
store rooms 51 see also equivalent veiling luminance
stray light see spill light veiling reflections 38–39, 89–90, 314
stroboscopic effects 42, 93, 311 verification procedures 85, 105
sunlight 119, 312 view of outside 116–118
see also solar shading visual acuity 4, 9, 314
suprachiasmatic nuclei (SCN) 5 visual adaptation 4, 8
suprathreshold visual performance 7 visual comfort 314
surface colour 263–273
visual discomfort 5–6, 20
surface reflectance see reflectance
see also discomfort glare
surround ratio (SR) 107
visual field 4, 314
surrounding area
visual perception 16–19, 119
definition 312
visual performance 3, 3–6, 7–9, 315
indoor workplaces 33–35
see also visual task performance
outdoor workplaces 88
visual search 9–10
survival factor see lamp survival factor (LSF)
sustainability 94 visual sensitivity 11, 147
visual size 4
task area visual spectrum 9
definition 312 visual system 3–4, 147
energy efficient lighting 124–125 eye-brain pathways 23
indoor workplaces 31–32 spectral sensitivities 11, 147
daylighting 121–122 visual task, definition 315
directional lighting 40 visual task performance 6–12
illuminance uniformity 35 and glare 38–39
maintained illuminance 32–33 improving 12
outdoor workplaces Landolt C matrices 7, 8
directional lighting 92 mesopic conditions 10–11
illuminance uniformity and diversity 89 Relative Visual Performance (RVP) model 8–9, 9
maintained illuminance 87–88 visual search 9–10
textile manufacture and processing 65
theatres 70 water and sewage plants 104
threshold increment (TI) 91, 113, 232 well-being 19
threshold visual performance 7 Wien’s displacement law 247
tissue damage 24 window, definition 315
total energy used for lighting 132–133, 312 windows
total installed charging power 132, 312 glare control 120–121
total installed lighting power 132, 312 minimum glazed area for view 118
total installed parasitic power 132, 312–313 size and proportion 118, 128
total reflection 145 and view 116–118
toxic materials 26 work place 315
traffic lane 313 see also indoor workplaces; outdoor workplaces
tramways 101–102 work plane/working plane 315
transfer factors 170–179, 179–186, 214–216 work station 315
transmittance 313 see also display screen equipment (DSE)
travelators 49
tri-phosphor fluorescent lamps 263, 282 zone size calculation 201
330

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222 Balham High Road, London SW12 9BS

The rights of publication or translation are reserved.

Note from the publisher

© March 2012 The Society of Light and Lighting

The Society is part of CIBSE, which is a registered charity, number 278104.

Print management and typesetting by The Charlesworth Group

z A compendium of all the lighting recommendations relevant to the United Kingdom

CIBSE Editorial Manager

CIBSE Head of Knowledge

Permission to reproduce extracts from BS 667, BS 5489, BS 5252, BS 8206, BS EN 12464,

Chapter 2: Indoor workplaces

2.2 Schedule of lighting requirements 45

Chapter 3: Outdoor workplaces

Chapter 4: Road lighting

Chapter 7: Construction (Design and Management) Regulations

Chapter 8: Basic energy and light

Chapter 9: Luminous ﬂux, intensity, illuminance, luminance

Chapter 10: Direct lighting

Chapter 11: Indirect lighting

Chapter 12: Photometric datasheets

Chapter 13: Indoor lighting calculations

Chapter: 14 Outdoor lighting calculations

Chapter 15: Measurement of lighting installations and

Chapter 16: Colour

Chapter 17: Daylight calculations

Chapter 18: Predicting maintenance factor

Chapter 19: Glossary 293

Chapter 20: Bibliography

1.2 The place of lighting in the modern world

Retinal Circadian Mood

Fatigue Visual Performance

Luminance Colour Retinal image Retinal

Chapter One: The balance of lighting

1.4 Lighting and visual task performance

Chapter One: The balance of lighting

1.4.1 Visual performance

Figure 1.2 A matrix of Landolt

Mean performance Size Contrast

0.1 1.5 0.28

z Increasing illuminance follows a law of diminishing returns, i.e. equal increments in

Relative visual performance

Luminance (cd·m)-2 0.1 Contrast

1.4.2 Visual search

1.4.3 Mesopic conditions

Chapter One: The balance of lighting

Table 1.1 Scotopic/photopic ratios for some common light sources

Light source Scotopic/photopic ratio

High pressure sodium 0.6

Fluorescent – 3000 K 1.3

Tungsten halogen 1.4

Quartz metal halide 1.5

Ceramic metal halide 1.7

White LED – 6000 K 2.0

Fluorescent – 6500 K 2.2