Difference Between Alternating Current (AC) &

Direct Current (DC)

The conducting materials have free electrons which move from one atom to another when the
potential difference is applied across them. This flow of electrons in a closed circuit is called
current. On the basis of the direction of movement of electrons in a closed circuit, the electric
current is mainly classified into two types, i.e., the alternating current and the direct current.

One of the major differences between the alternating and direct current is that in alternating
current the polarity and the magnitude of the current changes at the regular interval of time
whereas in direct current it remains constants. Some of the differences are explained below in
the form of the comparison chart by considering the various factors;

Content: Alternating Current (AC) Vs Direct Current (DC)

1. Comparison Chart
2. Definition
3. Key Differences
4. Point to Remember

Comparison Chart
Basis Alternating current Direct current

Definition The direction of the current reverse The direction of the current
periodically. remain same.

Causes of flow of Rotating a coil in a uniform magnetic Constant magnetic field

electrons field or rotating a uniform magnetic across the wire
field within a stationary coil

Frequency 50 or 60 Hertz Zero

Direction of flow Bidirectional Unidirectional

of electrons.

Power Factor Lies between 0 and 1 Always 1

Polarity It has polarity (+, -) Do not have polarity

Obtained From Alternators Generators, battery, solar

cell, etc.

Type of load Their load is resistive, inductive or Their load is usually

capacitive. resistive in nature.

Graphical It is represented by irregular waves It is represented by the

 Basis Alternating current Direct current

Representation like triangular wave, square wave, straight line.

square tooth wave, sine wave.

Transmission Can be transmitted over long It can be transmitted over

distance with some losses. very long distance with
negligible losses.

Convertible Easily convert into direct current Easily convert into

alternating current

Substation Few substation is required for More substations are

generation and transmission required for generation and
transmission

Passive Parameter Impedance Resistance

Harazdous Dangerous Very dangerous

Application Factories, Industries and for the Electroplating, Electrolysis,

domestic purposes. Electronic Equipment etc.

Definition of Alternating Current

The current which changes its directions periodically, such type of current is called
alternating current. Their magnitude and polarity also change along with the time. In such
types of current, the free electrons (electric charge) moved in the forward as well as in the
backwards direction.

The frequency (number of cycles completed in one

second) of the alternating current is 50 to 60 Hz depends on the country. The alternating
current is easily converted from the high value to low value and vice versa with the help of
the transformer. Thus, it is mainly used for transmission and distribution.
Definition of Direct Current
When the electric charge inside the conductor flows in one direction, then such type of
current is called direct current. The magnitude of the direct current always remains constant
and the frequency of the current is zero. It is used in cell phones, electric vehicles, welding,
electronic equipment, etc.

The graphical representation of the alternating current is shown in the figure below.
 Key differences between Alternating Current and Direct Current
 The current which changes its direction at a regular interval of time such type of
current is called alternating current. Direct current is unidirectional or flows only in one
direction.
 The charges in the alternating current flow either by rotating a coil in the magnetic
field or by rotating a magnetic field within a stationary coil. In direct current, the charges
flow by keeping the constant magnetism along the wire.
 The frequency of the alternating current is 50 to 60 hertz depends on the country
standard, whereas the frequency of the direct current always remains zero.
 The power factor of the alternating current lies between zero to one, whereas the
power factor of the direct current always remains one.
 The alternator current is generated by the alternator. The direct current is generated by
the generator, battery and cells.
 The load of the alternating current is capacitive, inductive or resistive. The load of the
direct current is always resistive in nature.
 The alternating current can be graphically represented through different irregular
wave shape such as triangular wave, square wave, periodic wave, the saw-tooth wave, sine
wave, etc. The direct current is graphically represented by the straight line.
 The alternating current transmits over a long distance with some losses, whereas the
direct current transmits over very long distances with negligible losses.
 The alternating current is converted into direct current with the help of rectifier
whereas the direct current is converted into alternating current with the help of the inverter.
 Few substations require for the generation and transmission of the alternating current.
Extra substations require for the transmission of direct current.
 The alternating current is used in industries, factories, and for the household purposes.
The direct current is mainly used in electronic equipment, flash lighting, hybrid vehicles,
electroplating, electrolysis, for exciting the field winding of the rotor, etc.

Types of Circuit Breaker

There are several methods of classification of circuit breakers. The most
general way of the rating of a circuit breaker is by the arc extinction medium.
The arc extinction can easily be done by using the different medium like air,
insulator, gas, vacuum, dielectric, etc.

By the arc extinction medium, the circuit breaker is categorised into four
types. They are the air break circuit breaker, air blast circuit breaker, sulphur
hexafluoride circuit breaker and vacuum circuit breaker. The classification of
the circuit breaker is shown in the figure below.

The circuit breaker is mainly categorised into two types. They are the AC
circuit breakers and the DC circuit breakers.

 AC Circuit Breaker

The AC circuit breaker is sub-classified into two types, i.e., the low voltage
circuit breaker and the high voltage circuit breaker. The circuit breaker
whose value lies below the 1000V is known as the low voltage circuit
breaker, and above 1000V it is known as a high voltage circuit breaker. The
high voltage circuit breaker is further classified into two main categories;
they are the oil circuit breakers and the oil-less circuit breaker.
Oil Circuit Breaker
The oil circuit breaker uses oil for an arc extinction. It is further sub-
categorized into bulk oil type and the minimum oil type circuit breaker.

Bulk Oil Circuit Breaker – The bulk oil circuit breaker uses transformer oil
as an arc extinction medium of the circuit breaker. The oil also acts as an
insulator between the two conducting parts of the circuit breaker. The rating
range of oil circuit breaker lies from 25MVA at 2.5KV to 5000 MVA at 230KV.

Minimum Oil Circuit Breaker – In the minimum oil circuit breaker, the oil
is used for arc extinction by blast action. The main function of the oil in the
minimum oil circuit breaker is to interrupt the arc formation, and it is not
used for insulating the live parts of the earth.

The oil impulse circuit breaker is the other type of minimum oil circuit
breaker. This circuit breaker used oil jet, which is produced by the piston
pump for extinguishing the arc. The jet of the oil is placed between the gaps
formed by the contacts of the circuit breaker

The four main types of oil circuit breaker are the air circuit breaker, air blast
circuit breaker, Sulphur hexafluoride circuit breaker and the vacuum circuit
breaker.

Air Circuit Breaker – In air circuit breaker the arc is initiated and extinct in
the static air in which the arc moves. Such types of breaker are used in the
range of low voltage up to 15KV, and the rupturing capacity of the breaker is
500 MVA.The classification of the air break circuit breaker depends on the
types of air breaking methods. The types of the air break circuit breaker are
shown below.
In the plain air break circuit breaker, the contacts are made in the shapes of
the horns. The magnetic blow type breaker uses magnetic field as an arc
interruption medium and in the arc-chute circuit breaker low and medium
voltage circuit are used for arc interruption.

Air Blast Circuit Breaker – The air blast circuit breaker uses a blast of air
to blow out the arc. In an air blast circuit breaker, compressed air is stored in
the form of the tank and release through the nozzles to produce a high-
velocity jet, which is used to extinguish the arc.

Such type of circuit breaker is used for indoor services which have a medium
high voltage field. The air blast circuit breaker is used for the low voltage up
to of 15 kV and rupturing capacities of 2500 MVA. Such types of breakers are
also used in outdoor switchyards for 220 kV lines. The types of the air blast
circuit breaker are shown below.
 In axial blast
circuit breaker, the air flows longitudinally in the direction of the arc while in
the cross blast circuit breaker the air flows at the right angle of the arc.

Sulfur Hexa Flouride Circuit Breaker – The sulphur hexafluoride circuit

breaker uses SF6 gas for extinguishing the arc. The SF6 gas has great arc
extinguishing property, and it is also superior as compared to other arc
quenching media such as the oil or air.

Vacuum Circuit Breaker – In such type of circuit breaker the contacts of

the circuit are placed in the permanently sealed vacuum interrupter. The arc
is quenched when the contacts are separated in the high vacuum. Such type
of circuit breaker is less bulky, cheaper in cost, negligible maintenance and
have a long life.

HVDC Circuit Breaker

The breaker which is used for the interruption of the high voltage direct
current is known as the HVDC circuit breaker. The voltage breaking capacity
of the HVDC circuit breaker is nearly 33KV, and for the current, it is 2KA.

The main problem of the HVDC circuit breaker is that the DC is unidirectional
and hence there is no zero point in the DC system. The fault current in the
HVDC circuit breaker should be reduced to zero by using some external
methods. The arc quenching medium of the air break circuit breaker is either
oil or air blast.
Peak Value, Average Value and RMS Value
Peak Value
Definition: The maximum value attained by an alternating quantity during one cycle is called
its Peak value. It is also known as the maximum value or amplitude or crest value. The
sinusoidal alternating quantity obtains its peak value at 90 degrees as shown in the figure
below.

The peak values of alternating voltage and current is represented by Em and Im respectively.

Average Value
Definition: The average of all the instantaneous values of an alternating voltage and currents
over one complete cycle is called Average Value.

If we consider symmetrical waves like sinusoidal current or voltage waveform, the positive
half cycle will be exactly equal to the negative half cycle. Therefore, the average value over a
complete cycle will be zero.

The work is done by both, positive and negative cycle and hence the average value is
determined without considering the signs.

So, the only positive half cycle is considered to determine the average value of alternating
quantities of sinusoidal waves. Let us take an example to understand it.

Divide the positive half cycle into (n) number of equal parts as shown in the above figure

Let i1, i2, i3…….. in be the mid ordinates

The Average value of current Iav = mean of the mid ordinates

R.M.S Value
Definition: That steady current which, when flows through a resistor of known resistance for
a given period of time than as a result the same quantity of heat is produced by the alternating
current when flows through the same resistor for the same period of time is called R.M.S or
effective value of the alternating current.

In other words, the R.M.S value is defined as the square root of means of squares of
instantaneous values.

Let I be the alternating current flowing through a resistor R for time t seconds, which
produces the same amount of heat as produced by the direct current (Ieff). The base of one
alteration is divided into n equal parts so that each interval is of t/n seconds as shown in the
figure below.
Let i1, i2, i3,………..in be the mid ordinates

Then the heat produced in

Since Ieff is considered as the effective value of this current, then the total heat produced by
this current will be

Now, equating equation (1) and (2) we will get

Ieff = square root of mean of squares of instantaneous values = R.M.S value

Root Mean Square is the actual value of an alternating quantity which tells us an energy
transfer capability of an AC source.
The ammeter records the RMS value of alternating current and voltmeter record’s the root
mean square (R.M.S) value of alternating voltage. The domestic single-phase AC supply is
230 V, 50 hertz, where 230 V is the R.M.S value of alternating voltage.

The values of voltage and the current system in a DC circuit is constant, so there is no issue
in evaluating their magnitudes, but in an AC system, the alternating voltage and current vary
from time to time and hence it is necessary to evaluate their magnitudes.

The following three ways (peak value, Average value and R.M.S value) given above are
adopted to express the magnitude of the voltage and current.
 Electrical Bus-Bar and its Types
Definition: An electrical bus bar is defined as a conductor or a group of conductor used for
collecting electric power from the incoming feeders and distributes them to the outgoing
feeders. In other words, it is a type of electrical junction in which all the incoming and
outgoing electrical current meets. Thus, the electrical bus bar collects the electric power at
one location.

The bus bar system consists the isolator and the circuit breaker. On the occurrence of a fault,
the circuit breaker is tripped off and the faulty section of the busbar is easily disconnected
from the circuit.

The electrical bus bar is available in rectangular, cross-sectional, round and many other
shapes. The rectangular bus bar is mostly used in the power system. The copper and
aluminium are used for the manufacturing of the electrical bus bar.

The most
common of the bus-bars are 40×4mm (160 mm2); 40×5 mm (200 mm2) ; 50×6 mm
(300mm2) ; 60×8 mm (480 mm2) ; 80×8 (640 mm2) and 100×10 mm (1000 mm2).

The various types of busbar arrangement are used in the power system. The selection of the
bus bar is depended on the different factor likes reliability, flexibility, cost etc. The following
are the electrical considerations governing the selection of any one particular arrangement.

 The bus bar arrangement is simple and easy in maintenance.

 The maintenance of the system did not affect their continuity.
 The installation of the bus bar is cheap.

The small substation where continuity of the supply is not essential uses the single bus bar.
But in a large substation, the additional busbar is used in the system so that the interruption
 does not occur in their supply. The different type of electrical busbar arrangement is shown in
the figure below.

Single Bus-Bar Arrangement

The arrangement of such type of system is very simple and easy. The system has only one
bus bar along with the switch. All the substation equipment like the transformer, generator,
the feeder is connected to this bus bar only. The advantages of single bus bar arrangements
are

 It has low initial cost.

 It requires less maintenance
 It is simple in operation

Drawb
acks of Single Bus-Bars Arrangement
 The only disadvantage of such type of arrangement is that the complete supply is
disturbed on the occurrence of the fault.
 The arrangement provides the less flexibility and hence used in the small substation
where continuity of supply is not essential.

Single Bus-Bar Arrangement With Bus Sectionalized

In this type of busbar arrangement, the circuit breaker and isolating switches are used. The
isolator disconnects the faulty section of the busbar, hence protects the system from complete
shutdown. This type of arrangement uses one addition circuit breaker which does not much
increase the cost of the system.

Advantage of single Bus-bar Arrangement with Bus Sectionalization

The following are the advantages of sectionalized bus bar.

 The faulty section is removed without affecting the continuity of the supply.
 The maintenance of the individual section can be done without disturbing the system
supply.
 The system has a current limiting reactor which decreases the occurrence of the fault.

Disadvantages of Single Bus-Bar Arrangement with Sectionalization

 The system uses the additional circuit breaker and isolator which increases the cost of
the system.

Main and Transfer Bus Arrangement

Such type of arrangement uses two type of busbar namely, main busbar and the auxiliary bus
bar. The busbar arrangement uses bus coupler which connects the isolating switches and
circuit breaker to the busbar. The bus coupler is also used for transferring the load from one
bus to another in case of overloading. The following are the steps of transferring the load
from one bus to another.

1. The potential of both the bus bar kept same by closing the bus coupler.
2. The bus bar on which the load is transferred is kept close.
3. Open the main bus bar.

Thus, the load is transferred from the main bus to reserve bus.

Advantages of Main and Transfer Bus Arrangement

 The continuity of the supply remains same even in the fault. When the fault occurs on
any of the buses the entire load is shifted to the another bus.
 The repair and maintenance can easily be done on the busbar without disturbing their
continuity.
 The maintenance cost of the arrangement is less.
 The potential of the bus is used for the operation of the relay.
 The load can easily be shifted on any of the buses.

Disadvantages of Main and Transfer Bus Arrangement

 In such type of arrangements, two bus bars are used which increases the cost of the
system.
 The fault on any of the bus would cause the complete shutdown on the whole
substation.

Double Bus Double Breaker Arrangement

This type of arrangement requires two bus bar and two circuit breakers. It does not require
any additional equipment like bus coupler and switch.

Advantages of Double Bus Double Breaker

 This type of arrangement provides the maximum reliability and flexibility in the
supply. Because the fault and maintenance would not disturb their continuity.
 The continuity of the supply remains same because the load is transferrable from one
bus to another on the occurrence of the fault.

Disadvantages of double bus Double breaker

 In such type of arrangement two buses and two circuit breakers are used which
increases the cost of the system.
 Their maintenance cost is very high.

Because of its higher cost, such type of bus-bars is seldom used in substations.

Sectionalized Double Bus Bar Arrangement.

In this type of bus arrangement, the sectionalized main bus bar is used along with the
auxiliary bus bar. Any section of the busbar removes from the circuit for maintenance and it
is connected to any of the auxiliary bus bars. But such type of arrangement increases the cost
of the system. Sectionalization of the auxiliary bus bar is not required because it would
increase the cost of the system.

One and a Half Breaker Arrangement

 In this arrangement, three circuit breakers are required for two circuits. The each circuit of
the bus bar uses the one and a half circuit breaker. Such type of arrangement is preferred in
large stations where power handled per circuit is large.

Advantages of One and a Half Breaker Arrangement

 It protects the arrangement against the loss of supply.

 The potential of the bus bar is used for operating the relay.
 In such type of arrangement, the additional circuits are easily added to the system.

Disadvantages of One and a Half Breaker Arrangement

 The circuit becomes complicated because of the relaying system.

 Their maintenance cost is very high.

Ring Main Arrangement

In such type of arrangement, the end of the bus bar is connected back to the starting point of
the bus to form a ring.
 Advantages of Ring Main Arrangement

 Such type of arrangement will provide two paths for the supply. Thus the fault will
not affect their working.
 The fault is localized for the particular section. Hence the complete circuit is not
affected by the fault.
 In this arrangement, a circuit breaker can be maintained without interrupting the
supply.

Disadvantages of Ring Main Arrangement

 Difficulties occur in the addition of the new circuit.

 Overloading occurs on the system if any of the circuit breakers is opened.

Mesh Arrangement
In such type of arrangement, the circuit breakers are installed in the mesh formed by the
buses. The circuit is tapped from the node point of the mesh. Such type of bus arrangement is
controlled by four circuit breakers.
 When a
fault occurs on any section, two circuit breakers have to open, resulting in the opening of the
mesh. Such type of arrangement provides security against bus-bar fault but lacks switching
facility. It is preferred for substations having a large number of circuits.