Arahan/Instruction: Jawab SEMUA soalan/Answer ALL questions.

1. Explain briefly on comparative public administration as a field of study? In your

opinion, discuss TWO (2) benefits of understanding the operation of public
administration in other countries. Justify your answer with relevant examples.
(30 markah/marks)

ANSWER QUESTION ONE

INTRODUCTION

Public administration is a feature of all nations, regardless of their system of government. In most

countries, public administration is implemented at the central, secondary, and local levels.

Indeed, through the study of the comparison of public administration as a field of study, an

understanding of the relationship between the various levels of government in each country can

be known through the public administration that has been implemented. This comparative study

of administration turns out to be very important to learn and understand clearly. The scope of this

comparative public administration (PPA) includes the study of democratic systems and

institutions, the causes of success and failure of a democratic institution, the application of

concepts, the level of success of democratic systems. The importance of this field of comparative

study can be clearly seen where most countries in the world have established trained

administrative, executive, or command classes and made public administration a distinct

profession. The public governing body is usually called the civil service. In the United States and

several other countries, the connotations of the elite class traditionally inherent in the civil service

have been inadvertently abandoned or avoided, with the result that professional recognition

comes slowly and only in part.

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In addition, the field of comparison in public administration can explain the development of a

country's administration through the philosophy of the New Public Administration (NPM) which

it covers a very broad and very complex implementation. New Public Management is a term used

to describe the wave of public sector reform around the world. The development of the

administration can be reviewed through this NPM. The new public administration movement

refers to a refocus of public management toward responsive and socially equitable

implementation of public programs. In the past, the discipline focused on running government

like a business, with concerns focused on efficiency and economy while

maintainingaccountability to the citizens. The focus of the conference was to expand the

emphasis on these traditional concepts to include responsiveness.

This “new public administration” was to haveat its center social equity in the

implementation of programs by public service employees. According to H. George Frederickson,

one of the contributors to the conference and a continued supporter of the new-public-

administration approach, this meant that bureaucrats needed to be more responsive to the public,

who were con- sidered customers or clients under the new public administration approach. The

new public administrators would include normative and prescriptive ideals of democracy such as

fair and equal treatment. Most of all, public administrators were to focus on the needs of the

citizen as a client of the public program rather than on the efficiency of the process. The new

public administration approach was to replace several of the past goals for bureaucrats working in

the public sector. First, administrators were to be recognized not as neutral or value-free decision

makers as they had been in the past. Instead, they were expected to seek good management

practices while implementing the values of social equity in their programs. Second, public

administrators were to be change agents in the workplace by eliminating policies and structures
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that systematically inhibited social equity. Finally, the new public administrator was to function

as a second-generation behavioralist, acting as a seeker of social justice while maintaining a

scientific approach toward implementation. The analytical skills applied in previous decades to

efficient management were now also to be used to achieve the goal of social equity. Ultimately,

the new public administrator had to balance efficiency, economy, and equity.

Today, the new public administration is generally taught as one approach that can guide

bureaucrats. While the concepts are accepted by most students studying public administration, it

has been difficult to implement many of the tenets in the workplace. Nonetheless, the new public

administration approach continues to serve as an ethic or as a guidepost for public administrators.

Therefore, the term new public management -based administrative reform (NPM) has its

rightful place in the public sector in Malaysia. The public sector in Malaysia is also not left

behind in the current reforms (Phang, 2008) mentioned that Malaysia is committed to

implementing the NPM and clearly trying to eliminate complex bureaucratic procedures where

this is one of the important objectives of the NPM philosophy. The various reforms implemented

in the Malaysian public administration system are in line with the changing times as well as the

advancement of science and technology in the era of globalization. Any changes in technology,

processes and procedures, laws and environment or the introduction of new programs require all

government administrative machinery to be ready and fully committed to succeed. Public

agencies need to be responsive and ready to change in order to realize the aspirations of the

government and hence the people. Administrative reform in Malaysia is dominated by the New

Public Management (NPM) movement which is based on the idea that private sector management

techniques and market mechanisms can increase the efficiency of the public sector. This new
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public management reform (NPM) is said to be a scientific revolution that took place in the 20th

century related to governance aimed at improving the efficiency of the public service.

Through this field of comparative administrative study, information related to national changes and

reforms can be known. For example, the type of reform implemented in Malaysia, it was found that the

downsizing model in the form of outsourcing is the most popular element of NPM as it is also practiced by

all Local Authorities (PBT) in the country. In fact, some of the local authorities involved have contracted

their garbage collection services since the 1980s. Downsizing by controlling the creation of new posts and

the elimination of non -critical vacancies is only practiced by half of the local authorities involved.

Another element implemented by all local authorities is the Client's Charter. This is necessarily driven by

government policy that requires all public agencies to formulate their respective client charters

(Muhammad Rais, 1995). If we look at the categories and elements of NPM listed, it is found that the

government attaches importance to the aspects of improving quality and productivity in the public sector.

The proof is, there are seven types of reforms under this aspect compared to other aspects. From the aspect

of financial management, praise should be given to local authorities that measure the increase in output

and quality and strive to reduce the cost of a program or project. This coincides with one of the NPM's

core values, namely cost recovery, emphasis on revenue and inter -agency competition.

Moreover, in the aspect of the use of Information Technology, although the culture of Information

Technology (IT) and electronic government has just been introduced yet it is still seen as one of the

dimensions of NPM (Siddiquee, 2006); (Ho, 2006). Local authorities were also found to show a positive

reaction when most of them set up one-stop centers (OSC) and offer online services such as both PBT in

Penang, PBT7 and PBT8 in Selangor and PBT10 and PBT11 in Perak.

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THE BENEFITS OF UNDERSTANDING PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION OPERATIONS
IN OTHER COUNTRIES.

In the context of the benefits of understanding the operations of the public administration of other

countries, in general a concrete understanding of the different public services with other bodies can be

known clearly and in detail. These distinctions are made from aspects of bodies that serve the state full

-time, such as the military, the judiciary, and the police. This could explain aspects of specialized services,

sometimes referred to as scientific or professional public services, providing technical support rather than

general administration. Traditionally, in most countries, there has been a difference between civil servants

at home and those serving abroad in diplomatic duties. Thus, a civil servant is one body of persons

directly employed in the administration of the internal affairs of the country and whose role and status are

not of a political, ministerial, military, or treasury nature.

In addition, the benefits that can be obtained after studying the comparison of the administration

of other countries is to be able to understand the differences in organizational structure in other countries.

It is because in most countries, the civil service does not include local governments or public companies,

as in the United Kingdom, the National Coal Board. In some countries, however especially union

countries where the provincial administration is part of the central government some provincial staff are

civil servants. In the United States, all levels of government have their own civil, federal, state, and local

services, and a special civil service is part of the government service that is included through inspection

and offers permanent term of office.

Another advantage is being able to understand the bureaucratic hierarchy in public sector

administration in other countries. For example, the bureaucracy in some countries in the

appointment of positions as civil servants is different. Entry requirements for careers in higher

civil service pressure qualifications in technical fields such as accounting, economics, medicine,

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and engineering. In other countries legal training is considered appropriate, and in other countries

no specific technical or academic discipline is required among candidates for senior positions.

Whatever their exact qualifications, professional senior public officials because of their

experience in public affairs are considered to be able to give them knowledge of the limits to

which national policies can be made effective and the possible administrative outcomes of

various actions. Civil servants in each country are expected to be able to advise, warn, and assist

those in charge on state policy and, when this has been decided, to prepare the organization to

implement it.

In addition, responsibility for policy decisions rests with executive political members

(members who have been elected or appointed to give political direction to the government and,

typically, career civil servants). Traditionally, civil servants are protected from public

wrongdoing or criticism on their advice. However, their administrative actions may be subject to

special judicial control from which no executive member can defend them.

An understanding of this hierarchy has clarified the structure and administrative system of

a country which it shows significant differences between one country and another. In this context,

it can be seen that the civil service is organized on the basis of standard hierarchical lines, in

which the order structure ascends a pyramid fashion from the lowest office to the highest office.

This order implies compliance with a legitimate order of a superior, and to maintain this system,

the hierarchy of officials is marked by permanent positions, with assigned duties, specific

powers, and salaries and privileges assessed objectively. In some countries there may be direct

appointments to higher offices for those previously not employed by the service, but even the

recognized internal promotion system emphasizes the pyramidal nature of the hierarchy. Through
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this discussion, it turns out that there are many benefits and advantages that can be gained in

understanding the operations of public administration in other countries.

2. Illuminate THREE (3) factors that may influence the administration of public
sector organisations in a particular country. You need to provide real examples to
support your answer.
(30 markah/marks)

JAWAPAN SOALAN DUA

INTRODUCTION
Government policy is a complicated and varied process. It requires the involvement of a large

number of people. Many companies, professional associations, and individuals struggle and

cooperate to influence policymakers to act in a specific way on a variety of issues. These people

and organizations use a range of techniques to achieve their objectives. Methods include

fundraising, constant demand, attempting to educate proponents, and uniting allies behind a

common cause. Rarely does the voting establishment result in flawless policies. The most of

national policies are the product of negotiations between entities with vested interests.

When a firm considers which legislation to implement and advocate for, it considers what

is in its greatest advantage, or which rule will help it make profit. Other considerations include

the policy's political viability, whether it will be supported by a majority of everyone else, and

how expense and practical it will be in achieving the desired result. For example, a policy of 0%

energy consumption would be too costly. While the advantages of minimal environmental impact

are clear, obtaining them at such a large prices is impossible. A more rational as well as expense

approach would be a significant fall in dioxide automobile exhaust, such as 5% to 10% over five

to ten years.
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 A variety of factors influence government decisions. These factors include public

perception, economic situations, new modern science, rising inequality, lobbyists, nonprofit

groups (NGOs), cronyism, and other areas of public action. Public policy change is frequently

delayed due to the myriad contributing elements that tend to pull and drive government in diverse

directions. In the absence of a crisis, the relevant components may plan to compare and

counterbalance each other, restricting the formation and execution of new policy and resulting in

progressive rather than abrupt reforms. And, as seen by the federal government's extensive global

warming strategy and the opposition of some significant energy companies, affecting agents are

also much more successful in preventing government policy than adopting existing restrictions.

Opinion Polls Popular sentiment and aspirations have a tremendous impact on

government policy throughout time. Sustainable firms are affected by rising social awareness of

environmental problems, fluctuating fuel costs, and greenhouse effect. This is accomplished

through partisan process, public demonstrations, and other actions that pressure policy decision.

Fresh empirical studies and data, like as new perspectives into global warming and the human

and corporate impact on climate change, are influencing public policies that are critical to the

success of strategic partnerships.

Politic Perspective
Politics is the primary motivator of the current administration, which has chosen almost

singlemindedly to make undoing any progress made in economic and social justice, healthcare,

workplace safety, environmental quality, and consumer protection since WWII. Their vision of

government is no government to provide for the common welfare as charged to do by the

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Constitution, but rather a powerful central authority to protect big business and the richest

families from the ravages of a free people.

The American Health Care Act provides a good example. Donald Trump promised to

fulfill a vision of a healthcare system with universal coverage and lower costs, but rather than

design such a system, they rushed through the House a program of undoing Obamacare, resulting

in more people priced out of the healthcare market than before Obamacare, just so they can claim

to have done something for Trump’s first 100 days.

Clerly. politics affect public administration in a number of ways, including:

1. Line-staff conflict: Every level of a bureaucratic, hierarchically organization tends to

believe that they know best how to effectively administer the tasks of the organization as

a whole.

2. Bureaucratic Imperialism: Offices in any organization will have incentives to try to

expand their responsibilities in order to capture more of the organization’s budget.

3. Clientelism: Organizations that serve particular classes of people or groups will cater to

their needs to the exclusion of more general needs or desires.

4. Suboptimization: (related to bureaucratic imperialism) every subunit of a complex

organization will tend to envision its contribution to achieving the goals of the

organization as the most central, i.e., important, to accomplishing the organization’s

mission.

5. Goal succession: If an organization somehow manages to accomplish its goal, it will seek

an new goal in order to maintain its continued existence.

6. Goal displacement: Every organization really has two goals or missions: first, to maintain

itself (see immediately above); and, second, to accomplish its stated mission.
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The point is, contrary to Wilsonian thought, public administration is inherently political because

administration necessarily involves influence.

Economic Conditions 
Economic Conditions The Great Recession towards the end of the first decade of the twenty-first

century heightened interest in and support for governmental investments and incentives

(particularly in energy efficiency and renewable energy) that could aid in job creation.

That’s mean public administration and economics are closely related. "finance is the fuel of

administration."(Kautilya;Arthashastra)

Since the Industrial revolution, Public Administration has started to regulate the economic life of

man. It has to deal with a large number of economic problems. Public Administration primarily

has to deal with policy making and its implementation. And, those policies involves all three

spheres of the society: economic, political and social. Economics is an important part of every

Government's policy. Fiscal and Monetary Policy are two most widely recognized tools used to

influence a nation's economic activity.

Socialism and Planning are important aspects of society that links Economics and Public

Administration.  "Economics is the social science concerned with the administration of scarce

resources" (Scitovsky) The academic discipline of Public Administration includes many aspects

of Economics like Financial Administration, Agriculture, Industrial Administration and Planning,

Budgetary process,etc The economists hold high positions in Public Administration to help in

better decision-making regarding resource mobilisation and its utilisation.

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Modern States have to intervene in the economic activities of its citizens. It has to fight adverse

business cycles and depressions, secure employment for all, maintain a favourable balance of

trade and project the financial stability of the country. It has to involve itself in production of

commodities, running of industries, fixing prices, enactment of controls and rations,etc

Administrators are required to enforce and execute the developmental planning of Govt that

ensures economic development and raise the living standards of people in the society and reduce

poverty and unemployment. Government also undertakes control of the Public Sector

Undertakings and the administration of these undertaking require knowledge of economics, price

policies, marketing, purchasing, etc. Hence, both are complementary. Economics play an

important part for a better administration and administration has an equally important role to play

in the economic development of the country.

Technology improvements,
Advancement in technology, technology is constantly evolving, and this has an intended and

unintended impact on the economy as political factors respond differently to technological

breakthroughs. New, smaller affordable, and more user-friendly techniques have the potential to

increase community opinion for programs that support sustainability and energy efficiency while

simultaneously decreasing environmental damage. Latest innovative models and components that

decrease negative externalities, new technique that enables for commercial manufacturing of

filled solar cells, which lowers the cost of renewable radiation, and fluorescent fixtures with

cellular phones that make energising homes more cost effective are just some few instances..

Interest groups include economic and industrial organisations, academic institutions,

labour unions, ecological lobbying groups, and cause-oriented public representatives and lobbies.

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Individuals and businesses join organizations and special interests for a number of reasons other

than aiming to sway governments. This includes marketing and educational efforts, as well as

sponsoring individual tasks that are vital to members (such as the Appalachian Mountain Club's

route cleaning and protection) and giving members special benefits (such as access to cleared

trails). Special interests advocate for government actions that meet the needs of the community

and achieve the goals of their organisations (e.g., environmental interest groups supporting

legislation to improve air quality by reducing carbon emissions).

Organizations of Industry Entrepreneurs and trade organizations are both involved in

attempt to control public policy and governance. These groups collaborate to advocate legislative

changes that protect businesses in general, as well as specific industry and sectors. Business

associations such as the United State (US) Business association, the Trade Group of Industries,

government business and industry organisations, and regional business groups all seek to

manipulate public policy. The United States Chamber of Commerce is the world's largest

business group, representing over three million businesses of all sizes, sectors, and regions.

Interest Groups

Commerce and industry associations, professional organisations, labour unions, ecological

advocacy organisations, and thing causing citizen groups and fundraisers are all examples of

lobbyists. Individuals and businesses also organize into associations and interest groups for other

reasons than to try to influence government. This includes for promotional and educational

efforts, to support specific activities that are relevant to members , and to provide members with

select benefits (such as access to cleared trails). Lobbyists lobby for public policies that satisfy

their members' needs and advance their organisations' purposes.

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References
Ho Khai Leong. (2006). “Malaysia’s Civil Service Reform: Mahathir’s Legacies and Abdullah’s
Challenges”, dalam Swee-Hock Saw dan K. Kesavapany, Malaysia: Recent Trends and
Challenges. Institute of Southeast Asian Studies

Phang Siew Nooi. (2008). “Decentralisation or Recentralisation? Trends in Local Government in

Malaysia”, Commonwealth Journal of Local Governance. Issue 1: May

Siddiquee, N.A. (2006). “Public Management Reform in Malaysia: Recent Initatives and
Experiences”. International Journal of Public Sector Management. Vol. 19 No. 4 pg 339-
358.

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