1

Skeletal System

A. Osteology-

The endoskeleton- as opposed to the exoskeleton of tortoises, turtles etc.-

is divided into three parts:-
1. The axial skeleton consists of:-
i. skull,
ii. vertical column,
iii. ribs,
iv. sternum

2. The appendicular skeleton includes the bones of the limbs.

3. The splanchnic or visceral skeleton is comprised of bones which have

developed in soft organs.
Examples are:-
i. os penis of the Dog,
ii. os cordis of the Ox,
iii. entoglossal bone of the Fowl
iv. os rostrale of the Pig

Classification of Bones

Bones are classified according to their shape and function. There are four primary
classes:-
1. Long bones, which act as levers- RADIUS.
Each long bone has a shaft (diaphysis) and two extremities (epiphysis).
2. Short bones, which diffuse concussion- CARPALS.
3. Flat bones, which are protective and which afford a large area for
muscular attachment- SCAPULA.
4. Irregular bones, which have varied functions such as that of support
and ligamentous attachment- VERTEBRAE.

Pneumatic bones are found in the skeletons of birds. They are lined by
mucous membrane rather than marrow, and they communicate with the
respiratory system.
Ribs cannot satisfactorily be included in the above groups. They are
considered as aberrant long bones.
Sesamoids are bones which are developed in tendons to afford increased
leverage. Examples are:-
1. Patella,
2. Navicular bone
 2
Vertebral Column

The vertebral column is subdivided into five regions:

1. Cervical ,
2. Thoracic,
3. Lumbar,
4. Sacral,
5. Coccygeal.
The number of vertebrae in each region expect the last is more or less constant
for each animal. Thus the vertebal formulae of the domestic animals are as follows:-

C T L S Cy
(approximately)
HORSE 7 18 6 5 15
OX 7 13 6 5 18
SHEEP 7 13 6 4 16
PIG 7 14 6 4 20
DOG 7 13 7 3 20
FOWL 13-14 7 L/S 14 6

A typical vertebra is described as having:-

1. Body,
2. Arch,
3. Processes- i. articular,
ii. transverse
iii. spinous

Cervical vertebrae can be recognized by the fact that they are:-

1. Massive and quadrangular,
2. Longer than vertebrae in other regions,

Thoracic vertebrae have as regional characters:-

1. Facete for articulation with the ribs,
2. Long spinous processes.

Lumbar vertebrae have as regional characters:-

1. Short bodies,
2. Expanded transverse processes.

Sacral vertebrae are fused to form a single bone. Generally the sacrum is
described as having:-
1. Two surfaces,
2. Two borders,
3. A base,
4. An apex.
 3
In the Fowl the vertebrae the vertebrae of the lumbo-sacral region are fused into
a bony mass comprising the last thoracic, fourteen lumbo-sacral and the first coceygeal
vertebrae.

COMPARATIVE NOTES

A. ATLAS
Horse: Three foramina are present:
1. Intervertebral
2. Alar
3. Transverse
Ox/sheep: Transverse foramen is absent. The wings of the sheep atlas
project posteriorly.
Pig: Transverse foramen is situated in the posterior border of wing.
Dog: Alar foramen is a notch.

B. EPISTROPHEUS (axis)
Horse: Spinous process is bifed.
Ox/ Sheep: Dens is characteristically spout- shaped.
Pig: High spine directed posteriorly.
Dog: Dens is typically tooth-like.

C. 6th CERVICAL
The 6th cervical of horse has a trifed transverse process.
The 6th transverse process of the other animals has a well developed ventral
plate.

D. 7th CERVICAL
The 7th cervical can be recognized by the following features:-

1. Single transverse process,

2. Absence of transverse foramen,
3. Facet on either side of posterior body for head of 1st
rib.

E. CAUDAL THORACICS
Caudal thoracics have an additional process- mammillary process
Last Thoracic has no posterior costal facets.

F. LUMBAR S OF HORSE
A characteristic of Equidae is that the transverse processes of lumbars 4, 5 and 6
articulate with each other.
 4
RIBS

Ribs are described as having:-

1. A shaft,
2. Two extremities- sternal and vertebral. The vertebral
extremity presents the head, neck and tubercle.

Points of note:
1. There is always one more pair of sternal ribs than there are sternal segments
(sternebrae).
2. The head of a rib articulates with the body of vertebra of same serial number
and that o the one in front.
3. The tubercle of a rib articulates with the tranverse process of the vertebra of
th same serial number.

ANIMAL RIB PLATE STERNAL ASTERNAL STERNEBRAE

Horse 18 8 10 7
Ox 13 8 5 7
Sheep 13 8 5 7
Pig 14 7 7 6
Dog 13 9 4 8

Comparative notes:
Horse: Narrow shaft, strongly curved in dorsal third.
Ox/ Sheep: Wide, flat shaft, long neck.
Pig: Narrow shaft, distinct angle.
Dog: Cylindrical shaft.

The first rib is distinguished by the fact that it is the shortest end of the shaft
widens greatly at the sternal extremity. A common feature of the 1st rib is the scalene
tubercle.

Addendum:
Number of pairs of ribs always correspond to the number of the thorscic
vertebrae; if 18 pairs of ribs = 18 thoracic vertebrae.

FORELIMB

The forelimb consists of four divisions:

1. Shoulder,
2. Upper arm,
3. Forearm,
4. Manus.
 5
SCAPULA- The scapula is a flat bone forming the skeleton of the shoulder.
Horse: Spine fades out distally. Trapezius tubercle present.
Ox/ Sheep: Bone distinctly triangular. Spine sinuous, dividing lateral surface
into unequal fossae.
Pig: Prominent trapezius tubercle overhanging infraspinous fossa.
Dog: Spine bisects lateral surface. Distinct acromium.

Determination of side:
1. spine is lateral,
2. tuber scapulae is anterior.

HUMERUS- The humerus is a long bone forming the skeleton of the upper arm, or
brachium.
Horse: Bicipital groove divided by a ridge.
Ox/ Sheep: Massive lateral tuberosity overhangs bicipital groove.
Pig: Lateral tuberosity almost converts bicipital groove into foramen.
Dog: Single lateral tuberosity. Coranoid olecranon fossae communicate
through supratrochlear foramen.

Determination of side:
1. crest is lateral,
2. head is posterior. Medial

RADIUS AND ULNA- The radius and the ulna are two long bones which together
form the skeleton of the forearm.
Horse: Ulna fused two- thirds of the way down shaft of the radius. Radius
longer than ulna.
Ox: Ulna complete. Projectts distally beyond the radius as the styloid
process. Ulna is longer.
Sheep: Ulna not necessarily fused. Extremely slender. Ulna is longer.
Pig: Ulna massive. Articulates with radius and ulnar carpal. Ulna is
longer.
Dog: Ulna never fused. Olecranon has trituberculate summit. Ulna is
longer.

Determination of side:
1. Radius: Radial tuberossity is medial
2. Ulna : Olecranon processis inclined laterally.

MANUS- The skeleton of the manus consists of:-

1. Carpus,
2. Metacarpus,
3. Digits.
 6

In the domestic animals the basic carpal number is 8. There are 4 bones proximally and
4 distally as follows:
Radial Intermediate Ulnar Accessory
st nd rd
MEDIAL 1 2 3 4th LATERAL

COMPARATIVE NOTES

Brackets indicate that a bone need not always be present. Stroke indicates fusion.

HORSE: R I U A
(1) 2 3 4
Accessory articulates with (1) Radius (R,U)
(2) Ulnar carpal

OX/SHEEP: R I U A
2/3 4/X
Accessory articulates only with ulnar carpal. (U)

PIG: R I U A
1 2 3 4
Accessory articulates only with ulnar carpal. (U)

DOG: R I U A
1 2 3 4
Accessory articulates with (1) Ulna (U)
(2) Ulnar carpal

METACARPALS AND DIGITS The digital region is the terminal segment of the
manus. The mammalian manus is comprised of five digits each
of which bears three phalanges.

Horse: 3rd metacarpal is functional. 2nd and 4th are vestigial and termed
splint bones. Only 3rd digit present.

Ox/Sheep: Metacarpals 3 and 4 are weight-bearing. 5 th is vestigial. Four digits

present of which nos. 3 and 4 are functional.

Pig: Metacarpals 2, 3, 4 and 5. All metacarpals bear digits. 3 rd and 4th are
functional.

Dog: Metacarpals 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5. All metacarpals bears digits. Digital

possesses only two phalanges.
 7
Determination of Side:

Large metacarpals of horse and ox – metacarpal tuberosity is medial.

HINDLIMB

The hindlimb consists of four divisions:

(1) Hip
(2) Thigh
(3) Leg
(4) Pes.

HIP The hip bone is termed the os coxae. The os coxae is the largest flat bone in
the body. It consists of three parts:
(1) Ilium
(2) Ischium
(3) Pubis

The term pelvic girdle includes the os coxae of either side. The term body
pelvis includes:
(1) Pelvic girdle
(2) Sacrum
(3) Coccygeals 1 and 2

The bony pelvis is described as having:

(1) a roof
(2) a floor
(3) Lateral walls
(4) An entrance
(5) An exit

COMPARATIVE NOTES

Horse: Wing of ilium has gluteal line.

Ox: Three (3) prominences on sciatic tuber. Obturator foram wide and
sharp medially. Pelvic symphisis has distinct ventral ridge.

Sheep: As ox. In addition, long axes of ilium and ischium form nearly
straight line.

Pig: Wing of ilium divided into two fossae by distinct gluteal line.

Dog: Wing of ilium distinctly concave.

 8

SEXUAL DIFFERENCES IN PELVIC GIRDLE

A. Female: 1. Pubic floor concave,

2. Pelvic outlet large,
3. < of inclination of inlet greater
4. Obturator foramen bigger
5. Conjugated foramen bigger
6. Transverse foramen greater

B. Male: 1. Pubic thick medially,

2. Pubic floor convex,
3. Pelvic outlet small.

FEMUR The femur is a long bonewhich forms the skeleton of the thigh.

Horse: Third trochanter present.

Ox/ Sheep: Single greater trochanter bordering a deep trochanteric fossa.
Pig: Shaaft distinctly quadrilateral.
Dog: Shaft cylindrical and curved. Facetes posteriorly on distal
condyles. 3rd trochanter

Determination of side:
1. Head is medial,
2. Trochlea is distal and anterior.

TIBIA AND FIBULA The tibia and fibula are long bones that form the skeleton of
the leg.

Horse: Fibula reduced to a head and shaft only. Lateral malleolus

fused.
Ox/Sheep: Lateral malleolus articulates separately.
Pig: Tibial crest long and distinct
Dog: Short prominent tibial crest marked with impression.

Determination of Side:
(1) Tibial crest is anterior
(2) Fibula articulates laterally.

PATELLA The patella is a large sesamoid which develops in the tendon of the
quadriceps femoris muscle. It articulates with the trochlea of the femur and is
desribed as having:
 9
(1) Two surfaces – anterior and articular
(2) Two borders – medial and lateral
(3) Base – proximal
(4) Apex – distal

PES: The skeleton of the pes consists of:

(1) Tibial tarsal
(2) Fibular tarsal
(3) Central tarsal
(4) Tarsals 1, 2, 3 and 4

Horse: There are six bonesin the tarsus of the horse.

T F C
½ 4 4

Ox/Sheep: 5 bones
T F C
1 2/3 4

Pig/Dog: 7 bones
T F C
1 2 3 4

TATARSALS and DIGITS The metatatarsals and digits are similar to the
equivalent bones in the forelimb except that in Ox and Sheep the vestigial metatarsal
remaining is the second.

Distinguish 3rd Metatarsal of the Horse from 3rd Metacarpal

Metatarsal has:
(1) Cylindrical shaft
(2) Wider proximal proximity
(3) Central non-articular depression on proximal extremity

To help determine the side of a limb bone it should be remembered that as

the weight of the animal is thrown inwards, medial articular surfaces are larger
than lateral.

SKULL

The skull, excluding the hyoid bone and the mandible is considered as being a
long, four- sided pyramid. This pyramid has the following surfaces:
(1) Superior
 10
(2) Two lateral
(3) Basal

(1) The superior surface of the skull is divided into four regions:
(i) Parietal,
(ii) Frontal
(iii) Nasal
(iv) Premaxillary
(2) The lateral surface is divided into three regions:
(i) Cranial
(ii) Orbital
(iii) Preorbital
(3) The basal surface is also divided into three regions:
(i) Cranial
(ii) Choanal
(iii) Palatine

ORBITAL GROUP OF FORAMINA

The orbital foramina are situated at the extreme posterior part of orbital
region of lateral surface of skull in front of the pteygoid crest. There are four chief
foramina:
(1) Ethmoidal,
(2) Optic
(3) Orbital
(4) Round.

Points to note:
(1) The trochlear foramen when present is found in the pterygoid crest.
(2) The alar canal opens in common with the round foramen.
(3) The small alar foramen is on a level with the orbital foramen behind the
pterygoid crest.

PTERYGOID-PALATINE FORAMINA

The pterygo-palatinen fossa is situated ventral to the orbital cavity. There are
three foramina in the fossa:
(1) Maxillary,
(2) Sphenopalatine
(3) Posterior palatine

PARANASAL SINUSES

The paranasal sinuses of the skull are large air spaces which communicate
directly or indirectly with the nasal cavity. There are four pairs of air sinuses in the
Horses’s skull:
(1) Maxillary
 11
(2) Frontal
(3) Sphenopalatine
(4) Ethmoidal.

Of these, the maxillary and frontal are of importance.

(1) Maxillary sinus The maxillary sinus is the largest. It is divided by an

oblique septum into:
(1) Anterior compartment
(2) Posterior compartment.

Boundaries: (1) Lateral wall – maxilla, lacrimal and malar.

(2) Medial wall – maxilla, ventral turbinate and
lateral mass of ethmoid.
(3) Anterior limit – marked by line drawn from
anterior end of facial crest to
infraorbital foramen.
(4) Posterior limit - marked by transverse line in front
of root of supraorbital process.
(5) Dorsal boundary – marked by line drawn backward
from infraorbital foramen parallel
to facial crest.
(6) Floor - formed by alveolar part of maxilla.

The largest three cheek teeth project into the cavity. They are covered by a thin
plate of bone. The extent of their projection depends on the age of Horse.

Communications:

The maxillary sinus has two openings:

(1) Fronto-maxillary - communicates dorsally with frontal
sinus.
(2) Naso-maxillary - communicates with posterior part of
middle nasal meatus.

Maxillary sinus of Ox:

The maxillary sinus of ox has three openings:

(1) Into lacrimal sinus
(2) Into palatine sinus
(3) Into middle nasal meatus.

(2) Frontal sinus The boundaries of the frontal sinus of the horse are:
(1) Roof - two plates of frontal bone.
 12
(2) Floor - lateral mass of ethmoid
(3) Anterior limit - marked by a line through anterior
margins of orbits.
(4) Posterior limit – marked by a line through temporal
condyles.
(5) Lateral limit - extends into root of superorbital
process.
(6) Medial limit - marked by septum which separates
off opposite sinus.

The frontal sinus communicates with the maxillary sinus through the fronto-
maxillary opening.

Frontal sinus of Ox:

Points of note:

(1) Frontal sinus is very large. It involves nearly all the frontal bone
and a large part of the posterior wall of the cranium.
(2) It extends into the horn processes when these are present.
(3) Cavity is divided into one major and one to four minor
compartments. Each compartment has an anterior outlet into the
ethmoidal meatus and thus indirectly into the middle nasal
meatus.

MANDIBLE The mandible is the largest bone in the face. It carries the
lower teeth. It articulates with the squamous temporal bone on
either side by condyles. The mandible is described as having:
(1) a body
(2) two rami

(1) The body presents:

(i) two – surfaces - lingual and mental
(ii) a border - alveolar

(2) Each ramus presents:

(i) two surfaces - lateral and medial
(ii) two borders - dorsal or alveolar and ventral
(iii) two extremeties, anterior and ventral.

HYOID BONE The hyoid bone is situated between the vertical parts of
the
rami of the mandibles. It is attached on either side to the styloid
process of the petrous temporal bone by rods of cartilage. It sup-
ports the following structures:
 13
(1) Root of the tongue
(2) Pharynx
(3) Larynx
For description of the hyoid presents:
(1) A body
(2) Lingual process
(3) Three pairs of cornua
(i) thyroid cornua (thyrohyoids)
(ii) small cornua (keratohyoids)
(iii) great cornua (stylohyoids)

Points of note:

(1) Middle cornua (epihyoids) unite with the great cornua in

the adult horse.
(2) The lingual process of the hyoid of Ox is short and
tuberous.

TSECBT
Tympanohyoid cart
Stylohyoid
Epihyoid
Ceratohyoid
Basihyoid
Thyrohyoid

Arthrology

TYPES OF JOINTS

There are three subdivisions or types of joints:

(1) Synarthroses
(2) Diarthroses
(3) Ampiarthroses

(1) Synarthroses: Joints united by fibrous tissue, cartilage or a mixture of

the two. Often termed immoveable joints. There are four types
of synarthroses:

(A) Suture – applied to the joints of the skull where the

adjacent margins of the bones are interlooked. There are
three types of suture:
(1) Squamous, where the edges overlap – prieto-
temporal joint.
 14
(2) Serrated, where the edges are irregular – Frontal
joint
(3) Harmonious, where the edges are straight – nasal
joint.
(B) Syndeamosis – Where the uniting medium is elastic tissue,
white fibrous tissue or mixture – attachments of costal
cartilages to each other. Intercarpal

(C) Synchondrosis – where the uniting medium is cartilage -

sphenoid and basilar occipital joint. Very few
synchondroses are permanent. Cartilage becomes ossified
making synostoses. Intersternal joints.

(D) Symphisis – applied to joints in the median plane. He

uniting medium is generally ossified cartilage and fibrous
tissue – symphisis pelvis. Mandibular

(2) Diarthroses: Diarthrodial joints are those which possess the following
features:
(1) a joint cavity
(2) a joint capsule with synovial membrane
(3) mobility

Classification of diarthrodial joints:

Moveable joints are classified on the form of the joint surfaces and the
movements which these surfaces allow. There are four chief classes:

(1) Ginglymus - hinge joint, elbow.

(2) Arthrodia - gliding joint, intercarpals.
(3) Trochoid - pivot joint, atlanto-axial
(4) Enarthrosis - ball and socket joint, hip.

(3) Ampiarthroses: Joints which have both synarthrodial and diarthrodial

features – intercentral vertebral joints.

1. Articular surface
2. Articular cartilage
3. Marginal Cartilage
4. Articular/Sticapsule
5. Lig.
6. Meniscu
 15
ARTICULATIONS OF THE BODY

TEMPORO-MANDIBULAR JOINT Between ramus of mandible and squamoous

temporal bone on either side.
Type: Diarthrodial
Movements: (1) Rotation (2) Gliding (3) Retraction
(4) Protrusion (5) Hinge action

Points to Note: The articular surfaces are rendered congruent by an articular

disc.

VERTEBRAE Movable vertebrae form two separate articulations:

(1) Intercentral – Between the bodies
(2) Interneural – Between the articular processes.
 Intercentral articulations are ampiarthroses, the uniting
media being ligaments and fibro cartilaginous discs.
 Interneural articulations are diarthroses.
 Antertransverse ariculations are diarthroses peculiar to
Equidae. They occur between the transverse processes of
5th and 6th lumber, and between the latter and the wings of
the sacrum.
The atlanto-axial articulation is a diarthrodial joint with trochoid
filament.
The atlanto-occipital articulation is diarthrodial with ginglymus
filament.

Proximally ribs from two separate articulations:

(1) Costo – central - between the head of the rib and the two
adjacent bodies of the vertebrae
(2) Costo-transverse - between the facet on the rib tubercle and the
transverse process of the vertebra of the same
number.

Both costo-central and costo-transverse are diarthrodial. The chief contents are
rotation with gliding between the costo-transverse.

COSTO-CHONDRAL The joints between the ribs and rib cartilage are
synarthroses.
In ox and sheep the 2nd to the 11th costo-chondral junctions
are diarthroses.
In Pig the 2nd and the 5th are diarthroses

CHONDRO –STERNAL Between the cartilages of the sternal ribs and the sternum.
They are diarthroses.
 16
st
In the horse the 1 pair of ribs articulates in a common joint
capsule.
There are two important ligaments concerned with this
joint:
(1) Internal-sternal
(2) Radiate costo-sternal.

INTERSTERNAL The joints between the sternal segments commence as

synchondroses, becoming ossified as synostoses.

Comparative notes: Ox/Pig – The 1st sternal segment forms a diarthrodial

joint with the body on the sternum.

THORASIC LIMB ARTICULATIONS

SHOULDER Between head of the humerus and glenoid cavity of the

scapula.
Type: Diarthrodial
Class: Enarthrosis – ball and socket
Movement: Chiefly flexion and extension.

Points to note: Ligaments are absent from this joint. Dislocation is

prevented by:
(1) Muscles and tendons in the region
(2) Size of the head of the humerous.

ELBOW Between distal humeros and proximal radius and ulna.

Type: Diarthrodial
Class: Ginglymus - Hinge
Movement: Flexion and extension.

Points to note:
(1) Joint capsule forms a pouch in the ocleranon fossa.
(2) Synovial membrane is prolonged to the radio-ulnar
joints; also under the origin of the flexors of the
digits, and the lateral flexor of the carpus.

“KNEE” A composite joint between:

(1) Distal radius and ulna ( only radius in the Horse) and
proximal carpals.
(2) Intercarpal.
(3) Distal carpals and proximal metacarpals.
Type: Diarthrodial
Class: Ginglymus and anthrodial
 17
Movement: Flexion and Extension between the radius
and ulna and proximal carpals. The same between distal
carpals and proximal metacarpals. Gliding between
carpals.

Points to note: Synovial membrane forms three sacs corresponding to the three
joints:
(1) Radio-carpal
(2) Intercarpal
(3) Carpo-metacarpal

FETLOCK Between distal metacarpals (metacarpus in the case of the

Horse), proximal 1st phalanx and proximal sesamoids.

Type: Diarthrodial
Class: Ginglymus, arthrodial – hinge gliding
Movements: Flexion and extension. Gliding in case of sesamoids.

The ligaments of the fetlock joints are:

(1) Collaterals – medial and lateral
(2) Intersesamodian, and the S O C (K)S ligament
(3) Short
(4) Oblique
(5) Cruciate
(6) Straight

PASTERN Between distal 1st phalanx and proximal 2nd phalanx.

Type: Diarthrodial
Class: Ginglymus. Hinge
Movements: Flexion and extension (limited)

COFFIN Joint Between 2nd and 3rd phalanges and navicular bone.
Type: Diarthrodial
Class: Ginglymus. hinge
Movements: Flexion and extension

Points to note:
The joint capsule has three diverticuli. The largest extends
proximally to the middle 2nd phalanx. The others project as pouches against the
cartilages of the 3rd phalanx.

G - Ginglymus - Hinge -H
A - Arthroda - Gliding -G
T - Trochord - Pivot -P
E - Enarthrosis - Ball & Socket -B
 18

PELVIC LIMB ARTICULATIONS

A. SACRO – ILIAC Between the auricular surfaces of ilium and sacrum.

Type: Diarthrodial
Class: Arthrodial
Movements: A small amount of gliding.

Point to note: Joint capsule which is tight is reinforced by ventral sacro-

iliac ligament.

B. HIP Between head and femur and acetabulum.

Type: Diarthrodial
Class: Enarthrosis
Movements: All those of a typical ball and socket joint.

Points to note: There three important ligaments concerned with the hip
joint:-
(1) Tranverse acetebular which crosses the notch of the
acetabulum.
(2) Round ligament which runs from the sub-pubic
groove to the fovea on the head of the femur.
In addition, the Horse has an accessory ligament. This runs
from the prepubic tendon to the form just beyond the round ligament.
Otherwise, the acetabelum is deepened by a ring of fibro-cartilage, the:
(3) Cotyloid ligament which is attached to a bony
margin.

C. STIFLE

(1) Femoro-patellar between the trochlea of the femur and the patella.
(2) Femoro-tibial between the condyles of the femur, proximal tibia and the
interposed articular menisci, or semi-lunar cartilages.
(1) Femoro-patellar

Type: Diarthrodial
Class: Arthrodial
Movement: Gliding
Points to note: There are three straight patellarligaments:
(1) lateral,
(2) midldle,
(3) medial.
 19
(2) Femoro-tibial

Type: Diarthrodial
Class: Ginglymus
Movements: Flexion and extension
Points to note: The joint capsule has two synovial sacs.

D. HOCK
A composite joint of three separate articulations:
(1) Tibio-tarsal,
(2) Intertarsal,
(3) Tarso-metatarsal

Type: Diarthrodial.
Class: Ginglymus
Movements: Flexion and extension. Other movements are negligible.
Points to note: The joint capsule has four synovial sacs:
(1) Tibio-tarsal,
(2) Proximal Intertarsal,
(3) Distal Intertarsal,
(4) Tarso-metatarsal.

MYOLOGY

The domestic animals have shoulder girdle. Only the scapula is

well developed. The coracoid element has become fused to the scapula. The clavicle is
either completely absent or is a small rudiment embedded in the braciocephalic muscle.

Because of this, the forelimbs are united to the trunk by muscles.

This union is classified as a synsarcosis.

The muscles making up the synsarcosis are:

(1) Serratus ventralis
(2) Trapezius
(3) Latissimus dorsi
(4) Rhomboid
(5) Superficial pectoral
(6) Omotransverse
(7) Deep pectoral
(8) Braciocephalic
The Horse does not have an omotransverse muscle.
 20

MUSCULATURE OF THE HORSE

A. MUSCLES AFFECTING THE SHOULDER JOINT

I. Extensors
(1) Brachiocephalic
Nerve supply
i) Axillary
ii) Acessory
The brachiocephalic muscle also has a cervical nerve supply.

II. FLEXORS
(1) deltoid
(2) Teres major
(3) Teres minor

Nerve supply Axillary

The latissimus dorsi also helps flexion of the shoulder. Its nerve supply
is the thoraco-dorsal nerve.

FIXERS
(1) Supraspinatus,
(2) Infraspinatus
(3) Subscapular

The Supraspinatus is inserted to both medial and lateral tuberosities of

the humerus.
The infraspinatus is inserted to the lateral tuberosity.
The subscapular is inserted to the medial tuberosity.
The two spinatus muscles are supplied by the suprascapular nerve.
The subscapular is supplied by the subscapular nerve.

IV. ADDUCTORS
(1) Superficial pectoral
(2) Deep pectoral
Nerve supply Pectoral nerves

V. Elevators of Shoulder
(1) Trapezius
(2) Rhomboid
Nerve supply
(i) Trapezius by accessory,
(ii) Rhomboid by 6th and 7th cervicals.
 21

B. MUSCLES AFFECTING THE ELBOW JOINT

I. FLEXORS
(1) Brachialis
(2) Biceps brachii
(3) Coracobrachialis
Nerve supply
(i) Biceps brachii and coracobrachialis and by musculo-
cutaneous,
(ii) Brachialis by median and often radial.
EXTENSORS
(1) Triceps – long, medial and lateral heads
(2) Anconeus
(3) Tensor fasciae antibracii

Nerve supply Radial Nerve.

B. MUSCLES AFFECTING THE CARPUS AND DIGIT

I. Extensors
Broadly speaking all the extensor muscles arise from the coronoid fossa
and lateral spicondyle of the humerus.

(1) Extensor carpi radialis

(2) Extensor digitalis communis
(3) Extensor digiti quinti
(4) Extensor carpi ulnaris

The abductor pollicis longus can be included in this group.

Morphologically the extensor carpi ulnaris belongs to the extensor group
of muscles. Its action is to flex the carpal joint however.

Nerve supply Radial.

II. Flexors
The common denominator for the origin of all the flexors is the radial
epicondyle of the humerus.

(1) Flexor carpi radialis

(2) Flexor carpi ulnaris
(3) Superficial flexor,
i) humeral head
ii) radial head
 22
(4) Deep flexor,
i) Humeral head
ii) Radial head
iii) Ulnar head

Nerve supply Median and ulnar.

There are 14 muscles which have attachment to the scapula:

(1) Biceps brachii (8) Rhomboideus

(2) Capsularis (9) Subscapular
(3) Coracobrachialis (10) Supraspinatus
(4) Deep pectoral (11) Teres major
(5) Deltoid (12) Teres minor
(6) Infraspinatus (13) Trapesius
(7) Long head triceps (14) Serratus ventralis

The muscles which have attachment to the humerus are:

(1) Extensor of shoulder
(2) Flexors of shoulder
(3) Extensors of elbow
(4) Fixers of shoulder
(5) Flexors of elbow
(6) Extensors of carpus and digit
(7) Flexors of carpus and digit

MUSCLES AFFECTING THE HIP

A. Adductors
(1) Gracilis
(2) Adductor femoris
(3) Pectineus
(4) External obturator.

B. Abductors
(1) Superficial gluteal,
(2) Middle gluteal
(3) Deep gluteal

Nerve supply Gluteal nerves

C. Flexors
(1) Sartorius
(2) Ilio-psoas
(3) Quadriceps – i) Medial vast
ii) Lateral vast
 23
iii) Intermediate vast
iv) Rectis femoris
(4) Tensor fasciae latae.

Nerve supply i) Tensor fasciae latae by cranial gluteal,

ii) Others by femoral.

D. Extensors
(1) Biceps femoris
(2) Semitendinosus
(3) Semimbranosus
(4) Quanratus femoris
(5) Internal obturator
(6) Gemellus

Nerve supply Sciatic

MUSCLES WHICH AFFECT THE TARSUS AND DIGIT

A. Extensors

E.D.L (1) Extensor Digitalis longus

P.L. (2) Peroneus longus
E.D.B. (3) Extensor digitalis bravis
P.T. (4) Peroneus tertius
A.T. (5) Anterior tibial

Nerve supply Common peroneal

B. Flexors
(1) Superficial flexor
i) Gastroonemius
ii) Plantaris
(2) Deep flexor
i) Flexor digitalis longus
ii) Posterior tibial
iii) Flexor hallucis longus
Nerve supply Tibial

MUSCLES ATTACHED TO THE ISCHIUM

(1) Abductor femoris (6) Ischial cavernosus

(2) Bulbo-cavernosus (7) Ischial urethral
(3) External obturator (8) Quadratus femoris
(4) Gracilis (9) Retractor ani
 24
(5) Internal obturator (10) Semitendinosus
(11) Semimembranosus
The suspensory ligaments of the penis and the crurae of the penis are also
attached to the ischium.

MUSCLES ATTACHED TO THE ILIUM

(1) biceps femoris (5) Iliacus
(2) External oblique (6) Internal obturator
(3) Gamellus (7) Psoas minor
(4) Gluteals (8) Rectus femoris

MUSCLES ATTACHED TO THE FEMUR

(1) adductor femoris (6) Internal obturator
(2) Biceps femoris (7) Middle and deep gluteal
(3) External obturator (8) Pectineus
(4) Gamellus (9) Quadratus femoris
(5) Ilio-psoas (10) Semimembranosus

FEMORAL CANAL
The femoral canal has the following boundaries:
(1) Anterior – sartorius
(2) Posterir – pectineus
(3) Medial – gracilis
(4) Lateral – ilio-psoas and medial vastus

The contents of the femoral canal are:

(1) Femoral artery
(2) Femoral vein
(3) Saphenous nerve
(4) Deep inguinal lymph nodes

SYNOVIAL SHEATHS AND BURSAE

The synovial bursa is a simple cushion which is placed between a tendon or a
muscle at a point of undue pressure.
A synovial sheath differs from a bursa in that the cushion is folded around a
tendon so that the two layers can be recognized. The two folds are continous along a
single fold termed the mesotendon.
Thus a synovial sheath has three parts:
(1) Exotendon
(2) Endotendon
(3) Mesotendon

FORELIMB

A. BURSAE there are three bursae in the forelimb:

(1) Bicipital
 25
(2) Extensor
(3) Navicular

B. SHEATER Synovial sheaths are found only in distal part of limb. They
begin approximately on a level with upper edge of accessory
carpal and they vary in length thus:

E.C.R. - Short
E.D.C. - long
E.D.Q. - long
E.C.U. - Short
A.P.L. - oblique
F.C.R - short
The F.C.U has no sheath.

CARPAL SHEATH Common sheath enclosing tendons of superficial and deep

flexors. Begins 10 cm above radio-carpal joint and ends at
middle of metacarpus.

DIGITAL SHEATH Encloses deep and superficial tendonds. Begins in distal

fourth of metacarpus and ends at middle of 2nd phalanx.

HIND LIMB
A. BURSAE there are nine bursae in the hind limb:
(1) Piriform
(2) Gluteal
(3) Trochanteric
(4) Patellar
(5) Tibial
(6) Calcanean
(7) Cunean
(8) Extensor
(9) Navicular
B. SHEATHS
E.D.L - short
P.L. - short
A.T. - short
Fused F.H.L. and P.T. - long
F.D.L. - long

HOOF

The skeleton of the hoof is formed by:

(1) Distal part of 2nd phalanx (3) 3rd phalanx
(2) Navicular bone (4) Lateral cartilages
 26

The hoof is described as having:

1. a wall
2. a sole
3. a frog

The corium or matrix of the hoof is the modified, very vascular tissue that
nourishes the horn. There are five matrices in all:
1. Periople ring, which nourishes the periople,
2. Coronary matrix, which nourishes the wall,
3. Laminar matrix, which nourishes the horny laminae,
4. Solar matrix, which nourishes the sole,
5. Cuneate matrix, which nourishes the for.

There are three salient mechanisms in the hoof:

1. Digital torus,
2. Lateral cartilages
3. Frog

The hoof is supplied with blood by the digital arteries. The veins draining the hoof
have no valves.

VASCULAR SYSTEM
The heart is a flattened muscular cone lying in the cardial mediastinum.
It extends three-fifths on the left side under the 6th rib. On an average the heart weights
0.7 % of total body weight.

In the horse:
(1) Apex of heart is handsbreadth above olecranon,
(2) Base of heart lies between 3rd and 6th ribs on a level with 16th rib
cartilage.

Venous blood is carried to the sinus venosus of the right atrium by:
(1) Vena Cava – cranial and caudal
(2) Vena Azygos
(3) Coronary veins – right and left.

Circulation:
Venous blood enters:
1. Right atrium, tricuspid valve,
2. Right ventricle, pulmonary valve
3. Lungs
4. Left atrium, bicuspid valve,
5. Left ventricle, semi lunar aortic valves.
 27
COMPARATIVE NOTES

HORSE: Weight approximately 10 lbs. Cranial border convex. Caudal border

first convex and then concave.
OX: Very fatty. Two bones, the ossa cordis present in aortic fibrous ring.
SHEEP: Pointed apex
PIG: Apex is double
DOG: Apex blunt and rounded. Heart ovoid in shape.

Points to note about the Right Atrium:

There are five chief openings:

1. Cranial caval opening,
2. Caudal caval opening
3. Vena azygos opening
4. Coronary sinus
5. Right atric-ventricle orifice

There are 6 important features:

1. Valve of coronary sinus
2. Musculi pectinati
3. Fossa ovalis
4. Limbus ovalis
5. Intravenous tubercle
6. Crista terminalis

PERICARDIUM
The pericardium is a fibro-serous sac which completely encoses the heart. It
has two layers:
1. Fibrous
2. Serous

The second layer is surrounded by the fibrous layer. The heart lies in an
invagination in the serous layer. In this invagination is a small amount of serous fluid
which is termed liquor pericardii.

The pericardium as a whole consists of two parts:

1. Parietal
2. Visceral

The visceral pericardium covers the heart and part of the great vessels. It is
referred to as epicardium.

Parietal pericardium lines the fibrous layer and is attached to it.

 28

I. ARTERIAL SYSTEM OF THE DOG

AORTA The aorta is the main systemic arterial trunk. It is divided into:
A. Thorasic sorta
B. Abdominal sorta

A. Thorasic aorta is subdivided into:

(1) Ascending aorta

ARISES from left ventricle.
ENDS from becoming aortic arch after giving off
coronary arteries.
BRANCHES – right and left coronary

(2) Aortic arch

BEGINS after origin of coronary arteries
ENDS when vessel comes into contact with vertebral
column.
BRANCHES –
i) Brachiocephalic
ii) Left subclavian

(3) Descending aorta

ARISES as continuation of aortic arch.
ENDS by becoming abdominal oarta at aortic hiatus.
BRANCHES -
i) 9 or 10 Intercostals
ii) 2 or 3 Bronchials
iii) 2 or 3 Oesophageals

B. Abdominal aorta
ARISES as continuation of thorasic aorta at aortic hiatus.
ENDS at the 7th lumbar vertebra by dividing into two
external iliacs, two internal iliacsand a middle
sacral.
BRANCHES :
1. Phrenics
2. Phrenico-abdominal
3. Coeliac
4. Crunial mesenteric
5. Renals
6. Internal Spermatics/utero-ovarian
7. Caudal mesenteric
8. Lumbars
9. Deep circumflex iliacs
 29
10. External iliacs
11. Internal iliacs (Hypogastrics)
12. Middle sacral.

BRACHIOCEPHALIC ARISES from aortic arch in median plane and passes to

thorasic inlet ventral to trachea.
ENDS by dividing into right subclavian and right
common carotid.
BRANCHES –
1. Left common carotid
2. Right subclavian
3. Right common carotid

COMMON CAROTID Right and left common carotids ARISE from

brachiocepahilic. In neck, right lies on trachea, left on
oesophagus.
Both vessels END under wing of atlas.
BRANCHES –
1. thyroids – cranial and caudal
2. Laryngeals
3. External carotid
4. Internal carotid
5. Occipital

EXTERNAL CAROTID ARISES as direct continuation of common carotid.

ENDS by dividing into superficial temporal and internal
maxillary behind postglenoid process.
BRANCHES –
1. Lingual
2. External maxillary
3. Posterior auricular
4. Superficial temporal
5. Internal maxillary

INTERNAL MAXILLARY ARISES from external carotid between digastric and

styloglossal muscles. At anterior border of masseter
muscle, artery turns around ventral border of jaw and
becomes facial. The pulse ca be taken at this point in the
Horse as artery lies directly on bone.
ENDS by becoming facial.
BRANCHES –
1. Sublingual
2. Facial, which divides into an angularis oris
vessel and superior and inferior labials.
 30
INTERNAL MAXILLARY ARISES from external carotid and passes through alar
canal of sphenoid.
ENDS in pterygo-palatine fossa by dividing into
infraorbital and common trunk for greatr palatine and
sphenopalatine.
BRANCHES –
1. inferior alveolar
2. Deep temporal arteries (anterior and posterior)
3. Middle meningeal
4. External ophthalmic
5. Buccinarator
6. Infraorbital
7. Palatine Trunk
8. Sphenopalatine.

INTERNAL CAROTID ARISES from common carotid behind

occipitomandibular muscle. Passes to carotid canal
through foramen lacerum and enters through cranial
cavity.
ENDS lateral to optic chiasm by dividing into anterior
and middle cerebrals.
BRANCHES –
1. Anterior cerebral
2. Posterior communicating branch
3. Middle celebral
4. Circulus arteriosus

OCCIPITAL ARISES as terminal branch of common carotid at

posterior border of digastric muscle.
ENDS by anastomosing with vessel of opposite side and
ramifying in nuchal muscles.
BRANCHES –
1. Condyloid
2. Posterior moningeal
3. Cerebrospinal

SUBCLAVIAN Left ARISES from aortic arch. Right arises from

brachiocephalic.
ENDS at level of first rib by becoming axillary
BRANCHES –
1. vertebral
2. Costoo-cervical trunk
3. Omo-cervical trunk
4. Internal thoracic
5. Axillary
 31

INTERNAL THORASIC ARISES from subclavian at level of 1st rib.

ENDS by dividing into musculo-phrenic and cranial
epigastric. The latter anastomoses with cauda epigastric
from pudendo-epigastric trunk.
BRANCHES –
1. Intercostals rami
2. Perforating branches to pectoral and
transverse thorasic muscles
3. Thymic rami
4. Bronchial rami
5. Mediastinal rami
6. Pericardiaco-prenic
7. Musculo-phrenic
8. Cranial epigastric

AXILLARY ARISES as continuation of subclavian at lateral border

of 1st rib.
ENDS by becoming brachial at distal border of teres
major.
BRANCHES –
1. Pectoral,
2. External thoracic
3. Subscapular
4. Brachial

SUBSCAPULAR ARISES from axillary and passes between subscapular

and teres major muscles.
ENDS by supplying supraspinatus, deltoid, trapezius and
brachiocephalic muscles.
BRANCHES –
1. Anterior circumflex humeral
2. Poaterior circumflex humeral
3. Thoracodorsal
4. Circumflex scapular.

BRACHIAL ARISES as continuation of axillary at distal border of

teres major.
ENDS by becoming median under pronator teres muscle.
BRANCHES –
1. Deep branchial
2. Collateral ulnar (proximal)
3. Collateral dorsal (proximal)
4. Collateral radial (distal)
 32
5. Median

MEDIAN ARISES as continuation of branchial.

ENDS by dividing into radial and ulnar.
BRANCHES –
1. Common interosseus
2. Radial
3. Ulnar

COMMON INTEROSSEUS ARISES from median just below elbow.

ENDS by becoming volar interosseus under cover of
pronator quadratus muscle.
BRANCHES –
1. Dorsal interosseus
2. Volar interosseus

The dorsal interosseus traverses interosseus space between rqaius and ulna and
aids proximal radial collateral and radial artery in formation of dorsal rete
carpus.
The volar interosseus is main contributor to deep volar arch.

RADIAL ARISES as smaller terminal branch of median.

ENDS by dividing into dorsal and volar branches at
carpus. Volar branch contributes to deep volar arch.

ULNAR ARISES as larger terminal branch of median.

Gives off 1st volar metacarpal and ENDS at middle of
metacarpal region by dividing into 2nd, 3rd, and 4th
superficial volar metacarpals.
1st volar unites with corresponding dorsal branch to form
1st common digital. 1st common digital supplies proper
digital branches for 1st and 2nd digits.
Superficial volars anastomose with corresponding deep
volar and dorsal metacarpals at metacarpal-phalangeal
joints to form three common digitals.

COMMON DIGITALS Each common digital divides intgo two proper digitals
which run along opposed surfaces of 2nd to 5th digits.
Lateral digital artery of 5th digit arises from superficial
volar arch which is formed by union of a branch of volar
interosseus and 4th superficial volar metacarpal.

RETE CARPI DORSALES Gives off four dorsal metacarpals which unite with volars
at metacarpo-palangeal joints to form common digitals.
 33
BRANCHES OF ABDOMINAL AORTA

A. COELIAC ARISES from abdominal aorta between lumbar parts of

diaphragm.
ENDS by dividing into three trunks:
1. left gastric
2. splenic
3. hepatic

B. SPLENIC ARISES as branch of celiac.

ENDS by supplying ventral extremity of spleen.
BRANCHES –
1. 5-10 proper hepatics
2. Right gastric
3. Gastroduodenal

GASTRODUODENAL ARISES as termination of heptic.

ENDS by dividing into:
1. Right gastro-epiploic,
2. panccreato-duodenal.

ANASTOMOSES OF COELIAC BRANCHES

(1) Right gastro-epiploic from gastroduodenal with left

left gastro-epiploic from splenic on greater curvature of
stomach.

(2) Right gastric from hepatic with left gastric from

coeliac on lesser curvature of stomach.

(3) Pancreato-duodenal from gastroduodenal with 1st

intestinal from cranial mesenteric.

B.CRANIAL MESENTERIC Arises from abdominal aorta at root of

mesentery.
ENDS by dividing into;-
1) Main trunk for about 15 intestinals,
2) Common trunk for -
i) middle colic,
ii) ileo-caeco-colic,
iii) right colic.

ANASTOMOSES OF CRANIAL MESENTERIC BRACHES

(1) Each intestinal divides on reaching alimentary tube,

and adjacent branches anastomose forming characteristic
 34
arches.

(2) Ist intestinal with duodinal branch of pancreato-duodenal

from gastroduodinal.
(3) Last intestinal with ileac branch of ileo-caeco-colic.
(4) Middle colic from cranial mesenteric with left colic
from caudal mesenteric
(5) Right colic with middle colic.

C. CAUDAL MESENTERIC ARISES from abdominal sorte opposite 5th or 6th

lumber vertebra.
ENDS by dividing into:
1. Left colic
2. Cranial haemorrhoidal

D. EXTERNAL ILIAC ARISES as terminal branch of abdominal aorte

on level with 6th lumber vertebra.
ENDS on level with pectin of pubis by becoming
femoral.
BRANCHES –
1. Fudendo – epigastric trunk,
2. Femoral

PUDENDO – EPIGASTRIC TRUNK ARISES from the external iliac.

ENDS by dividing into:
1. Caudal epigastric,
2. External pudendal
3. Deep femoral

FEMORAL ARISES as continuation of external iliac in

femoral triangle.
ENDS by becoming popliteal between heads of
gastrocnemius
BRANCHES –
1. Lateral circumflex femoral
2. Anterior femoral
3. Saphenous
4. Genu suprema
5. Posterior femoral
6. Popliteal

POPLITEAL ARISES as continuation of femoral between

heads of gastrocnemius.
ENDS on a level with femoro-tibial joint by
dividing into:
 35
1. Anterior tibial
2. Posterior tibial

ARTERIES OF DORSUM OF PETS The arteries dorsal to metatarsus and digits

are derived from:
(1) Saphenous,
(2) Anterior tibial.

Saphenous divides into dorsal and Plantar branches. Dorsal branches furnish:
(1) Ist dorsal matatarsal,
(2) 2nd, 3rd and 4th superficial dorsal
metatarsals.
Superficials divide into two proper digitals at distal extremity of metatarsals.
Anterior tibial furnishes 5th dorsal metatarsal and opposite joint between tibia
and talus becomes dorsal pedal.
Dorsal pedal supplies 2nd, 3rd and 4th deep dorsal metatarsals.
Superfacial and deep dorsal meta-tarsals unite to form common dorsal digital
arteries whose distribution follow the samecourse as the equivalent vessels in
the fore-limb

E INTERNAL ILIAC (HYPOGASTRIC) ENDS on reaching pelvic cavity by

dividing into visceral and parietal trunks.
BRANCHES (Iliolumbar,
(Cranial gluteal,
Parietal (Superfacial lateral artery
of
(the tail,
(Caudal gluteal
Visceral (Internal pudendal

INTERNAL PUDENDAL Represent visceral trunk of internal

A. Branches in Dog
1) Umbilical,
2) Caudal haemorrhoidal,
3) Perineal,
4) Dorsal artery of penis,
5) Deep artery of penis,
6) Artery of urethral bulb.
B. Braches in Bitch
1) Uterine,
2) Vaginal,
3) Caudal vesical,
4) Haemorrhoidal,
5) Perineal.
F. MIDDLE SACRAL Arises from terminal aorta in angle
 36
fr ______________ by the two
internal Iliacs.
ENDS by traversing mid-ventral line of
_______________ sacrum into the tail.

VENOUS SYSTEM OF THE DOG

CAUDAL VENA CAVA DRAINS almost all blood from abdomen,
pelvis and pelvic limbs. Formed by
Confluence of right and left common iliac
veins at 7th lumbar vertebra.
OPENS into posterior part of right
Atrium.
TRIBUTARIES :
(1) Common iliacs,
(2) Lumbars,
(3) Deep circumflex iliacs
(4) Internal spermatics,
(5) Renals,
(6) Phrenico-abdominals,
(7) Hepatics,
(8) Phrenics.

PORTAL VEIN DRAINS intestines, stomach, spleen and

Pancreas. Formed ventral to and to the right of
Origin of coeliac artery by confluence of two
main venous trunks comprising of:
(1) Splenic and gastric
veins,
(2) Cranial and caudal
mesenteric veins.
ENDS by entering the porta of the liver
TRIBUTARIES—
(1) Pancreatics,
(2) Gastro-duodenal,
DRAINS greater part of c hest wall.
Arises as unpaired vessel by union of 1st and 2nd
Lumbar veins and passes into thorax along right
Vertebral bodies.
ENDS by curving towards heart at 6th
Vertebra and opening into cranial vena cava or
Right atrium.
TRIBUTARIES:
(1) Dorsal intercoastal,
(2) Vena hemiazygos,
(3) Oesophageal vein,
(4) Bronchial vein.
 37

LYMPHATIC SYSTEM OF THE OX

The chief collecting trunk of the lymphatic system is the thoracic duct. The
thoracic duct lies on the abdominal roof closely related to the aorta and the start of the
hemiazygos vein. It starts below the 2nd lumbar vertebra as a dilation formed by the
union of the trunks which drain the pelvic limb. This dilation is called the Cisterna
chili. The thoracic duct opens into the origin of the cranial vena cava just behind the
angle of junction of the jugular veins, or into the left common jugular vein.

The chief tributaries of the thoracic duct are-

(1) 1 or 2 lumbar trunks
(2) Intestinal trunk.
In addition to the thoracic duct, the right Lymphatic duct drains the reminder of
the body, Thus :--
(1) Head ,
(2) Neck
(3) Thorax,
(4) Right thoracic limb.

The right lymphatic duct opens into the Cranial vena cava on its own or
anastomoses with the thoracic duct.

GLANDS OF HEAD AND NECK

(1) MANDIBULAR One gland on either side situated between
sterno-cephalic and ventral part of the mandibular
salivary gland.
DRAINS muzzle, lips,cheeks,hard palate,anterior
Part of turbinates,nasal septum,most of
Gums,sublingual and paroted glands, tip of
Tongue,skin of face, mandible,premaxilla,
Nasal bone, and muscles of head except
Tho_______of eye,ear,tongue,and hoyid.
EFFERENTS pass to atlantal.

2. PAROTID Situated on posterior masseter muscle partially

covered by parotid salivary gland.
DRAINS muzzle,lips,gums,anterior turbinates,
nasal septum, parotid salivary gland, eyelid
lacrimal gland, external ear, frontal, nasal, and
premaxillary bones, mandible, of head and most
muscles of head.
 38
3. SUPRAPHARYNGEAL Two glands –right and left situated medial to
great cornu of hyoid between pharynx and ventral
straight muscles of the head.
DRAINS tongue, floor of mouth, hard palate soft
palate, gums, pharynx, sublingual and mandibular
salivary glands, post nasal cavity, maxillary and
palatine ses, larynx and rectus capitis ventral
major.
EFFERENTS unite to form tracheal lymph duct.

4. PARAPHARYNGEAL Situated on lateral wall of pharynx under cover of

mandibular salivary gland.
DRAINS same as atlantal.
EFFERENTS same as atlantal.

5. ATLANTAL Situated ventral to wing of atlas partly covered by

mandibular salivary gland.
DRAINS tongue, salivary glands, gums, cervical thymus,
hyoid and cervical muscles, parotid, mandibular and
suprapharyngeal lymph gland.
EFFERENTS unite in formation of tracheal lymph duct.

6. PTERYGOID Present in most cases on dorso-lateral face of pterygoid

muscle.
DRAINS hard palate and adjacent gums.
EFFERENTS pass mandibular.

7. ANTERIOR CERVICAL 4 to 5 situated on anterior part of trachea along course of

carotid artery.

8. MIDDLE CERVICAL Situated on each side of trachea in middle third of neck.

9. POSTERIOR CERVICAL Situated near thoracic inlet.

DRAINS ventral muscles of neck, oesophagu,
larynx, trachea, thyroid and cervical thymus.
EFFERENTS pass mainly to tracheal lymph ducts
but posterior group may to terminal thoracic duct or
common jugular vein.

10. COSTO – CERVICAL Situated in front of 1st rib lateral to trachea (right
side) and oesophagus (left side) and dorsal to
carotoid artery.
DRAINS muscles of neck and shoulder, coastal
pleura, trachea, intercostals and anterior mediastinal
glands.
 39
EFFERENTS pass to right tracheal duct. Left
pass to terminal thoracic duct.

11. TRACHEAL LYMPH DUCT Right and left formed by confluence of efferent
from atlantal.
DRAINS cervical, costo-cervical, and prescapular
glands.
DUCTS pass along each side of trachea and
oesophagus. Right opens into jugular vein. Left
into terminal thoracic duct or left common jugular
vein.

12. PRESCAPULAR Situated on anterior border of supraspinatus four or

five inches above level of shoulder joint. Covered
by omo-transverse and brachiocephalic muscle.
DRAINS skin of neck,shoulder, part of ventral
and lateral surface of thorax, thoracic
lumb and muscles of shoulder girdle.
EFFERENTS right passes to right tracheal duct.
Left passes to terminal thoracic duct
or left tracheal duct

GLANDS OF THORAX

Thoracic lymph glands are small and numerous. They comprise the following:

1. INTERCOASTALS Situated in dorsal ends of intercostals spaces.

DRAIN inetrcostal and spinal muscles, ventral serrates,
latissimus dorsi, trapezius, subscapular, longus
coli, external oblique, costal pleura, peritoneum,
thoracic vertebrae and ribs.
EFFERENTS pass to mediastinals.

2. DORSAL MEDIASTINALS Situated on each side of thoracic aorta. Right are

related to thoracic duct. Left to hemiazygos vein.
DRAIN as intercostals with addition of diaphragm,
mediastinum, pericardium and intercostals glands.
EFFERENTS pass to thoracic duct or join common duct
from posterior medistinals.

3. VENTRAL MEDIASTINALS Situated on transverse thoracic muscle.

DRAIN costal and mediastinal pleura, diaphragm,
pericardium and ribs.
EFFERENTS unite to form trunk which passes to anterior
sternal.
 40

4. ANTERIOR MEDIASTINALS Situated at thoracic inlet and along oesophagus,

trachea, cranial vena cava and brachiocephalic
trunk.
DRAIN thoracic oesophagus, trachea, thymus, lungs,
pericardium, heart, costal and mediastinal pleura,
first four intercostals and gland on apical
bronchus.
EFFERENTS pass to thoracic duct, right tracheal duct, and
costo-cervicals.

5. POSTERIOR MEDIASTINALS Situated along the oesophagus from aortic arch

backward.
DRAIN oesophagus, lungs, pericardium, medistinnum,
diaphragm, peritoneum, liver and spleen.
EFFERENTS unite to form common trunk which passes to
thoracic duct.
6. DIAPHRAGMATICS Situated at caval foramen and termination of
phrenic nerves.
DRAIN diaphragm and mediastinum
EFFERENTS unite to form common trunk which passes to
thoracic duct.

7. BRONCHIALS Generally three or four are present.

i) Left situated in angle between aortic arch and left
pulmonary artery.
ii) Right situated similarly on the right side
iii) Dorsal and middle may be present above bifurcation
of trachea
iv) Apical situated at origin of apical bronchus
DRAIN lungs, pulmonary gland, thoracic oesophagus and
heart.
EFFERENTS pass to ccommon trunk from posterior
mediastinals, middle mediastinals, or anterior
mediastinals

8. PULMUNARYS Inconstant glands. When present are situ on chief bronchi.

DRAIN lungs
EFFERENTS pass to bronchial and posterior mediastinals.

9. PERICARDIALS Small and variable. Situated on pericardium.

DRAIN pericardium
EFFERENTS pass to dorsal mediastinals, anterior
mediastinal, left bronchial and apical.
 41
10. STERNALS Situated along course of internal thoracic artery. Large at
is termed the anterior sternal.
DRAIN diaphragm, intercostals, deep pectoral, ventral
serrate, straight thoracic and abdominal muscles,
costal and mediastinal pleura, pericardium,
peritoneum, liver, ribs, costal cartilages, sternum
and ventral mediastinals.
EFFERENTS pass toanterior mediastinals or termination of
right tracheal duct or thoracic duct in the case of
the left side.

GLANDS OF ABDOMEN AND PELVIS

Abdominal and pelvic glands are divided into two groups:

A. Parietal
B. Visceral

A. PARIETAL Lie in subserous or subcutaneous tissue and receive afferents

from abdominal and pelvic walls, parts of vicera, and proximal
gland of pelvic limbs.
Parietal glands are:-

1. Lumbars Situated along abdominal aorta and caudal vena cava and
in spaces between lumbar transverse processes.

DRAIN spinal, sublumbar, abdominal and dorsal serrate

muscles, lumbo-dorsal fascia, kidneys, adrenals, peritoneum and
lumbar vertebrae.

EFFERENTS pass to lumbar trunk and cisterna chyli.

2. RENALS Actually belong to lumbar group. Situated on course of

renal vessels.

DRAIN kidneys and adrenals.

EFFERENTS pass to cisterna chyli.

3. COELIACS Situated near coeliac and cranial mesenteric arteries.

DRAIN spleen.

EFFERENTS pass to common trunk for gastrics, intestinal

trunk or to cisterna chyli.
 42
4. INTERNAL ILIACS 6-8 situated in relation to terminal
branches of abdominal aorta .

DRAIN muscles of sublumbar region, pelvis, tail , thigh,

genitalia, kidneys, bladder, urethra, external iliacs, sacral,
ischiatics, deep inguinals, prefemorals and coxaals.

EFFERENTS pass to lumbar trunk.

5. EXTERNAL ILIACS 1 or 2 situated at bifurcation of

ccircumflex iliac of artery.

DRAIN abdominal muscles, deep gluteal, tensor fasciae latae,

peritoneum, pelvic bones.

EFFERENTS pass to lumbar trunk, internal iliacs or deep

inguinals.

6. PARALUMBARS Small and variable in number. Situated under skin

of upper flank.

DRAIN adjacent ski.

EFFERENTS pass to prefemorals and deep inguinals.

7. SUPERFICIAL INGUINALS

i. Bull Situated below prepubic tendon about neck of

scrotum and behind spermatic cord.

DRAIN external genitalia except testicles, skin, medial and

posterior thigh, medial leg.

EFFERENTS pass through inguinal canal to deep inguinals.

ii. Cow Termed supramammary. Usually two on either

side. Situated above posterior border of base of mammary
glands.

DRAIN udder, external genitalia and skin of thigh and leg.

EFFERENTS unite to form 2 or 3 trunks which pass to deep

inguinals.

8. SACRALS Divided into two groups:-

 43
i. Medial sacrals very variable. When present situated on
either side of deep surface of sacro-iliac ligament.

DRAIN pelvic urethra, urethral muscle, root of penis, prostate,

vagina, urethra and coccygeal muscles.

EFFERENTS pass to internal iliacs.

ii. Lateral sacrals when present situated on upper part of

outer sacro-sciatic ligament.

DRAIN deep gluteal, lumbo-dorsal fascia, hip joint, pelvic

bones.

EFFERENTS pass to internal iliacs, and deep inguinals.

9. ISCHIATICS Situated on sacro-sciatic ligament an inch above

lesser sciatic notch.

DRAIN rectum, anus, vulva, root of penis, prostate, bulbo-

urethrals, urethra, urethral muscle, gluteals, biceps femoris,
semitendinosus, internal obturator, gemellus, lumbo-dorsal
fascia, skin of hip and tail, hip joint and popliteals.

EFFERENTS pass to internal iliacs.

B. VISCERAL Lie on the walls of the visceraor in peritoneal folds. They receive
the afferents from the organs with which they are connected.
Ther are two groups:-

1. GASTRICS (Comprise the following glands:-)

i. Atrial,
ii. Right ruminal,
iii. Left ruminal,
iv. Anterior ruminal,
v. Reticular,
vi. Omasal,
vii. Dorsal abomasal,
viii. Ventral abomasal.

2.MESENTERICS (Comprise the following glands:-)

i. Pudendal,
ii. Jejuno-ilial,
iii. Caecal,
iv. Colic,
v. Rectal,
 44
vi.
Pancreatic-intestinal,
vii. Hepatic.

GLANDS OF THORASIC LIMB

1. AXILIARY Situated on medial face of distal teres major on course of vwein

from latissimus dorsi muscle.

DRAINS most muscles of shoulder and arm, trapezeus, latissimus

dorsi, deep and superficial pectorals, fascia of forearm, shoulder, elbow
and carpal joints, scapula, humerus, radius, and infraspinatus gland.

EFFERENTS pass to posterior cervicals.

2. INFRSPINATUS Situated on posterior border of infraspinatus muscle but

generally absent.

3. RHOMBOID Situated under cervical rhomboid but generally absent.

GLANDS OF PELVIC LIMB

1. PREFEMORALS Situated on aponuerosis of external oblique 5or 6 inches above

patella.

DRAIN skin of posterior thorax, abdomen, pelvis, thigh, leg; prepuce,

and tensor fasciae latae.

EFFERENTS pass to deep inguinals or iliacs.

2. DEEP INGUINALS Situated ventral to psaoas minor at angle between

circumflex iliac and external iliac arteries.

DRAIN pelvic limb, abdominal muscles, urinary organs, seminal vesicles,

cremaster muscle, tunica vaginalis, superficial inguinals, external iliac,
sacrals, prefemorals and popliteals.

EFFERENTS pass to lumbar trunk and internal iliacs.

3. POPLITEALS Situated on gastrocnemius between biceps femoris and

semitendinosus.

DRAIN lateral and posterior leg, distal limb, biceps femoris and
semitendinosus.
 45

EFFERENTS pass to deep inguinals and ischiatic or internal iliacs.

4. COXAL Situated in front of proximal quadriceps femoris under tensor fasciae

latae.

DRAINS quadriceps femoris, tensor fasciae latae and prefemoral.

EFFERENTS pass to iliacs or deep inguinals.

FOETAL CIRCULATION

1. UMBILICAL ARTERIES Right and left umbilical arteries arise from internal
iliacs and pass to umbilicus in umbilical folds on
either side of bladder. After birth these vessels
become the round ligaments of the bladder.

2. UMBILICAL VEINS Carry the only arterial blood in the foetus, receiving
that blood from placenta. Enters liver and joins portal
vein. Round ligaments after birth.

3. DUCTUS VENOSUS In ox and dog, the ductus vanosus arises in the liver
from a venous sinus formed by the confluence of
portal and umbilical veins. It short circuits blood from
umbilical vein directly to vena cava.

4. FORAMEN OVALE As lungs are non-functional in foetus pulmonary

circulation is limited. Foramen ovale is opening
between atria of heart enabling blood to bypass lungs.
Foramen is guarded by valve to prevent blood
passing from left atrium to right. After birth foramen
closes becoming fossa ovalis.

5. DUCTUS ARTERIOSUS As pulmonary circulation is limited, blood which enters

pulmonary artery can be bypassed to aorta by the
ductus arteriosus. The vessel joins the left side of the
aortic archand after birth it is transformed into a fibrous
cord termed the ligamentum arteriosum.

NOTES
 46

RESPIRATORY SYSTEM

The respiratory system consists of the following parts:-

1. Nasal cavity,
2. Pharynx,
3. Larynx,
4. Trachea,
5. Bronchi,
6. Lungs.

The nasal cavity opens externally at the nostrils, or external nares. It communicates
behind with the naaso-pharynx through the posterior nares.
The pharynx is common to the passage of food as well as air.
The larynx is the organ of voice. It also regulates the passage of air to and
from the lungs.
The trachea and bronchi are permanently patent conducting tubes.
The lungs ventilate the body.

NASAL CAVITY The nasal cavity is a cylindrical passage enclosed by all the
bones of the face save the mandible. It is open externally at the
nostrils and it communicates posteriorly with the upper parynx
through the posterior nares, or choanae.

The nasal cavity is divided into similar halves by the nasal septum.
The superior and inferior turbinate bones project from the lateral walls and
divide each half into:-

1. Superior nasal meatus,

2. Middle nasal meatus ,
3. Inferior nasal meatus.

The inferior nasal meatus is the only direct passage between the nostrils
and pharynx.
The common nasal meatus is situated between the nasal septum and the
turbinate bones. It is continuous laterally with the other three meatuses.

LARYNX The larynx is a cartilaginous valvular apparatus which connects the

pharynx and the trachea. It has three functions:
(1) to regulate air volume in respiration,
(2) to prevent aspiration of foreign bodies,
(3) to act as the organ of voice.
 47
There are nine cartilages making up the larynx. Of this three are paired
and three are unpaired.

A. Paired cartilages:
1. Arytenoids,
2. Conniculates,
3. Cunieforms.

B.Unpaired cartilages:
1. Epiglottis,
2. Cricoid,
3. Thyroid.

The cavity of the larynx has the following four division:-

1. Aditus -the entrance or pharyngeal aperture. Bounded in front
by epiglottis; behind by arytenoids; laterally by
aryepiglottis folds.
2. Vestibule - laterally has:
i. Ventricular fold
ii. Lateral fold which leads into laryngeal saccule
3. Rima glottidis- bounded on either side by vocal cords.
4. Posterior compartment- continuous with tract.

LIGAMENTS AND MEMBRANES OF LARYNX

1. Crico-thyroid membrane - copies thyroid notch.

2. Thyro-hyoid membrane - connects body of thyroid with body and
thyroid cornua of hyoid.
3. Hyo-epiglottic ligament - from oral surface of epiglottis to body of
hyoid.
4. Thyro-epiglottic ligament - from base of epiglottis to body and medial
surface of laminae of thyroid.
5. Transverse arytenoids ligament- connects bases of arytenoids.
6. Vocal ligament - from vocal process of arytenoids to body of
thyroid.
7. Ventricular ligament - from cuneiform process to lateral surface
vocal process.
8. Crico-tracheal membrane - connects cricoid with 1st tracheal ring.
 48
MUSCLE OF LARYNX

Laryngeal muscles are either-

A. Extrinsic,
B. Intrinsic

A. Extrinsic muscles- there are three extrinsic muscles-

1. Sterno-thyro-hyoid,
2. Thyro-hyoid,
3. Hyo-epiglottic.

B. Intrinsic muscles- there are six intrinsic muscles-

(1) Crico-thyroid - tenses the vocal cords,
(2) Dorsal crico-arytenoid- dilates the rim,
(3) Lateral crico-arytenoid- closes the rim,
(4) Transverse arytenoids- assists closing of rima,
(5) Ventricular- closes the rima and loosens the vocal folds,
(6) Vocal - closes rima and loosens vocal folds,

TRACHEA The trachea is a cartilaginous and membranous tube which extends

from the larynx to the hilus of the lungs where it divides into the left
and right bronchi.
The tracheal rings are composed of hyaline cartilage.Their function is
to keep the trachea permanently patent.

COMPARATIVE NOTES

HORSE: Tracheal rings incomplete dorsally in thoracic region. In cervical

region they overlap dorsally from right to left.

OX/SHEEP: The ends or of the tracheal rings are in opposition,forming a

dorsal ridge in thoracic region. In cervical region they are
incomplete dorsally.

PIG: Tracheal rings overlaps dorsally both in thorax and neck.

DOG: Tracheal rings are slender and U-shaped. The end of the rings do
not meet dorsally so that the trachea has a membranous dorsal
wall.

LUNGS: The lungs are paired structures which occupy the greater part of
thoracic cavity. They accurately moulded to the walls of the
cavity of the neighbouring organs.
A lung is soft and spongy to the touch. It crepitates when pressed.
Its colour is bright pink in life and it floats in water.
 49

A FOETAL LUNG can be distinguished by the following features:

1. It is much smaller,
2. It is firmer to the touch and does not crepitate.
3. It is pale gray in color,
4. It does not float in water.

For description each lung presents:-

1. Two surfaces- cosstal and mediastinal,
2. Two borders- dorsal and ventral,
3. A base,
4. An apex.

The root of the lung is composed of structures which enter or leave the lung at
the hilus on the mediastinal surface. These are:-

1. Bronchus,
2. Pulmonary artery,
3. Pulmonary veins,
4. Bronchial artery,
5. Pulmonary nerves,
6. Pulmonary lymph vessels.

COMPARATIVE NOTES

HORSE: Not divided into lobes by deep fissures.

Right lung has intermediate lobe.

OX/ SHEEP: Divided into lobes by deep interlobar fissures.

Left lung has three lobes:
1. Apical,
2. Cardiac,
3. Diaphragmatic.

Right lung has four lobes:

1. Apical,
2. Cardiac,
3. Diaphragmatic,
4. Intermediate.

Apical lobe of right lung receives 3rd bronchus from trachea

opposite 3rd rib. Lobation is distinctly marked.
 50
PIG: As ox and sheep but left lung can be regarded as having only two
lobes. Diaphragmatic lobe is marked off by a distinct fissure. Anterior to
this apical and cardiac lobes are separately only by cardiac notch.

DOG: Right lung is larger than left. Divided into four lobes by very
deep fissures which extend to root.

PLEURAE: The pleurae are two in number- right and left. They are serous
membranes which line the walls of the thorax and are reflected over the
surface of the lungs. They are in three parts:-
1. Parietal,
2. Mediastinal,
3. Pulmonary.

The pleurae are attached to the structures which they cover by subserous tissue.
In the caase of the parietal pleura which covers the thoracic wall, this subserous tissue
iscalled endothoracic fascia.
The parietal pleura has three lines of reflection:-

1. Vertebral - where costal parietal pleura turns vertbrally to

become mediastinal pleura.
2. Sternal - where costal parietal pleura turns dorsally to
become mediastinal pleura.
3. Diaphragmatic - where the parietal pleura is reflected onto the
diaphragm.

MEDIASTINUM The mediastinum is the space formed at the mid-line by the

apposition of right aand left pleural membranes. It is divided
into three parts:-
1. Precardial,
2. Cardial,
3. Postcardial.

The precardial mediastinum contains:-

1. Trachea,
2. Oesophagus,
3. Blood vessels connecting heart with
i. Head,
ii. Neck,
iii. Thoracic limbs.
4. Termination of thoracic duct,
5. Cardiac and phrenic nerves,
6. Vagus and symphathetic nerves,
7. Recurrent nerves,
8. Thymus,
 51
9. Lymph glands.

Cardial mediastinum contains:-

1. Heart and pericardium,
2. Start of arterial system and end of venous system,
3. Oesophagus,
4. Termination of trachea,
5. Thoracic duct,
6. Phrenic, cardiac and pulmonary nerves,
7. Vagus and symphathetic nerves,
8. Left recurrent nerve.

Postcardial mediastinum contains:-

1. Aorta,
2. Vena azygos,
3. Thoracic duct,
4. Oesophaagus,
5. Vagus and symphathetic nerves,
6. Left phrenic nerve.

DIAPHRAGM The diaphragm is a broad unpaired muscle which forms a

partition between thoracic and abdominal cavities.
It is an organ of respiration and it has the following attachments:-

1. Costal part - cartilages of ribs 8 , 9 and 10. Thereafter

the following ribs at an increasing distance
from their sternal ends.
2. Sternal part - the upper part of the xiphoid.
3. Lumbar part -
a. Right crus:1st to the 5th lumbar vertebrae by means of
the ventral longitudinal ligament.
b. Left crus: similarly to the 1st and 2nd lumbar vertebrae.

The diaphragm is pierced by three foramina:-

1. Aortic hiatus - which transmits:
i. Aorta ,
ii. Vena azygos,
iii. Cisterna chyli.

2. Oesophageal hiatus- which transmits:

i. Oesophagus
ii. Oesophageal branch of gastric artery,
iii. Vagus nerves.

3. Caval foramen- which transmits the vena cava.

 52

NOTES

DIGESTIVE SYSTEM

The digestive system is conveniently divided into:-

1. Alimentary canal,
2. Accessory organs.

1. The alimentary canalextends from the mouth to the anus. It consists of the
following consecutive portions:-
a. Mouth,
b. Pharynx,
c. Oesophagus,
d. Glandular stomach (and in the case of the ruminants, the non-glandular
stomachs as well),
e. Small intestine (duodenum, jejunum, ileum),
f. Large intestine (caecum, colon, rectum).

2. The accessory digestive organs:-

a. Teeth,
b. Tongue,
c. Salivary glands,
d. Liver,
e. Pancreas.

TEETH Teeth are classified according to their form and position as follows:-

1. Incisors - ‘nippers’ implanted in the incisive bone and

the body of the mandible. Ox and sheep
have no upper incisors. The dental pad takes
over their function.
2. Canines - ‘holding’ teeth
implanted behind the incisors in the
interalveolar space.
3. Premolars and molars - grinding teeth forming the sides of the
dental arch. The premolars are anterior.
Molars are found only in permanent
dentition.
 53
The term cheek teeth includes both the premolars and molars.
In horses the first premolar when present is called the wolf teeth.
Carnassial or cutting teeth have three roots. The dog has two pairs of
carnassial teeth :-
1. The last upper premolars.
2. The first lower molars.

A tooth presents for description:-

1. A crown - that portion of the tooth which is covered with enamel.

Popularly, the crown is that part of the tooth which projects
above the level of the gum.
2. A root - that portion of tooth which is covered with cement and is
embedded in the gum.
3. A neck - the line of junction of crown and root.

The teeth of the dog show a very distinct neck. The center of a tooth is
termed the pulp cavity. The pulp cavity is filled with a soft gelatinous mass of
connective tissue-the pulp.

The blood supply of the pulp is derived from:-

Infraorbital and mandibular alveolar branches of the internal maxillary.
The nerve supply is derived from the corresponding branches of 5 th
cranial nerve- the trigeminal.

A primitive tooth is simply a cone. The different types ofdentition of the

animals can therefore be classified according to the amount of development of
the cone. Thus:-

1. Homodont dentition - when all the teeth are similar, as in the

crocodile.
2. Heterodont dentition - when the teeth have undergone differentiation
into molars, premolars, incisors, etc.
3. Bunodont dentition - when several primitive cones come together to
form one tooth as in the cheek teeth of the pig.
4. Lophodont dentition - when the cones become ridges as in the cheek
teeth of the horse.
5. Selenodont dentition - when the ridges become sharp as in the cheek
teeth of the ox.
6. Brachydont dentition - when the enamel of a tooth is restricted to the
crown as in the teeth of the dog. i.e. “short –
crowned” teeth.
7. Hypsodont dentition - when much of the crown is embedded in the
gum as in the cheek teeth of the horse. I.e.
“long-crowned” teeth.
 54

DENTAL FORMULAE

Temporary Permanent

Horse 2(3/3 0/0 3/3 0/0)=24 2(3/3 1/1 3/3or 4/4 3/3)=40/42

OX/ SHEEP 2(0/4 0/0 3/3 0/0)=20 2(0/4 0/0 3/3 3/3)=32

PIG 2(3/3 1/1 4/4 0/0)=32 2(3/3 1/1 4/43/3)=44

DOG 2(3/3 1/1 4/4 0/0)=32 2(3/3 1/1 4/4 2/3)=42

CAT 2(3/3 1/1 3/2 0/0)=26 2(3/3 1/1 3/2 1/1)=30

The fowl has no teeth.

TONGUE The tongue is situated on the floor of the mouth cavity between the rami
of the mandibles. It is supported in a muscular sling formed by the
mylo-hyoid muscles. It is described as having:-
1. A root,
2. A body,
3. An apex.

The dorsum of the tongue refers to the free dorsal surface. The mucous
membrane of the dorsum is papillated. Ther are four main types of papillae:-
1. Filiform,
2. Fungiform,
3. Foliate,
4. Valate.

The last three types of papillae bear taste-buds.

The blood supply of the tongue is achieved by paired lingual and sublingual
arteries which are branches of the external maxillary artery.
The motor nerve supply of the tongue is from the hypoglossal nerve.
The sensory nerve supply is from two sources-

1. The lingual which is a branch of the mandibular nerve supplies the

anterior two thirds.
2. The glossopharyngeal nerve supplies the posterior third.

COMPARATIVE NOTES
 55
Horse: Shaped like spatula.
Two distinct vallate papillae on posterior part of dorsum, flanking the
mid-line.

Ox: Posterior half of dorsum is prominent and marked off by transverse

depression –lower linguae
Papillae on prominence are distinct. They are termed lenticular papillae.
Filiform and conical papillae are keratinized and directed backwards.
They give a rough, prehensile surface to the tongue.

Sheep: As ox but tip is more blunt and posterior prominence not so well
marked.
No conical papillae but les keratinied filiform papillae are numerous at
tip.

Pig: Narrow and pointed, with a thin apex.

Long, backward-pointing papillae on root.

Dog: Wide, thin a mobile. Marked by median grooves.

Long backward pointing papillae on root.
Inferior part of tip has cord of fibrous tissue- the lyssa.

SALIVARY GLANDS The term salivary glands refers to three pairs of large
gland situated on the sides of the face and the adjacent part of the neck. These glands
are:-

1. Parotid,
2. Submandibular,
3. Sublingual,

The salivary glands are classified according to their type of secretion. Thus:-

1. Serous,
2. Mucuos,
3. Mixed.

Points to note:
1. The parotid is serous except in the dog where it mixed.
2. the submandibular is mixed.
3. the sublingual is mixed.
4. the zygomatic or orbital gland in the dog is an accessory salivary gland
situated in the anterior part of the pterygopalatine fossa. It is mixed.

Salivary Gland Ducts:

 56
rd
Parotid duct opens opposite 3 upper cheek tooth at salivary papillae.
Submandibular duct opens opposite the lower canine teeth at sublingual
caruncle.
About thirty short sublingual ducts open through small papillae on sublingual
fold.
One major and three or four minor zygomatic ducts in dog open near the last
upper cheek tooth.

SOFT PALATE The soft palate is a musculo-membranous curtin which separates

the mouth cavity from the pharynx.

The soft palate is described as having:-

1. a base,
2. a free border,
3. two surfaces, oral and aboral (nasal).

The anterior pillars are two short, thick folds which run from the free boder of
the oral surface to either side of the tongue.
The posterior pillars run from the free boder of the aboral surface to meet over
the commencement of the oesophagus. Between the diverging anterior and posterior
pillars is the tonsillar sinus, which houses the tonsil.
The soft palate has three intrinsic muscles and one extrinsic:-

A. Intrinsic:
1. levator veli palatini,
2. tensor veli palatini,
3. palatinus.

B. Extrinsic:
1. palato- pharyngeous.

COMPARATIVE NOTES

HORSE Divided into equal portions by the central raphe.

The palatine ridges or rugae extend the whole length of the palate.

OX Anterior portion forms the prominent dental pad.

The rugae extend only two thirds of the length of the palate.
All but the last few are serrated on their free borders.

SHEEP Can be distinguished from OX by the fact that the rugae are hot
serrated. The openings of the naso-palatine ducts form a
prominent V on either side of the central incisive papilla.
 57
DOG Long and narrow and equal in width throughout. Both rugae and
median raphe well marked. Incisive papilla is prominent
anteriorly.
Widest about the 4th cheek tooth. Median raphe usually replaced
by a ridge.

OESOPHAGUS The oesopahagus is a musculo-membranous tube extending

from the pharynx to the stomach. It is considered as having
three portions:
1. Cervical
2. Thoracic
3. Abdominal

COMPARATIVE NOTES

HORSE Voluntary as far as the base of the heart.

OX/SHEEP Easily dilatable and voluntary throughout.

PIG Voluntary till last few inches near the cardia.

DOG Voluntary throughout. Constricted ventrally at origin by thick

layer of mucous glands. This constrictions is is known as the
isthmus cesophagi.

GLANDULAR STOMACH The glandular stomach is a muscular sac situated

between the oesophagus and the small intestine. It is
described as having:
1. Two surfaces – parietal and visceral
2. Two curvatures – greater and lesser
3. Two extremities – right and left
4. An entrance – the cordia, which is to the left
5. An exit – the pylorus, which is to the
right. The pylorus is guarded by the pyloric
sphincter.

The stomach in position as follows:

1. By pressure of surrounding organs.
2. By the oesophagus
3. By the five peritoneal folds:
a. Gastro-PHRENIC
b. Gastro-SPLENIC
c. Gastro-PANCREATIC
d. Gastro-OMENTUM
e. Lesser OMENTUM
f. Greater OMENTUM
 58
COMPARATIVE NOTES

HORSE Average capacity – 3 gallons

Non-glandular mucous membrane is separated from glandular by an
irregular ridge called the margo plicatus.
The non-glandular left extremity in the HORSE is termed as the
caecus.

PIG Average capacity – 2 gallons.

The left extremity has a blind pouch – the diverticulum ventriculi.
A pominence of fat and fibrous tissue projects into the pylorus from
the wall of the lesser curvature – the torus pyloricus

DOG Average capacity – 4 pints.

Pear-shaped and distensible.

The ruminant stomach (and that of Ox and Sheep) is compound as

compared to the simple stomach of the other domestic animals. It consists of four
parts:
1. Rumen
2. Raticulum
3. Omasum
4. Abomasum

The rumen, reticulum and omasum are in fact dilations in the wall of the
abdominal oesophagus. They are termed preventiculi. The mucous membrane of their
interior is covered with stratefied squamous epithelium and thus they are non-
glandular.
The abomasums represents the true glandular stomach known as the atrium
ventriculi. The atrium ventriculi is situated at the vertebral extremities of the 8 th and
9th ribs, slightly to the left of the mid-line.

RUMEN Occupies most of the left half of the abdominal cavity from the 7th
intercostals space of the pelvic inlet.
The mucous membrane of the rumen possesses prominent papillae.
These papillae vary in form. They are foliate, filiform or club-
shaped.

RETICULUM The most anterior and smallest of the non-glandular stomach.

The greater part lies on the left side of the median plane opposite
ribs 6,7 and 8.
The mucous membrane of the interior is thrown into ridges forming
the typical honeycomb appearance.
 59
th th
OMASUM Lies chiefly on the right side of the mid-line from the 7 to the 11
ribs.

ABOMASUM An elongated sac which lies chiefly on the abdominal floor. The
anterior and or fundus is the xiphoid region

The rumen functions as the fermentation trap for the digestion of

herbivorous foods.

In order that liquids such as milk can be carried to the omasum and thence to
the glandular stomach without having to go through the rumen, or the other
proventriculi, two muscular lips form a channel that is continuous with the oesopahgus.
This channel is termed as oesophageal groove.

The oesophageal groove begins at the cardia. It passes ventrally on the medial
wall of the atrium and reticulum. It ends at the reticulo-omasal orifice. From there it is
continued to the abomasumby the omasal groove.

The oesophageal groove begins at the cardia. It passes ventrally on the medial
wall of the atrium and reticulum. It ends at the reticulo-omasal orifice. From there it is
continued to the abomasums by the omasal groove.
The oesophageal groove has a spiral course as follows:
B backwards
C cutwards
D downwards
F forwards
I inwards

COMPARATIVE NOTES

SMALL INTESTINES The small intestine is a tube which connects the

stomach with the large intestine.
It commences at the pylorus and consists of:
1. a fixed part – the duodenum,
2. a mesentric part – jejunum and ileum
3.
The mesentric part of the small intestine is connected with the dorsal
abdominal wall by a double layer of peritoneum termed the common mesentry.
The rot of the common mesentry is attached to a point close to the origin of the
cranial mesentric artery under the 1st and 2nd lumbar vertebrae.
The interior of the small intestines has the following features:
1.Villi - projections on the surface of the mucous mem-
brane which help to increase the surface area.
4. Peyer’s patches – scattered nodules of lymphoid
tissue.
 60
DUCTS OF SMALL INTESTINE

Gall bladder has a single cystic duct.

Lobar ducts from the liver form hepatic duct.
Cystic duct joins hepatic duct to form bile duct.

Pancreas has two ducts:

(1) Dorsal or accessory,
(2) Ventral.
Pancreatic and bile ducts open in the duodenum.

COMPARATIVE NOTES

HORSE: 70 feet in length

About six inches from the pylorus, the duodenum has a pouch
the diverticulum duodeni.
The ventral pancreatic and hepatic ducts open in the diverticulum
duodeni. The dorsal or accessory pancreatic duct opens on a
small papilla opposite the diverticulum.

OX: 130 feetin length.

Duodenum commences with a sigmoid flexure. The vile duct
opens in ventral part of the S. Noe ventral pancreatic duct. The
dorsal pancreatic duct opens 1 foot from the pylorus.

PIG 60 feet in length.

Bile duct opens 2 inches from pylorus. A single pancreatic duct
opens 5 inches beyond this.

DOG 13 feet in length.

Bile duct and ventral pancreatic duct opens 2 inches beyond
the pylorus. The dorsal pancreatic duct opens 2 inches further
back.

LARGE INTESTINE The large intestine extends from the termination of the ileum to
the anus.
It has much greater diameter than the small intestine.
It often has longitudinal bands running along the outside
termed taenia. The sacculationss caused by the constrictions of
the taenia are called haustra.
 61

The large intestine has the following parts:

1. Caecum – usually situated on the right side.
2. Colon
3. Rectum

It should be noted that only the Horse has a large and small colon.

Bile Duct Pancreatic Joint

H + Ventral -
O Ventral Dorsal -
S Ventral Ventral + (common)
P + Single -
D Ventral Dorsal -

COMPARATIVE NOTES

HORSE: 4 Taenia, 5 Haustia – 4 feet long.

A. Caecum: A blind, comma-shaped sac. Is approximately 4 feet

long, situated to right of median plane. Described as
having:
1. a body
2. a base
3. an apex

The apex lies on the abdominal floor about 4 inches from the xiphoid
cartilage. The caecum has four taenia which cause four rows of sacculations or haustra.

B. COLON 10 feet

Large Colon: Commences at the base of the caecum and

terminates under the left kidney by becoming
small colon.
Approximately 10 feet in length, it consists of
four parts that are named according to their
position.
1. Right ventral colon
Ventral colon diaphragmatic flexure
2. Left ventral colon
Pelvic flexure
3. Left dorsal colon
Dorsal diaphragmatic flexure
4. Right dorsal colon
 62
C. SMALL COLON

Commences at the termination of the large colon

behind the saccus caecus of the stomach and is
continued at the pelvic inlet as rectum.
Approximately 12 feet in length and 4 inches in
diameter.
Have two taenia and two rows of haustra.

D. RECTUM

Extends from the pelvic inlet to the anus. And its

termination has a flask-shaped dilation, the ampulla
recti.

OX/SHEEP The caecum of the Ox and Sheep has no taenia or haustra.

The colon is in two parts:
1. Spiral portion – ansa spiralis
2. Terminal portion – ansa distalis

In the spiral portion on the colon is arranged against the right

flank in double elliptical coils between the mesentery.
The coils are alternately centripetal and centrifugal.
Centripetal and centrifugal coils are attached to each other by
areolar tissue.
There is no ampula in the rectum.

PIG The caecum is cylindrical. It is on the left side and three taenis.
The colon is arranged in three close, double spiral coils in the
mesentery which reach the floor of the abdomen.

DOG The caecum has the spiral twist. It is small and fingerlike.
The colon is in three parts:
1. ascending
2. transverse
3. descending

At the junction of rectum and anus are found:

1. Anal glands
2. on either side – paranal sinus and glands. Further back the
skin has the circumanal glands.
 63

LIVER
The liver is the largest gland in the body. It is situated obliquely
against the visceral surface of the diaphragm. It is described as
having:
1. a parietal surface
2. a visceral surface
3. a circumference consisting of dorsal
ventral and lateral borders

Two deep fissures divide the liver into three lobes:

1. central
2. left lateral
3. right lateral
The left lobe is simple. The right lobe bears the caudate process
and an omental or popillary process.

LIVER (con’t)
There is a depression about the the middle of the visceral surface
of the liver termed porta.
The following structures enter the porta:
1. Porta vein
2. Hepatic artery
3. Hepatic plexus of the nerves.

The following vessels leave the porta:

1. Duct
2. Lymphatics

The liver has 6 ligaments:

1. coronary
2. palciform
3. round
4. left triangular Absent in pig
5. caudate

COMPARATIVE NOTES

HORSE No gall bladder

OX Not divide into lobes.

Deep umbilical notch on right border.
Well-marked renal notch.
Caudate process is visible from the parietal surface.
 64

SHEEP As Ox but caudate process not visible from parietal surface.

Bile duct joins pancreatic duct to form common bile duct.

PIG Parenchyma has a Morocco leather appearance.

Well-divided into four main lobes.
Caudal vena cava embedded in parenchyma.
No renal impression.
Gall bladder is sank in fossa

DOG Parietal surface is extremely convex.

Gall bladder visible on parietal surface.

PANCREAS The pancreas is both an endo- and an exocrine gland. It is

described as having:
1. Two surfaces - dorsal and ventral
2. Three borders – right, left and posterior
3. Three angles – duodenal, splenic and right.

COMPARATIVE NOTES

HORSE Has dorsal and ventral ducts. The ventral duct is the larger. It
enters duodenum accompanied by bile duct at diverticulum
duodeni.
The dorsal or accessory duct ends on papailla opposite
diverticulum duodeni.

OX Quadrilateral in shape. Has only a dorsl duct which enters the

duodenum one foot after the bile duct.

SHEEP Only ventral duct persists. It unites with hepatic duct and enters
duodenum as common bile duct.

PIG Tri-radiate in shape. Has single duct.

DOG Comprised of right and left branches which meet at acute angle
behind pylorus.
Two ducts present.

SPLEEN The spleen belongs to the reticulo-endothelial system. It is an

encapsulated organ which is situated to the left of the median
plane in close relation to the left part of the greater curvature of
the stomach or the rumen in the case of the Ox and Sheep. It
presents for description:
 65
1. Two surfaces – parietal and visceral
2. Two borders – anterior and posterior
3. Two extremeties – dorsal (base) and ventral (apex)

The spleen is attached by:

1. Hilus
2. Gastro-splenic omentum from hilus to left part of greater
curvature of stomach, and in the case of the Horse –
3. Suspensory ligament from the base to the left crus of diaphragm
and left kidney.

COMPARATIVE NOTES

Horse Triangular in shape. Suspensory ligament present.

Ox Elongated with thin rounded extremeties.

Short hilus. Nos suspensory ligament.

Sheep As of Ox but triangular in shape.

Pig Strap-like. Long hilus.

Dog Falciform, long and narrow. Hilus is longitudinal ridge.

PERITONUEM The peritoneum is a thin serous membrane which lines both the
abdominal and pelvic cavities. It has two layers which are
continuous with each other:-

1. Parietal, lines the walls of the cavities and extends into diverticuli such
as the scrotum.
2. Visceral, covers the vicera either totally or partially.

Connecting folds of peritoneum are termed:

1. Omenta,
2. Meseteries,
3. Ligaments.

An omentum is a fold which passes from the stomach to other viscera.

There are three of these:-
1. Greater omentum passes from the greater curvature of the stomach and
from the spleen to the termination of the large colon and the origin of
the small colon. Its course encloses potential cavity termed omental
bursa. The foramen of the Winslow links the omental bursa with
peritonea cavity.
 66
2. Lesser omentum passes from the leeser curvature of the stomach to the
liver.
3. Gastro-splenic omentum, which is part of the greater omentum,
extends from the greater curvature of the stomach to the spleen.

A mesentery is a fold of peritoneum which attaches the intestine to the dorsal

wall or the abdomen. Generally there are two mesenteries:-

1. Common mesentery connects most of the small intestine to the

abdominal roof.
2. Mesocolon attachés the colon to the abdominal roof.

Ligaments are reflections of peritoneum not directly concerned with conducting

vessels and nerves.
Pelvic peritoneum is continuous with that of abdomen. Colic mesentery is
continued as mesorectum.
The genital fold contains the right and left seminal vesicle, ductos deferens and
uterus masculinus in the male, and the uterus in the female where it is termed the broad
ligament.
The middle and lateral umbilical folds of the bladder are also peritoneal in
nature.

DISSECTION OF THE ABDOMEN

The organs on the first opening up the abdomen are:

Horse: 1. Caecum
2.Right ventral colon
3. Left ventral colon
4. Ventral diaphragmatic flexure
5. perhaps small intestine
6. Perhaps small colon

Ox/Sheep 1. Ventral sac of rumen

2.Abomasum
3. Reticulum
4. Dorsal sac of rumen and posterior dorsal blind sac
5. Small intestine
6. Spiral portion of large intestine.

Pig 1. Liver
2.Stomach
3.Spleen
4. Colon
5. Apex of caecum
6. Small intestine
7. Bladder
 67
Dog After removal of greater omentum: -
1. Liver
2. Stomach
3. Spleen
4. Small intestine
5. Bladder, if full.

URINARY SYSTEM

The urinary system consists of: -

1. Kidneys
2. Ureters
3. Bladder
4. Urethra

1. Kidneys Each kidney presents the following for description:

a. Two surfaces – dorsal and ventral
b. Two borders – Medial and lateral
c. Two poles – anterior and posterior

COMPARATIVE NOTES

HORSE Right is heart-shaped; Left is bean-shaped.

Renal papillae fused to form renal crest.

OX Lobulated. No renal pelvis. Minor calyces embrace the renal

papillae; lead into major calces and so into ureter.

SHEEP Bean-shaped. Renal papillae fused to form renal crest. Renal crest
has two projections – dorsal and dorsal buttresses.

PIG Bean-shaped. Renal pyramids are fused but their papillae are
separate. Minor calyces embrace papillae, lead into major calyces
and thence into ureters.

DOG Ben-shaped. Renal pyramids fused into renal crest. Renal crest
projects into distinct renal pelvis.

Stellate veins are subscapsular erenal vessels found in the kidneys of

Felidae

2. Ureters The ureters are the narrow mascular portions of the excretory ducts
of the kidneys.
Each ureter leaves the renal pelvis and ends by penetrating the dorsal
wall of the bladder at an oblique angle. The end of the ureters are
 68
valved. Both the valve and the oblique angle of entrance prevent
regurgitation.

3. Bladder The bladder is a hollow, piriform muscular sac lying on the pelvic
floor. According to its distension it can extend onto the ventral
abdominal wall.
It is described as having:-
1. a body – the main part of the bladder having
a dorsal and ventral surface.
2. a neck – the constricted portion of the bladder
continuous posteriorly with the urethra.
3. a fundus – the blunt, flask-shaped anterior extremity.

POINTS TO NOTE:

1. The sentrum is a scar on the fundus which indicates the foetal

attachment of the urachus
2. The trigone is a triangular area in the vicinity of the neck. It is formed
by modified mucous membrane. It is especially sensitive to pressure.

The bladder is kept in position by three peritoneal folds:-

1. Middle umbilical fold
2. Two lateral umbilical folds.

The two lateral umbilical folds contain in their free borders the round
ligaments. The round ligaments are the remains of the foetal umbilical
artery.

4. Urethra The urethra commences at the neck of the bladder and terminates at
the exterior.

a. Male Urethra Common to both urinary and genital systems. It is

divided into two parts:
1. Pelvic – from bladder to ischial arch
2. Extra-pelvic – from ischial arch to glans penis

b. Female urethra Short and dilatable. Runs on the floor of the pelvis to
open on the floor of the vagina.

Ox and sheep have a blind pouch, the sub-urethral diverticulum

situated beneath the external urethral urifice.
 69
GENETAL SYSTEM

A. Male

The external male genital organs are:

1. Testis
2. Epididymis
3. Ductus deferens
4. Extra-pelvic urethra
5. penis

The internal or accessory genital organs are:

1. Bulbo-urethral glands
2. Seminal vesicles
3. Prostate.

TESTES Testes are paired ovoid structures which are compressed laterally.
They lie in their own compartment in the scrotum, suspended by
their own ductus deferens.

Each is described as having:-

1. Two surfaces – medial and lateral
2. Two borders – free and attached
3. Two extremeties – cranial and caudal

The blood supply of the testes is derived from the internal spermatic artery
which is a branch of the abdominal aorta.
Nerve fibers arrive by way of the ileo-inginal and genito-femoral nerves.

COMPARATIVE NOTES

HORSE Long axis of testicle is nearly horizontal

BULL/RAM Long axis testicle is vertical

PIG Long axis is directed upwards and backwards

DOG Small and oval in shape. Long axis is oblique.

EPIDIDYMIS The epididymis lies along the attached border of the testis. It has
the following features:-
1. A HEAD
2. A body
 70
3. A tail

The tail is continued by the ductus deferens. It is attached to the caudal

extremity of the testis by the ligament of epididymis

DUCT SYSTEM OF TESTIS

The pyramidal spaces marked off by the septa which divide the testis into
lobules contains the seminiferous tubules. Seminiferous tubules eventually lead into
the ductus deferens as follows:
1. Seminiferous tubules – a. Tubuli contorti b. tubuli recti
c. rete testis
2. Efferent tubules – which enter the head of epididymis
3. Epididymic duct – which leaves the tail of the epididymis
4. Ductus deferens

DUCTUS DEFERENS The ductus deferens is a muscular tube which entends

from the tail of the epididyms to the pelvic urethra. In
the region of the bladder it dilates to form the flask-
shaped ampulla, which is the only glandular portion of
the tube.

SPERMATIC CORD The spermatic cord consists of the structures carried

down by the testicle on its migration through the
inguinal canal from the abdominal cavity of the
scrotum.

The constituents of the cord are as follows:-

1. Spermatic artery
2. Spermatic veins which form the pampiniform plexus
about the artery
3. Lymphatics
4. Symphatetic nerves
5. Internal cremaster muscle
6. Visceral layer of the Tunica vaginalis
7. ductus deferens

INGUINAL CANAL The inguinal canal starts at the internal inguinal ring and
runs ventro-medially and a little forwards to end at the
external inguinal ring.

The boundaries of the internal ring are:

A. Male
1. Spermatic cord
2. Tunica vaginalis
 71
3. External cremaster muscle
4. External pudendal artery
5. Inguinal lymph vessels and nerves

B. Female
1. External pudendal vessels
2. External pudendal nerves

The inguinal canal of the bitch also lodges round ligament of the uterus,
enclosed in its process of the peritoneum.

PENIS The penis is a highly epectile organ enclosing the extra-

pelvic urethra. It extends forwards from the ischial arch to
end in the umbilical region on the ventral surface of the
abdomen.

The penis consist of a;

1. ROOT
2. BODY
3. GLANS.

There are three erectile bodies in the penis:

1. A corpus cavernosum penis which arises from each side
of the ischial arch.
2. A corpus cavernosum urethrae which forms a tube
around the urethra and its continuous anteriorly with the
glans penis
3. Corpus spongrosum penis

The penis is supplied with blood by three arteries:

1. Internal pudendal
2. Obturator
3. External pudendal

The nerves are derived from the pudendal nerves and the pelvic plexus of the
sympathetic system.

COMPARATIVE NOTES

HORSE Accessory sex glands complete.

OX Penis has sigmoid flexure behind scrutom

Glans long and twisted.

SHEEP Urethral process on glans is elongated into vermiform appendages.

 72

PIG Penis has sigmoid flexure in front scrutom. No glans.

DOG Bulbo-urethral glands and seminal vesicles absent.

Only prostate present.
Corpus cavernosum penis is ossified anteriorly forming os penis.

B. FEMALE The female organs are:

1. Ovaries
2. Oviducts
3. Uterus
4. Vagina
5. Vulva
6. Mammary glands.

OVARIES The ovaries are small ovoid organs which are related to
the abdominal roof above and the intestines below.
They present description:
1. Two surfaces – medial and lateral
2. Two borders – free and attached or nesovarial
3. Two extremities – tubal anterior and uterine or
posterior.

The free border of the ovary of the mare is marked by a notch which leads into a
narrow depression- the ovulation fossa.
The blood supply of the ovary is a direct branch of the oarta. Nerves are
sympathetic.

OVULATION Ova develop inside Graafian follicles. When a Graafian

follicle is mature it ruptures. The ovum is shed into the
abdominal cavity of the fimbriae direct it into the lumen of
the oviduct. Under the action f the muscles of the oviductand
also the cilated epithelium of its inner surface, the ovum
passes down to the uterus.
Fertilization of the ovum generally occurs in the upper
oviduct.
After the escape of the ovum, the ruptured Graafian follicle undergoes
several other stages:
1. Corpus rubrum – follicle is filled with blood clot,
2. Corpus llutaum - follicular cells invade the clot and
become lutein cells
3. Corpus albicans – fibrolast cells invade corpus luteal
tissue into scar tissue.
 73
Points to note: 1. Corpus luteum spurium: When fertilization does not
occur, corpus luteum degenerates as corpus luteum of the
next ovulation cycle develops.
2. Corpus luteum of pregnancy: When fertilization occurs,
degeneration of the corpus luteum is delayed, usually
until parturiticu but not necessarily this long. The corpus
luteum of pregnanacy of corpus luteum verum functions
as an endocrine organ.
4. Corpora lutea project from the surface of the ovary of
cow and sow. They do not project in the mare.

UTERUS The uterus is a hollow muscular organ which is continuous

with the oviducts anteriorly, and with the vagina posteriorly.
It is situated for the most part in the abdominal cavity but
extends a short distance into the pelvic cavity.
It consists of:
1. a body
2. two horns
3. a neck or cervix

The attachments of the uterus are:

1. The broad ligaments which extend from the sublumar
region and the lateral pelvic walls to the dorsal border
of the cornua and the lateral amrgns of the body.
2. The round ligaments which arise from the lateral
folds of the broad ligaments and blend with the
parietal peritoneum over the internal inguinal ring.

The blood supply of the uterus is derived from the uterine and the uterine
branch of the utero-ovarian artery.
Nerves are synphathetic.

COMPARATIVE NOTES

MARE Cornua slightly curved, or nearly straight.

Both dorsal and ventral fornices present in vagina.

COW Cornua have slightly spiral twist

Cotyledons are convex
Dorsal fornix only.

EWE Cotyledons are umbilicate.

SOW Cornua are very long.

 74
BITCH Cornua are straight and shaped like Y.
Cervical canal is at an angle.
Round ligaments pass through inguinal canal enveloped by
peritoneal pouch.

PLACENTATION

In pregnancy, the allanto-chorion of the developing foetus is applied to the

mucous membrane of the uterus. Placentae are classified according to:-
1. The amount of erosion of maternal tissue.
Thus:- i. deciduate – erosion
ii. non-deciduate – no erosion

2. Whether they are totally or partially applied to the uterine mucusa. Thus:
i. diffuse – totally applied
ii. non-diffuse – supplied only in part.

When a placentae is non-diffuse it is sub-classified according to the shape of its

area of application.
Thus:-
1. Cotyledonary: applied by buttons or cotyledons as in Ox and Sheep.
2. Zonary: applied in a band or zone as in Cat and Bitch.

COMPARATIVE NOTES

1. MARE: Diffuse, non-deciduate

SOW: Diffuse, epitheliochorial

2. BITCH: Deciduate, non-diffuse (zonary)

CAT: Zonary, non-endotheliochorial

3. COW: Non-deciduate, non-diffuse (cotyledonary).

EWE:

MAMMARY GLAND
Mammary glands are highly modified cutaneous glands. Each gland
consists of:
(1) A body , which is the glandular portion,
(2) A papilla or teat.

DUCT SYSTEM
 75
The body of the mammary gland is divided into lobes and lobules. The
parenchyma of the lobules consists of secretory tubules and alveoli. These tubules
unite to form ducts as follows:
(1) Alveoli and tubules,
(2) Intralobular ducts,
(3) Lactiferous ducts,
(4) Lactiferous sinus, which is at base of teat,
(5) Teat canal.

Points To Note:
(1) The lactiferous sinus is termed the milk cystern.
(2) The teat canal is termed the streak or milk canal.
It is guarded by circular plain muscle of fibres-
the teat sphincter.

The arteries of the mammary gland are derived from the external pudendal
artery. This vessel enters the gland at the posterior part of the base.
The mammary veins form a plexus on either side of the base of the udder.
Blood is carried from this circle by three trunks:
(1) Milk vein (subcutaneous abdominal vein) which
Joins the internal thoracic vein,
(2) External pudendal vein,
(3) Perineal vein which joins the internal pudendal
vein.

The nerve supply of the mammary is derived from the inguinal nerves and
the posterior mesentric plexus of the sympathetic.

COMPARATIVE NOTES

MARE: Two glands in prepubic region on either side of mid-line.

Teats have 2-4 canals
COW: Two glands of two quarters each. Base of each gland is attached to
abdominal
Wall by suspensory apparatus which is attached to the pelvic symphysis.
Teats have one canal.
EWE: Two glands. Teats have one canal.
SOW: Either 10 or 12 glands arranged in two rows. Glands are either pectoral,
Abdominal or inguinial according to their position. Teats have two or
three
Canals.
BITCH: Usually ten glands. Teats have 8-20 canals.
 76
ENDOCRINE GLANDS
Endoctrine glands, as opposed to exocrine glands which secrete by way of
ducts, have no duct system. They are glands of internal or humeral secretion, which are
further characterized by the fact that:
(1) They are a typical epithelial bodies,
(2) They rarely secrete onto a mucous surface,
(3) Their products are passed directly into the
blood and lymph streams,
(4) They have a profuse blood supply, the venous
side consisting of sinusoids and extra wide
capillaries.

Endoctrine glands occur in three basic patterns:

(1) As separate entities, recognizable as distinct
organs-thyroid; adrenal.
(2) As secretary masses embedded in the
parenchyma of an exocrine gland- pancreatic
eyelits; intertitial cells of testis.
(3) As diffuse secretory cells intercalated singly or
in groups between normal epithelial cells-
endocrinecells of duodenum and uriniferous
tubules.

The following endocrine glands and associated organs are usually described
as members of the endocrine system:-

(1) Adrenals,
(2) Hypohysis, now recognized as consisting of:
i) Adenohypophysis,
ii) Neurohypophysis,
(3) Hypothalamus, now recognized as to exercise
control over Adenohypophysis by means of
Hypothalamic Portal System.
(4) Ovaries, having two distinct endocrine sources:
i. Graafian follicle
ii. Corpus luteum
(5). Pancreas, having both exo- and endocrine sources:

The Islets of Langerhans represent the endocrine portion.

6. Parathyroids
7. Pineal body, or Epiphysis cerebri: not conclusively
established as endocrine but believed to control genital
development by exercising inhibitory influence.
8. Placenta
 77
9. Testis, having as its endocrine source the Interstial Cells
of Leydig.
10. Thymus: no longer considered a true endocrine gland.
11. Thyroid (and accessory thyroids when present)
12. Chemoreceptors: not true endocrines but diverticula in
the walls of blood vessels, lined with specialized cells
which react to changes in the chemical constitution of the
blood. There are two chemoreceptors:
i. Glomus caroticum: the carotid body,
situated at the trifurcation of the
common carotid artery into external
carotid, internal carotid and occopital
arteries.
ii. Glomus aorticus: the aortic body,
situated on the aortic arch.

NERVOUS SYSTEM

The nervous system is subdivided into two portions, central and peripheral.

I. Central Nervous system The C.N.S. is invested by three membranes – the

meninges. From without inward these are:
a. Durameter
b. Arachnoid
c. Piameter

The C.N.S. consists of –

a. Brain (encephalon)
b. Spinal Cord

A. Brain Situated within the cranial cavity. Has the following primary
segments –
Prosencephalon – forebrain
Mesencephalon – midbrain
Rhombencephalon – hindbrain

B. Spinal cord Runs in vertebral canal from the foramen magnum to middle of the
sacrum. Spinal nerves are connected with the sides of spinal cord
in pairs. Both spinal nerves and spinal cord are designated as
cervical, thoracic, lumbar, sacral or coccygeal according to the part
of the body in which the vertebrae are situated.

II. Peripheral Nervous System Consists of –

a. Cranial and spinal nerves with their ganglia,
b. Symphathetic nervous system.
 78

(1) Cranial nerves There are 12 pairs of cranial nerves numbered from before
backwards. The exit of these nerves from the skull is as follows:

1st Olfactory Ethmoidal foramen

2nd Optic Optic foramen
3rd Oculomotor Orbital fissure
4th Trochlear Orbital fissure
5th Trigeminal ( Ophthalmic) Orbital fissure
( Maxillary) Foramen rotundum
(Mandibular) Foramen ovale
6th Abducens Orbital fissure
7th Facial Facial canal (stymolastoid foramen)
8th Auditory Internal acoustic meatus
9th Glossopharyngeal Jugular foramen
10th Vagus Jugular foramen
11th Accessory Jugular foramen
12th Hypoglossal Hypoglossal foramen

CLASSIFICATION OF CRANIAL NERVES

Sensory Nerves Motor Nerves Mixed Nerves

Olfactory Oculomotor Trigeminal

Optic Trochlear Facial
Auditory Abducens Glossopharyngeal
Accessory Vagus
Hypoglossal

DISTRIBUTION OF NERVES IN THE HORSE

TRIGEMINAL Connected with lateral pons by large sensory root and small
motor root. Divides into three branches:
1. Ophthalmic
2. Maxillary
3. Mandibular

BRANCHES OF OPHTHALMIC
1. Lacrimal
2. Frontal
3. Nasociliary
 79
BRANCHES OF MAXILLARY
1. Zygomatic
2. Sphenopalatine
i. Posterior nasal
ii. Anterior palatine
iii. Posterior palatine
3. Infraorbital
i. Maxillary or superior alveolar
ii. External nasal
iii. Anterior nasal
iv. Superior labial

BRANCHES OF MANDIBULAR
1. Masseteric
2. Pterygoid
3. Suprficial and Deep temporal
4. Buccinator
5. Inferior or mandibular alveolar
6. Lingual

FACIAL
Passes to internal acoustic meatus with 8th nerve. At the bottom of meatus
nerves part company and facial enters facial canal of petrous temporal bone.

COURSE IN FACIAL CANAL

1. Outwards in roof of internal ear to gain medial wall of middle ear.
2. Backwards making a knee-shaped bend termed the genu. The
geniculate ganglion is situated at this point. Passes to aditus in
substance of medial wall then turns:-
3. Downwards to posterior wall of middle ear to stylomastoid foramen.

BRANCHES:
1. Great superficial petrosal
2. Small superficial petrosal
3. Stapedial In temporal bone
4. Chorda tympani
5. Communicating to vagus
6. Posterior auricular
7. Digastric In neck
8. Internal auricular
9. Parotid plexus
10. Auriculo-palpebral
11. Cervical On face
12. Buccals – dorsal
ventral
 80
GLOSSOPHARYNGEAL
Branches
1. Tympanic
2. Carotid plexus
3. Stylo-pharyngeal
4. Pharyngeal
5. Ligual

VAGUS Emerges from cranium through posterior foramen lacerum. In thorax

right and left vagi divide into dorsal and ventral branches. These
branches unite forming dorsal and ventral oesophageal trunks. Dorsal
trunk enters abdomen and divides into gastric and coeliac branches.
Ventral trunk ramifies on parietal surface of stomach.
Branches:
1. Pharyngeal
2. Aterior laryngeal
3. Recurrent laryngeal
4. Cardiac
5. Tracheal
6. Bronchial and pulmonary plexuses
7. Oesophageal
8. Gastric
9. Pancreatic
10. Intestinal
11. Splenic, and branches to the:
12. Liver.

A. (2) Spinal Nerves Each spinal nerve is connected with the spinal cord by
two roots – dorsal and ventral. The dorsal root is
enlarged to form the spinal ganglion.

NERVES OF THE FORELIMB

BRACHIAL PLEXUS Formed by junction of ventral branches which spring

from the brachial plexus. There are ten nerve trunks in
the plexus:
1. Suprascapular
2. Subscapular
3. Pectoral rami
4. Musculo-cutaneous
5. Median and ulnar
6. Radial
7. Axillary
8. Thoraco-dorsal
9. Thoraco-longus
10. External thoracic.
 81
th th
SUPRASCAPULAR Derived from the 6 and 7 cervicals. Passes between
supraspinatus and subscapular muscles and turns around
distal fourth of anterior border of scapula to reach
supraspinous fossa. SUPPLIES supraspinatus then
continues to infraspinous fossa and terminates in
infraspinatus muscle.

MUSCULO – CUTANEOUS Derived from 7th and 8th cervicals.

Supplies
1. Coraco-brochialis
2. Biceps brachii
3. Brachialis (in dog)
4. Occasional branch to median.

RADIAL Derived from 1st and 2nd thoracic.

SUPPLIES
1. Tensor fasciae antibrachii
2. Triceps
3. Anconeus
4. Cutaneous
5. Radial extensor
6. Common extensor
7. Digiti quinti
8. Abductor pollicis longus
9. Ulnar extensor

MEDIAN Derived from 8th cervical and 1st thoracic.

SUPPLIES
1. Radial flexor

MEDIAN AND ULNAR SUPPLIES

1. Ulnar flexor
2. Superficial flexor
3. Deep flexor
4. Lumbrical muscles
5. Interosseus muscles

LUMBO-SACRAL PLEXUS The lumbo-sacral plexus is formed by the junction of

the ventral roots of the last three lumbar and the first
two sacral nerves. The nerves which supply the
pelvic limb are derived from the plexus. There are
eleven major trunks in the plexus:
1. Iliohypogastric – cranial and caudal
2. Genitofemoral
3. Lateral cutaneous femoral
4. Femoral
 82
5. Obturator
6. Sciatic
7. Gluteals – cranial and caudal
8. Ilicinguinal
9. Pudendal
10. Post cutaneous femoral
11. Caudal haemorrhoidal.

CRANIAL GLUTEAL Derived from the last lumbar and first sacral.
SUPPLIES
1. Tensor fasciae latae
2. Superficial gluteal
3. Middle gluteal
4. Piriformis (in dog)
5. Deep gluteal.

CAUDAL GLUTEAL DERIVED from sacral roots of lumbo-sacral

plexus.
SUPPLIES
1. Biceps femoris
2. Semitendinosus.

OBTURATOR DERIVED from 4th and 6th lumbars.

SUPPLIES
1. Gracilis
2. Abductor femoris
3. Pectineus
4. External obturator

FEMORAL DERIVED from 4th and 5th lumbars.

SUPPLIES
1. Rectus femoris
2. Vast mucles
i. lateral
ii. intermediate
iii. medial
3. Capsularies.

SCAITIC DERIVED from 6th lumbar and 1st sacral.

SUPPLIES
1. Quadratus femoris
2. Internal obturator
3. Semitendinosus
4. Semimembranosus
5. Gamelli
 83
DEEP PERONEAL DERIVED as large trunk from sciatic.
SUPPLIES
1. Peronaeus tertius (in horse)
2. Anterior tibial
3. Long extensor of digits
4. Short extensor of digits

TIBIAL DERIVED as direct continuation of sciatic.

SUPPLIES
1. Gastrocnemius
2. Soleus
3. Plantaris
4. Long flexor of digits
5. Flexor hallucis longis
6. Posterior tibial
7. Popliteal muscle
8. Interosseus muscles
9. Lumbrical muscles.

Sympathetic Nervous System

The function of sympathetic nervous system is:
1. To innervate cardiac and plain muscle glands.
2. To transmit impulses from the viscern to the central nervous system.

The sympathetic system consists of a double chain of ganglia extending along

either side of the vertebral column from the base of the cranium to the tail. The ganglia
are connected with each other to form bilateral sympathetic trunk. Rami
communicantes link the sympathetic with the cerebrospinal nerves.

NOTES

The eyeball consists of three concentric tunics:

1. Sclera – fibrous tunic
2. Choroid – the vascular tunic
3. Retina – the nervous tunic

Refractive area of the eye are:

1. Vitreous body
2. Lens

Aqueous humour fills both anterior and posterior chambers.

There are seven muscles in the eyeball:

1. Two oblique – superior and inferior
 84
2. Four straight – dorsal, ventral, medial and lateral recti.
3. One retractor – retractor oculi.

Blood Supply: Ophthalmic.

Nerve Supply: The oculomotor nerve supplies all extrinsic muscles except:
SO4 – superior oblique which is supplied by the 4th cranial nerve.
LR6 – lateral rectus which is supplied bt the 6th cranial nerve.

Thus the intervention of the extrinsic muscles of the eye is given by the formula:
(L. R.6 S. O4)3
T. A. O = 1:2:4

A. SKELETAL SYSTEM

The quadrate bone is a large bone situated between the mandible and the
temporal bone. Its function is to allow the upper beak to be opened wherever the
mandible is depressed.
The sternum is adapted to give attachment to the powerful wing muscles. It
consists of the following parts:
1. Rostum
2. Lateral oblique processes with posterior branches
3. Ventral crest or keel.

SKELETON OF THE WING

The thoracic limb of the fowl is modified for flight. It has the following
segments:
1. Shoulder girdle
i. coracoid
ii. clavicle
iii. scapula
2. Upper arm – humerus
3. Forearm – radius and ulna
4. Manus
i. carpus which consists of two carpal bones, radial and ulnar
ii. metacarpus which consists of metacarpa 1, 2 and 3. of these, 1 is
the vestigial 2 and 3 are blended at their extremities only.
iii. Digits. Each metacarpal bears a digit. Of these, the 1st and 2nd
have two phalanges. The 3rd has 1 phalanx.

SKELETON OF THE LEG

The pelvic limb of the fowl can be divided into the following regions:
1. Pelvic girdle which consists of:
i. ilium
ii. ischium
iii. pubis
 85
2. Thigh – femur
3. Lower limb – tibia and fibula
4. Pes –
i. Metatarsus which consists of a single bone formed by the fusion
of the 2nd , 3rd and 4th metatarsals.
ii. Digits. The metatarpus carries 4 digits. 3 projects forwards and
1 backwards. The last digit which projects backwards carries
two phalanges, the others thus: -
2nd digit – 3 phalanges
3rd digit – 4 phalanges
4th digit – 5 phalanges.

B. DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
The fowl has no teeth. Its hard palate is cleft. Its tongue has
macroscopic cornified papilla and contains the entoglossal bone.
Otherwise the digestive tube is as follows:
1. Pharynx
2. Oesophagus
3. Crop
4. Glandular stomach
5. Gizzard
6. Duodenum, which consists of the two narrow loops between which the
pancrease is situated.
7. Loose coils of jejunum and ileum
8. Two caeca
9. Short colon
10. Cloaca.

The cloaca is the common opening to both digestive and urogenital systems. It
has three parts:
1. Coprodeum – continuous with rectum
2. Urodeum – ureters and genital duct open.
3. Proctodeum – pposterior portion in which is a diverticulum, the
bursa of Fabricii.

The liver of the fowl has two lobes.

The spleen is small and round like a marble. It is situated next to the stomach.
The kidney of the fowl have three or four lobes. In the male they arerelated
anteriorly to the testes. The ureters open into the urodeum.
The male bird has two testes. The ductus deferens of either gland opens on a
small papilla in the urodeum.
The female bird has only one ovary. It is closely situated to the left kidney.
The yolk of the egg is formed in the ovary. It is closely situated to the left of
the kidney.
The yolk of the egg is formed in the ovary. The other parts are formed in the
oviduct as the yolk gradually passes to the urodeum. The oviduct has five dimensions:
 86
1. Infundibulum
2. Albumen secreting portion
3. Isthmus, where the shell membrane is formed.
4. Uterus, where the shell itself is secreted
5. Vagina, where the shell cuticle and colouring matter are added.

The vagina leads into uredeum.

Points to Note:
1. The pectin projects into interior of the eyeball from the region of entrance of
optic nerve. It is vascular and pigmented and thus is considered as an
appendage of the choroids.
2. The uropygial gland is situated at the base of the tail feathers. It is used for
preening purposes.

The following are the points to note:

1. The fowl has no diaphragm
2. It has a cranial larynx which consists of two ossified cartilages: -
i. cricoid
ii. arytenoids
3. It has a caudal larynx that is termed the syrinx. The syrinx is a lateral
compression at the point of bifurcation of the trachea.
4. Tracheal rings are complete
5. The main bronchus does not ramify like the mammalian bronchus. It passes
through the entire lung to communicate with a system of air sacs. These air
sacs communicate with each other. There are eleven in all:
i.) 1 Clavicular
ii.) 2 Cervical
iii.) 4 Thoracic – 2 anterior and 2 posterior
iv.) 2 axillary
v.) 2 abdominal