ABC of Gliding and Sailflying

HENLEY'S
ABC OF GLIDING
AND
SAILFLYING
Frontispiece. Illustrations Showing the Two Main Classes of Gliders.
That at Top Shows a Primary Glider Launched by Shock Cord. The
Bottom View Shows a Bowlus Sailplane, an American Built Soaring
Type, in the Air.
HENLEY'S
ABC OF GLIDING AND
SAILFLYING
This Treatise Contains a Brief History of Gliding and Soaring with
Motorless Airplanes and an Interesting Study of Bird Flight
and Its Relation to the Principles Underlying Static
and Dynamic Sailflying
Popular German and American Gliders and Soaring Planes Are
Described and Illustrated. Structural Elements and Mate-
rials of Construction Are Fully Considered and Typi-
cal Designs Are Outlined in Detail
The Book Also Contains Practical Instructions for Forming Glider
Clubs, Selection of Terrain for Gliding and Methods of
Launching and Flying Gliders and Soaring Planes
Incidental to the Training of Pilots
EDITED BY
MAJOR VICTOR W. PAGE, AIR CORPS RESERVE, U.S.A.
AUTHOR OF "MODERN AIRCRAFT," "AVIATION ENGINES," ETC.
Member Society of Automotive Engineers, Inc.; Formerly Chief En-
gineering Officer at Hazelhurst Field, Mineola, L. I., and Third
Aviation Instruction Center, A. E. F., Issoudon-Indre, France
ILLUSTRATED WITH NUMEROUS SPECIALLY MADE DRAWINGS. WRITTEN IN

EASILY UNDERSTOOD LANGUAGE
INSTRUCTIONS AND WORKING DRAWINGS ARE INCLUDED FOR BUILDING A
MODERN TRAINING TYPE GLIDER
LONDON
CHAPMAN & HALL, LTD.
11 HENRIETTA STREET, W.C. 2
1931
Copyright, 1930, by
THE NORMAN W. HENLEY PUBLISHING Co.
ALL RIGHTS IN ALL FOREIGN

COUNTRIES RESERVED
PRINTED IN THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA

THIS TREATISE IS RESPECTFULLY
DEDICATED TO
MR. EDWARD S. EVANS, Honorary President

OF THE NATIONAL GLIDER ASSOCIATION AND THE
MEMBERSHIP OF THAT SOCIETY FOR THEIR UN
SELFISH EFFORTS TO PROMOTE AN UNDERSTAND
ING OF SAFE GLIDING AND SOARING IN AMERICA
BY PROVIDING PROPER REGULATION AND PRO
MOTING THE FORMATION OF PROPERLY ORGAN
IZED GLIDER CLUBS
PREFACE
The German nation was prevented by the terms of the Ver
sailles treaty from any extensive airplane manufacturing and so
the attention of her flying public was diverted to the glider.
Progress in the art of gliding has gone rapidly ahead as a result
of this enforced limitation. Modern scientific construction and
meteorological knowledge have enabled a soaring record of over
14 hours' duration and another when a sailplane attained 2,500
feet altitude above the starting point, to be set in that country.
Gliding and soaring are rapidly acquiring the proportions of a
National sport in Germany. Many of her young men have
become quite proficient in both these branches of motorless avia
tion. Gliding is comparatively simple and consists of sailing
downhill, using the lift component of the wind resistance offered
by the wings of the glider as a means of lessening the pull of
gravity; soaring calls for considerably more skill and machines
that are much more efficient aerodynamically than gliders. Soar
ing machines or sailplanes are usually monoplanes with a higher
aspect ratio than found in the training planes and are so designed
as to possess the highest possible degree of maneuverability con
sistent with stability.
Great care should be exercised by amateur builders in con
structing the wings, and in order to design them correctly a
thorough knowledge of aerodynamics is necessary. By far the
most important part of motorless aircraft building is the design,
vii
viii PREFACE
construction and bracing of the supporting surfaces, also their at
tachment to the fuselage. A word of caution must be sounded
to any one building a glider from stock plans. Only the best of
materials and workmanship is permissible and there can be no
compromise with quality in either the constructional details or
the faithful working out of the design.
Properly designed and constructed gliders combined with a
fair amount of common sense in their use are practically harmless.
An occasional stall and crash results at the worse in a severe
shaking up and is the cheapest and least dangerous lesson possible
on the hazards of losing flying speed in any aircraft. Glider train
ing is a splendid preparatory course for those intending to take
flying lessons in full sized motored aircraft. Gliding is cheap.
The relatively low cost of gliding compared with powered flight
is perhaps its greatest single recommendation.
Gliding may be indulged in at a small fraction of the cost of
owning and operating an airplane. And last, but not least, glid
ing is using the air and becoming familiar with the air as a
medium of transportation for human beings. The so-called mys
tery of flight fades quickly after the fundamentals instilled
through gliding have been acquired by the embryo airplane pilot.
Here lies its greatest value to aviation. A glider can safely be
landed in places that would greatly disturb airplane pilots; in
underbrush, in hollows, on steep inclines, or jumping over fences.
After having stalled in the air, flying speed may be recovered
after a drop of something like 25 feet.
There remains the possibility of fitting the glider with a small
auxiliary engine. Thus the glider may take off in the plains and
fly to any place, where, upon meeting soaring flight conditions,
PREFACE ix
the engine is shut off and the real sport begins. The auxiliary
engine would also help out a glider that drifts away from lifting
currents or runs into a calm. All kinds of motorcycle engines
have been tried. This brings us out of the realm of the true
sailplane or glider, however, and into the field of the "flivver"
airplane.
Unfortunately, no present motor seems to meet all the ideal
requirements at once, but that will come. When this goal is
reached some authorities profess to believe that it will be compara
tively easy to build a reliable and fairly foolproof light airplane
of high efficiency, and capable of soaring flight, accommodating
two people. It will be slow and safe to land, of amazing fuel
economy and negligible maintenance cost. There is little doubt
that this generation will see and use it and flying should become
nearly as popular as motoring now is. A beginner on a training
type, motorless glider is not disturbed by the speed, roar, vibra
tion, and fumes of a motor. There is no throttle to regulate.
He can concentrate upon maintaining balance, getting "the feel
of the air." This saves time later during powered glider or
airplane instruction.
In this treatise, some space is devoted to bird flight, especially
as related to soaring birds, because much has been learned from
observing them and the student of gliding and soaring will find
much of interest in studying birds. Space has also been given
to the nature and causes of air currents because soaring will be
impossible without them. The suggestions for forming a gliding
club and the various methods of training pilots and flying gliders
should also prove helpful.
The only way to learn to glide is by practice, so any reader
x PREFACE
with ambitions to become a glider pilot should join a glider
club, or purchase a glider of his own and secure actual experi
ence in the air. This book is only intended to be an elementary
ground course on Gliders and Sailplanes. One can learn to fly
only by flying.
September, 1930 VICTOR W. PAGE
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
In compiling this volume, the editor wishes to make acknowl
edgment to the National Glider Association, Detroit, Michigan;
the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics, Washington,
D. C., and various publications and authorities mentioned in the
text for valuable illustrative and descriptive material.
Much interesting information relative to German Sailplanes
and Sailplane Construction practice was obtained from transla
tions of the writings of Mr. Alfred Gymnich, the well-known
German authority on gliding and sailflying, some of which have
been published as technical memoranda by the N.A.C.A. Other
articles have appeared in Popular Aviation, from which excerpts
have been taken.
The drawings of the Dickson glider, which are reproduced
through the courtesy of Flight, a leading British aviation publica
tion, were selected from the number of training glider plans
available because of the neat and strong construction outlined
therein and also for the reason that all amateur glider constructors
exercising reasonable care should produce an airworthy and safe
training glider if they follow the instructions given in the work
ing drawings and text.
THE EDITOR
TABLE OF CONTENTS
CHAPTER ONE
HISTORY OF EARLY GLIDER DEVELOPMENT
Some Early Flights—Work of Leonardo da Vinci—Pioneer Glider Pilots—The
Chanute Multiplane Glider—Work of the Wright Brothers—Archdeacon's
Water Glider—Harth and Messerschmitt—Modern Gliders Are Airworthy
Machines—Gliding as a Sport—Suspension Type Glider Obsolete—Gliding
Not Dangerous—Gliding Endorsed by Experts—Glider Must Be Approved—
Three Classes of Pilot's Licenses. Pages i to 21.
CHAPTER TWO
CAUSES AND NATURE OF AIR CURRENTS—PRINCIPLES
OF GLIDING
Force of Air in Motion—Structure of the Atmosphere—The Stratosphere—

The Troposphere—Air Has Weight—Cause of Winds—Air Resistance—
Relation of Lift to Resistance—How Air Pressure Varies with Its Speed—
Bumps and Air Pockets—Attraction of Gravity—Moving Air Exerts Pres
sure—How Gliders Are Supported in the Air. Pages 22 to 40.
CHAPTER THREE
A STUDY OF SOARING BIRDS—INFLUENCE OF BIRD FLIGHT
ON GLIDER DEVELOPMENT
Dr. Magnan's Study of Birds—'Birds Employ Various Methods of Flight—
Soaring Birds Utilize Air Currents—Birds with Largest Wings Have
Weakest Muscles—Bird Has Efficient Aerodynamical Form—Center of
Gravity Location in Birds—Bird Wing Profiles Vary—Influence of Bird
Flight on Glider Development—Nature's Flying Creatures—Loading of
Birds' Wings—Wing Area of Birds—Bird Flight Difficult to Imitate—
Lessons Taught by Birds—Sailplane Moves in Three Planes—Bird and
Plane Form Compared—Plane Forms and Aspect Ratio. Pages 41 to 65.
xiii
xiv TABLE OF CONTENTS
CHAPTER FOUR
SAILFLYING AND TYPICAL SOARING PLANES
Grouping Sailplanes into Classes—Monoplane Construction Now Favored—
Control of Sailplanes—How Sustained Sailplane Flights Are Made—Mean
ing of Glide Ratio—Some Typical Efficient German Sailplanes—1921 Dres
den School Biplane—1922 Darmstadt Sailplane "Edith"—Darmstadt Sail-
pla/.e "Konsul"—Hannover Glider "Vampyr"—Hannover Glider "Greif"—
Hannover Sailplane "H 6" ("Pelikan")—Sailplane "Der Dessauer"—Darm
stadt Sailplane "Geheimrat"—Dresden Monoplane Glider—Messerschmitt
Glider "S 13." Pages 66 to 07.
CHAPTER FIVE
HOW TO FORM A GLIDING CLUB
Club Organization—Suggested Constitution and By-laws—Number of Mem
bers Per Glider—National Glider Association—Classification of Glider Rec
ords—Glider Sporting Licenses—Status of Motored Pilots—Gliders Should
Be Licensed—Gliders Must Follow Airworthiness Rules—Requirements on
Towed Flight—Airworthiness Requirements of Air Commerce Regulations,
U. S. Dept. of Commerce Bulletin 7A, Part 3—Light Aircraft.
Pages 98 to 114.
CHAPTER SIX
DESCRIPTION OF MODERN GLIDERS AND SAILPLANES
Trend of Glider Design—Glider Blue Prints—Description of Detroit Gull;
Wings—Fuselage—Landing Gear—Empennage and Controls—Specifications
of Detroit Gull—Specifications of Evans Gliders—Specifications of Alex
ander Trainer—Specifications for Cadet II Training Glider—Details of
Bowlus Sailplane—Bowlus Wing Construction—A Dual Control Glider—
Water Gliders—Powered Gliders—Combination Primary and Secondary
Training Sailplanes. Pages 115 to 145.
CHAPTER SEVEN
GLIDING AND SOARING TERRAIN
Gliding and Soaring Flights—Definition of Sailflying—Static and Dynamic
Sailflying—Ascending Wind Currents Necessary for Sailflying—Factors
TABLE OF CONTENTS xv
Limiting Sailflying—Gliding and Soaring Terrain—Balanced Balloon to
Find Rising Air Currents—Use of Smoke Clouds—The Wind Zone.
Pages 146 to 160.
CHAPTER EIGHT
TRAINING GLIDER AND SAILPLANE PILOTS
Launching and Flying the Catapulted Glider—Method of Training Sailplane

and Glider Pilots—Student Sits in the Open—Soaring—Primary Instruction
with Towed Glider—Notes on Towing Gliders—Should a Club Build a
Glider? Pages 161 to 177.
CHAPTER NINE
SOME DETAILS OF GERMAN SAILPLANE CONSTRUCTION
Sailplane Wing Curves—Characteristics of Various Profile Forms—Sailplane

Wing Construction—Sailplane Wing Spars—Methods of Sailplane Rib Con
struction—Internal Wing Bracing—Angle of Incidence of Wing—The Fuse
lage—Making an Oval Fuselage—Landing Gear—Construction of Skids or
Runners—Wheel Landing Gears—Shape of Skid or Runner Important—Use
of Tail Skid—The Steering Organs—Elevator Controls Longitudinal Stabil
ity—Vertical Rudder—Warping Wing Control—Stick Control Best.
Pages 178 to 208.
CHAPTER TEN
MATERIALS USED IN GLIDER CONSTRUCTION
Description of a Typical Training Glider—Cost of Materials—Specifications

for Materials—Building Materials and Woods—Metal Parts—Steels Used
in Aircraft Construction—Strength-Weight Factors of Aircraft Materials
—Cloth and Dope—Glue—Protecting Fittings—Properties and Uses of the
Most Common Woods—Strength Coefficients of Different Kinds of Wood—
Wire Cables—Wire Ropes—Weight of Steel Tubes—Weight of Duralumin
Tubes—Strength of Turnbuckles—Weight of Sheet Iron and Steel.
Pages 209 to 226.
CHAPTER ELEVEN
DETAILS OF TRAINING GLIDER CONSTRUCTION
Typical Airfoil Curve and Ribs—Assembling the Wings—Covering the Wings

—Securing Fabric Covering—Doping the Wings—Forms of Bracing and
xvi TABLE OF CONTENTS
Control Wires—Training Glider Wire and Cable Arrangement—Aligning and
Rigging a Glider. Pages 227 to 246.
CHAPTER TWELVE
BUILDING THE DICKSON TRAINING GLIDER
When Building a Glider is Justified—Fuselage for Training Glider—Dickson
Glider Wing Construction—Wing Ribs—Front Spar—Rear Spar—Leading
and Trailing Edges—Wing Fittings—Wing Tip Skid Fittings—Wing At
tachment—Aileron Horn Construction and Attachment—Rudder Construc
tion—Elevator Details—Stabilizer Construction—Stabilizer Anchorage—
Stabilizer Bracing—Miscellaneous Metal Fittings—Control Unit for Glider
—Rudder Bar Construction—Launching Hook—Control Column Details—
Torque Tube and Bearings—Control Column Movement- -Cable Sheaves or
Guide Pulleys—Control Cable Fittings—Aileron Cable Guide Sheaves—Con
trol System of Glider—Bracing Wiring of Glider. Pages 247 to 283.
INDEX ................. Pages 285 to 294
CHAPTER ONE
HISTORY OF EARLY GLIDER DEVELOPMENT

Some Early Flights—Work of Leonardo da Vinci—Pioneer Glider Pilots
—The Chanute Multiplane Glider—Work of the Wright Brothers—
Archdeacon's Water Glider—Harth and Messerschmitt—Modern
Gliders Are Airworthy Machines—Gliding as a Sport—Suspension
Type Glider Obsolete—Gliding Not Dangerous—Gliding Endorsed
by Experts—Gliders Must Be Approved—Three Classes of Pilot's
Licenses.
Some Early Flights.—About the year 1300 before Christ,

an ancient Greek philosopher Daedalus wanted to escape the
wrath of Minos, King of Crete. According to legendary lore,
he made himself a pair of wings consisting of feathers fastened
together with wax; and he made also a pair for his son, Icarus.
They both ascended into the air. Daedalus arrived safely in
Sicily, having started from Crete. But Icarus, with the usual
exuberance of youth, flew too high and approached so near the
sun, that the wax in his wings melted; he fell and was drowned
in the sea. That incident probably discouraged other would-be
flyers from similar lofty aspirations and should be useful even
to-day in teaching conservatism in flying because the older and
less ambitious pilot did not try any acrobatics or for an altitude
record and history records that he reached his goal.
'To Archytas, a philosopher and mathematician of Tarentum,
who lived about 400 B.C., usually goes credit for the first flying
mechanism, a wooden pigeon which according to the ancient
2 A B C OF GLIDING AND SAILFLYING
record, flew for a distance of 50 feet. The first contrivance to
raise a man to the skies is said to have been devised in 200 B.C.,
when a Chinese general, Han Sin, elevated a man by means of
kites to observe movements of the enemy.
Triumph came momentarily to M. Besnier, a French locksmith
of 1678, who invented a flying contrivance, with four winglike
planes operated by his arms and legs. The wings, which were
hinged as in a book, were moved up and down by a motion similar
to walking. Besnier began his experiments from chairs and
tables, and then from balconies and low roofs. He managed to
save his neck throughout these tests which were in the nature
of wing-flapping glides, but he could maintain horizontal flight
only momentarily, as the physical exertion necessary was beyond
the limitations of man.
In 1742, another air-minded French person, the Marquis de
Bacqueville, built a gliding machine in which he took off from the
window of his mansion, glided over the gardens of the Tuileries,
and landed on the top of a washerwoman's barge in the middle of
the Seine. There is no record of the nature of his reception by
his hostess.
Work of Leonardo da Vinci.—Leonardo da Vinci, an Italian
of the Medieval era, who was most versatile and a genius, as he
was an artist, writer, sculptor and military engineer, had made
engineering drawings and computations showing flying machines
very similar to our present-day gliders, as well as sketches of
wing-flapping mechanism. His writings, which are still j of
interest and historical value, were the guide for 'aeronautical
experimenters for several centuries. His manuscripts contain
many drawings of birds and designs for flying mechanisms, in-
PIONEER GLIDER PILOTS 3
eluding a manually operated ornithopter, or wing-flapping
machine; an aerial screw (embodying the same principle as the
helicopter) and plans for wing operating motions. About 1490,
this imaginative inventor worked out the first plans for a man-
carrying glider.
He died in 1519 without ever having built the aircraft he had
designed, but a quarter-sized model built from the artist's plans
by Paul E. Garber, a modern authority on aircraft model making,
hangs to-day in the Smithsonian Institution, in Washington,
D. C. Birdlike in appearance, the model is supposed to operate
by wing-flapping motions. The operator lies prone upon a central
beam, his body protruding through a large ring and his head and
shoulders through a yoke at the front. His arms pass through
small rings, and his feet are placed in stirrups at the rear. By
alternately raising and lowering the arms and kicking his feet,
a beating motion is imparted to the wings. Short glides might
possibly have been made with this machine, but prolonged flight
would be impossible, as a human being could not maintain the
necessary rapid motions. An interesting feature of da Vinci's
design is the dihedral angle of the tail surfaces used to maintain
automatic stability—a means employed in connection with the
main planes for the same purpose by aircraft of to-day.
Pioneer Glider Pilots.—The first successful glider was made
in the earlier part of the nineteenth century by an Englishman,
Sir George Cayley, and a number of glides were made descending
at an angle of about 18 degrees. He made many experiments
and made some discoveries in the theory of aerodynamics and the
principles of equilibrium and control of a flying machine.
Following these experiments, Captain Lebris, of the French
Army, built a glider modeled after an albatross. (See Fig. I5C,
Chapter 3.) He started his apparatus from a moving cart and
soared 300 feet in the air against a fresh wind.
The most scientific development in the art of gliding was con
ducted by Otto Lilienthal and his brother Gustave, Germans, who
studied the flight of storks near their home. They built gliding
surfaces with means by which they could hold on to them and be
carried down from the summit of a high hill. The Lilienthal
glider shown at Fig. i was modified a number of times and about
one hundred flights were made with it before Otto Lilienthal was
killed because he did not move his body quickly enough to balance
the machine in a gust of wind, and it fell out of control. The
death of Lilienthal had a depressing effect upon the development
of aviation in Germany, but the foreign countries showed an
increase of interest.
The Britisher, Percy S. Pilcher, had experimented already in
1895 with a "suspension" glider of 151 square feet surface area,
reaching a maximum flying distance of 394 feet. Due to the many
breakdowns of the wings, Pilcher built a stronger glider, having
a supporting surface of 172 square feet and weighing 79 pounds.
This design was too difficult to handle and a third and lighter
glider was constructed with which many successful flights were
made. Then Pilcher built a glider in which he placed a 4-horse
power benzine motor built by himself, but before he was able
to test the glider, he met death by falling during a demon
stration flight before a scientific society.
The Chanute Multiplane Glider.—Chanute, a Chicago archi
tect of French parentage, believed that the monoplane type of
glider was too unstable and therefore he started very soon to
Wright Bi-Plane
Glider
Elevator
A forerunner of the modern airplane

Hundreds ofsuccessful flights were
made in this glider during fhe fat!
of 1902. It was designed andbui/f
by Orv///e andM/burWrighfondwas
confrolledbymovable surfaces and
wtng warping. The operaford/dnof
move/?/$ body Jo sect/re confro/..
Liliervthal Monoplane
Glider
Otto Lilienthal- Father of Gliding

from /89/f0/896, Li//eottai'made 2,000
flights in gliders offits own des/g/?. He took offby
running down hill, and white if? fhe a/r confro/Jea
his machine by sw/ng/nghis body.
A modern experimenter. Dr. Pe/fzner,

Flying in an ear/y style biplane g//der
( controlledby body movements) over
German Sand Dunes.
Fig. i.—The Early Gliders Were of the Suspension Type and Both
Monoplanes and Biplanes Were Experimented With. The Wright
Biplane Glider Shown at the Top of the Illustration was the Most
Successful of the Pioneer Machines and was the Parent of the Modern
Airplane.
construct biplane and multiplane gliders. He had been led to this
through the kite flying attempts of Hargrave, after whom the
box kite was named. Chanute's quadruplane glider, shown at
Fig. 2A, having four surfaces, carried a tail of the same width
and shape as the wing surfaces. Above the fourth plane was a
surface arranged parallel to the direction of flying. The gliding
angle of this glider was found to be 12 degrees, which is quite
unfavorable. Soon Chanute returned to the biplane with which he
obtained better results; the reason for this being probably the
fact that the supporting surfaces were arched at the lower side in
i :i2 proportion as in the Lilienthal glider. The glider was a
"suspension" type and had a net weight of about 22 pounds.
Herring, Chanute's assistant, made about 700 flights in it without
accident. With a total weight of 179 pounds, the gliding speed
was about 33 feet per second and the gliding angle varied between
7 and 10 degrees.
One of the most interesting gliding flights of the time, in the
light of Lieutenant Barnaby's recent glider descent from the
dirigible Los Angeles, was that of Professor Montgomery, of
California. Twenty-five years ago he successfully launched his
tandem monoplane glider from a Montgolfier balloon at 2,500
feet altitude and glided safely earthward. But after a series of
successful experiments, Montgomery lost his life on July 19,
1905, when the wing of his glider broke during a subsequent
attempt to launch it from a balloon.
Work of the Wright Brothers.—It is to the development
work of the Wright brothers, Wilbur and Orville, of Dayton,
Ohio, that modern aviation progress is due. They were interested
students of the work of Lilienthal and Chanute and as they were
WORK OF THE WRIGHT BROTHERS 7
practical mechanical men with a scientific as well as a literal turn
of mind, they evolved certain aerodynamical theories which they
proposed to test out with man-carrying gliders. These were of
the biplane type and considerable data and experience obtained
and published by Chanute were utilized in their designs.
A year later, the brothers launched their second glider, the
largest glider that had ever been built up to this time. The new
ship had an area of 308 square feet, nearly twice as large as their
previous machine. Lilienthal had used an area of 151 square
feet, Pilcher 165, and Chanute 134. None of these pioneers
would have considered such a large ship safe, but the Wrights
had the greatest confidence in the efficiency of their control sys
tem. This glider is shown at the top of Fig. I.
To better study their theories of warping wing control, the
brothers took up free gliding. Instead of launching themselves
by running downhill as Lilienthal and the others had done, they
found they could take off more easily with the help of two
assistants who ran at the end of each wing. Lying prone in the
glider to cut down head resistance, they found that after a few
minutes' practice they were able to coast downhill on the air for
distances of 300 feet, and within a few days they could operate
safely in winds as high as 27 miles an hour. They made all their
launchings into the wind. This glider, which was 14 feet long
and 6 feet high, had a 22-foot wing span and weighed 108 pounds.
Their method of landing was different from the old way, too.
They had planned to swing their body into an upright position
upon approaching the ground, and land on their feet, but they
discovered it was safer and easier to slide to rest on the skids,
keeping the body in the recumbent or flying position. Theirs was
Fig. 2.—Two Types of Gliders or "Suspension" Type Motorless Air

planes that were Experimented with. That at "A" Is a Chanute Multi
plane Design; the Other Is a More Modern Biplane Design Constructed
by Percy Pierce, Having Ailerons for Securing Lateral Stability and
Tail Surfaces for Longitudinal Stability.
WORK OF THE WRIGHT BROTHERS 9
the first glider to land on skids or runners in this way.
The third glider, which on September 15 was flown as a kite
to test its balance, had narrower wings 5 feet wide, and with 32-
foot span. These measurements evolved from scientific calcula
tions gave an aspect ratio of better than 6 to 7, as the span was
slightly more than six times the chord or wing width. For greater
stability, they added a fixed vane in the rear, which first was of
12 square foot area, and later reduced to six. The front elevator
contained 15 square feet. The total weight, unmanned, was 116
pounds.
As in their previous designs, this glider used warped wings to
maintain lateral balance. That is, the rear corner of the de
scending or low wing was twisted down to increase its lift. But,
in case the wings were warped excessively, the forward speed was
reduced because of augmented drag and the glider turned from
its course. To counteract this tendency, the Wrights hinged the
rear vane, making it a rudder. This gave their ship three controls
to manipulate—the elevator, wing warping and rudder. They
found that combining rudder and wing-warping controls simpli
fied the operation as the rudder could be used to correct the
swerving tendency due to the warped wing on the low side having
more drift or drag than the one on the high side. A glider—
perfected at last—was the result of the 1902 experiments. The
two men made about one thousand glides at angles of seven
degrees or less in this ship. This proved more efficient than
the Chanute glider. In it the pilot lay flat instead of sitting
upright.
In winds varying from 14 to 36 miles an hour, the Wright
brothers made glides lasting as long as 30 seconds and for dis-
UpperW/ng
—'
Irrterplane Struts
FronfRudder
Orville Wright
Gliding above Me SandDunes
W.C.In /903by
Elevator
fne Mo -Oufriggerfor Toil
Orv///e/nadea wor
duration record of 9/nffliffes
and 4Sseconds wh/chne
he/dfor/Oyrs wtfhfhe
snacft/ne s/rowa
Gliders may be /aunched

on /eye/ground forshorf
tra/n/ng ftights.
Why a 0/ider C/ub needs a

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Fig- 3-—An Improved Form of Wright Brothers' Biplane Glider Shown

at Top. The Harth and Messerschmitt Monoplane Glider Is Shown
Below It. Bottom Illustration Shows One Method of Transporting
Training Glider to the Top of a Slope for Another Glide.
PIONEER GLIDER FORMS n
tances as great as 622 feet. In the autumn of 1903, the glider
stayed aloft for as long as a minute at a time, often soaring
practically stationary in the air. At last, the Wright brothers
felt they were ready to test their wings in earnest. They had
proved their aeronautical theories with motorless ships which
actually stayed aloft a short time, supported only by air currents,
just as soaring birds were. The soaring trips convinced them
that powered flight was possible, and the knowledge gained while
actually in the air gave them confidence in their ability to fly. So
the Wrights constructed a sturdier glider—one strong enough
to hold a power plant, shown at the top of Fig. 3, and fitted it
with a light weight automobile type engine of 12 horse power and
of their own design and construction. At last they were able to
realize the dream which man had aspired to ever since the be
ginning of thought. They spread their wings on December 17,
1903, and took off, for the first time in history, in the first success
ful airplane.
Archdeacon's Water Glider.—At the time when the Wright
brothers were approaching their flying triumph, others of note
were also conducting experimental glider flights. Ernest Arch
deacon, of Paris, invented a glider which might be called a god
father to the seaplane. His machine, somewhat like a Hargrave
kite, was mounted on two little boatlike pontoons. Archdeacon's
glider would lift in the air when towed by a motorboat traveling
22 miles an hour into a 4-mile-an-hour wind. It often fell into
the river, because the laws of balance were not known at that time
and was finally severely damaged when it turned over completely.
In 1904, this Frenchman also made some experimental glides
with a plane among the dunes at Berck-sur-Mer.
Harth and Messerschmitt.—Harth and Messerschmitt built
their first glider in 1910, and this design was one of the first
soaring planes of the high wing monoplane type, in which the
wings themselves were movable to vary their angle of incidence.
They used a wing profile with a heavier entering edge and con
trolled their glides by manipulating the wings so the movement
of one would compensate the movement of the other. They
experimented always above nearly level ground. In 1914 they
were able to maintain their glider safely in balance in an air of
49 feet per second velocity. In the year 1916 Harth flew 3^2
minutes without losing altitude and that in an air of 26 to 33
feet velocity per second. Then in 1920 Harth flew in the Rhoen
at an altitude of 164 feet above his starting place without losing
speed in gaining this altitude, and that above a country having a
2- to 5-degree slope. This glider is shown at Fig. 3 below the
Wright brothers' glider.
Modern Gliders Are Airworthy Machines.—From the first
crude gliders of Otto Lilienthal, the German; Octave Chanute,
the Franco-American of Chicago, and the Wright brothers, to
the latest German and American motorless machines, is a far
step. The early gliders, frail structures of bamboo and fabric,
built sometimes like a giant box kite and again, as in Lilienthal's
model, like an enormous bat, would do just one thing—glide
down the wind from some height, and, if the pilot was lucky,
land him safely at the bottom.
The latest machines are more than gliders, for they not only
glide but some of them soar, and therein lies the secret of their
ability to remain aloft for many hours, make long journeys across
country and climb, as Ferdinand Schulz did near Marienburg, to
GLIDING AS A SPORT 13
a height of more than half a mile. On that occasion Schulz
picked a favorable air current, rode it up to a height of 2,566 feet
above the earth, and continued to float about up there for more
than four hours. Not long ago, Lieutenant Dinort spent 14
hours and 44 minutes in the air one day, soaring around in a
motorless plane. He took off from a sand dune at Rossitten, near
Koenigsberg, soared up on an ascending column of warm air,
which was climbing above the heavy cold currents off the sea,
and continued to soar and glide and dip through the day and into
the night.
Gliding as a Sport.—Gliding is a sport comparatively new
to America, but in spite of its recent introduction into the country
it has already created sufficient interest to warrant the establish
ment of a glider school on Cape Cod, Massachusetts. Capable
instructors were brought over from Germany, and other schools
will be opened as interest in gliding continues to grow. Many
glider clubs are being formed throughout Europe and the United
States and the new sport is receiving attention all over the
civilized world. Gliding is a fascinating sport. Whether one is
a beginner and is getting his first thrill at "the stick" on a ten-
second "hop" downhill or whether one is able to follow Peter
Hesselbach on long flights such as he made during the summer
of 1929 on Cape Cod, it is beyond the writer's ability to state
in cold print the thrill of the experience. There is no noise of
motor or propeller. The ship swings through the air with a
gentle swish and the German pilots engaged in seeking new
endurance records have been known to swing down over the
crowd and ask for the correct time. While Hesselbach was
flying off Cape Cod, eight to ten sea gulls came in from the
A B C OF GLIDING AND SAILFLYING
Stabilizer
Aerofoil Upper Longerpn
Headrest N
Control Stick
• **-
i ii, J--.-H- y i
i i L--*'*« ' ' RearSpar
-- J-- ----—-^•-
. ___..— , -i-« - _,L —.-,- _ i_ _ L _ j —
Skid
Fig. 4.—Outline Drawings Showing Full Side and Partial Plan and
Front Views of Typical Training Type Glider, Depicting Important
and Principal Parts and Their Relation to Each Other.
SUSPENSION TYPE GLIDER OBSOLETE 15
ocean and flew with him in formation, trying to discover what
new form of bird he was.
Suspension Type Glider Obsolete.—All of the early glider
experiments, which led eventually to the perfection of the motor-
driven airplane, consisted in straight glides, never exceeding more
than a few hundred feet in length. The glider pilot, taking off
with a short run from a hilltop, would rise a few feet in the
air at most and glide to the ground again at the foot of the rise.
The descent was usually made with his body hanging below
the framework so that, by throwing his weight from side to side,
he could keep his balance, as the shifting center of gravity thus
produced formed the only control. This method of control was
so tricky that it ended many flights in disaster, and caused the
death of Lilienthal and Pilcher. The new motorless soaring
airplanes are entirely different. Sitting in a comfortable cockpit,
the pilot operates rudder, tail flippers and ailerons 'through the
same sort of controls as used in a motor-driven plane. The usual
method of taking off is to be launched or catapulted into the
air at the end of a rubber rope, just as a captive kite is launched
into the wind by a boy. The training type of glider shown at
Fig. 4 is simple in construction and cannot soar because its weight
and air resistance will not permit it to.
The Darmstadt sailplane flown recently at Cape Cod,
Massachusetts, by Peter Hesselbach, established a record for
gliding in the United States which was broken by Harley Bowlus
by a soaring flight of over 9 hours in a Bowlus soaring plane,
and later by Barlow with 15 hours and 13 minutes to his credit.
Mr. Hesselbach had remained aloft for 4 hours and 5 minutes
in this sail flyer, which is a replica of the soaring plane in which
Ferdinand Schulz established a world's record of 14 hours and
23 minutes' duration in the air. Mr. Orville Wright established
the previous American recbrd when he remained 9 minutes 45
seconds standing virtually still, in the ascending air currents
blowing up the sand dunes at Kitty Hawk on the coast of North
Carolina, over eleven years ago.
Gliding Not Dangerous.—Contrary to the popular notion
fostered by the deaths of pioneer experiments with "suspension"
gliders, gliding is not dangerous. There have been only a few
deaths from accidents to gliders and these deaths were the results
of unfortunate accidents to men who insisted on trying something
new in contrast with proven theories and ideas.
It is generally believed that as long as a pilot keeps his glider
balanced he is comparatively safe, but that if a gust of wind
should tip one wing considerably higher than the other the
machine would be thrown out of balance and immediately crash
to the earth. That was the cause of the fatal accident to
Lilienthal, the builder of the first successful glider. The present-
day gliders, however, are not dependent upon the bodily move
ments of the pilot for their balance and the early types are not
looked upon with favor, by the United States Department of
Commerce aeronautical experts. The modern forms are easily
and positively controlled and are so aerodynamically correct in
their design as to have great inherent stability, and even when put
into the stalling position by inexperienced pilots show such little
tendency to spin that they are easily righted.
Gliding Endorsed By Experts.—The veteran glider pilot Dr.
Wolfgang Klemperer, now of Akron, Ohio, but one of the early
GLIDING AS A SPORT 17
German glider enthusiasts and holder of a number of records,
writes:
"It is an unrivaled sport. I am unable to describe by words
the sublime pleasure one experiences in gliding over hills and
valleys, silently, like the eagle, cruising or hovering, rising or
descending at will. The ample controllability makes you feel
like them, master of the air. The constant alertness watching
for favorable air currents and studying their relation to the varied
scenery below provides thrill and challenge. A few weeks in a
glider camp is outdoor life in the word's fullest meaning. Soar
ing flight requires also a certain amount of scientific training,
engineering sense and physical skill. Thus it most perfectly
blends all the elements requisite for a recreational and educational
sport such as the rising generation so appreciates."
Some of the most expert of the fliers of motored airplanes are
becoming very enthusiastic about gliding and sailflying or soar
ing. Colonel Charles Lindbergh is quoted as saying:
"Gliding not only offers a flying medium of safety because
of a-landing speed of ten miles an hour, but it is much cheaper
to learn to pilot a glider than a powered plane. The principle of
flight is the same in glider and power planes, with standard air
plane controls in both. A glider student learns the feel of a ship,
how it banks, turns, and lands and he does it at a ridiculously
low price as compared with power plane instruction.
"There is a thrill, too, to gliding. It is a superlative sport
which appeals ..to Americans, young and old. A few can band
together and buy a good glider. I see a great future for gliding
in America. It will sweep the country during 1930 and I expect
to see a million glider pilots within three years."
Salt'Plane Just Coming Down!
Dropping Launch-
ing Cord
Launching'
Cord
One Horsepower Hauls the Sailplane to the Top of a Hill for the Take-off
ig. 5'—The Sailplane or Soaring Machine Differs from the Primary Type Glider in Having Well Stream
lined Fuselage and Much Better Aerodynamical Properties. They Are Launched in a Slope Wind by
Rubber Shock Cord Just as the Simpler Types Are.
GLIDERS MUST BE APPROVED 19
The Massachusetts Institute of Technology led the way in
glider efforts in America since the war. J. C. Penney, Jr., and
the American Motorless Aviation Club of New York created
much favorable sentiment for gliding in the summer of 1928 by
bringing to this country three German gliding experts and making
possible the sensational soaring flights of Hesselbach. The Cali
fornia Glider Club, Vance Breese, pilot, was the first N. G. A.
group to get a glider in the air. Earlier, an individual member,
Thomas D. Stimson, of Seattle, had made glider flights and
with the exception of the Wright brothers, has been the first to
fly an American designed and built machine. Miss Amelia
Earhart was the first American woman to make a solo glider
flight. Gliders, Inc., Orion, Michigan, were the first manufac
turers to confine their activities to the production of gliders. The
soaring or sailplane type is shown at Fig. 5 and may be compared
to the simpler training type shown at Fig. 4 and a brief study will
show how they differ in construction and appearance.
Gliders Must Be Approved.—After October i, 1930, all
gliders will be required to have an approved type certificate or
a group two approval. Until that time they will be eligible for
licensing if they can satisfactorily pass a line inspection, which
may include a flight test if such appears necessary. No engineer
ing data will be required. (Group two approvals are those on
aircraft which are not built according to ATC's, but are air
worthy. Engineering data must be submitted to the Aeronautics
Branch for these approvals and flight tests conducted. Such
licenses are usually obtained on experimental craft, those whose
designs represent slight modifications in planes holding ATC's,
or craft to be built in limited quantities.)
When the regulations go into effect licenses will be obligatory,
not only for gliders, but for their pilots and for student glider
pilots. The requirements for the personnel, however, will be far
less exacting than are the standards for airplane pilots. Student
glider fliers will not be required to undergo any medical exami
nation, needing only to pass the tests taken by student airplane
pilots. Conditions which the Department exacts of gliders are,
briefly, that they shall possess lateral stability, without undue
tendency to fall into a spin; good balance, and satisfactorily
operating controls. The six-spin test to which powered airplanes
are put for their ATC's naturally will be waived for the gliders.
Three Classes of Pilot's Licenses.—Student, non-commercial
and commercial glider pilot licenses are provided under new
amendments to Air Commerce Regulations announced recently
by Assistant Secretary of Commerce Young. Glider student per
mits authorize the holder to receive instruction and to solo licensed
gliders while under jurisdiction of a licensed glider pilot. No
physical or written examination is required.
Non-commercial glider license serves the large group desirous
of operating gliders only for sport and pleasure. Examination
required is flight test, consisting of a minimum of three flights
including moderate banks in either direction.
Commercial glider pilot license is issued to applicants physically
qualified and who pass special flight test. Normal take-offs and
landings, series of general and moderate banks, 36o-degree turns
and precision landings is flight test. Applicants are also required
to pass a physical examination. There is no written examination.
"The Aeronautics Branch has spent many weeks in a study of a
policy which would encourage the glider movement in the United
GLIDER LICENSES 21
States and at the same time would adhere closely to the Depart
ment's principle of competent airman and airworthy aircraft,"
stated Major Young. "The study included a conference in
Washington of all of the Department's supervising and engineer
ing inspectors who are on duty throughout the United States and
scores of glider flights were made by these inspectors during
the conference. Requirements with respect to the licensing of
gliders are to be announced shortly."
A reprint of the airworthiness requirements of the Air Com
merce Regulations, Part 3 of United States Department of
Commerce Bulletin 7A entitled "Light Aircraft" is included in
Chapter 5 for the guidance of sailplane and glider designers and
those interested in construction of these aircraft.
CHAPTER TWO
CAUSES AND NATURE OF AIR CURRENTS-

PRINCIPLES OF GLIDING
Force of Air in Motion—Structure of the Atmosphere—The Strato
sphere—The Troposphere—Air Has Weight—Cause of Winds—Air
Resistance—Relation of Lift to Resistance—How Air Pressure Varies
with Its Speed—Bumps and Air Pockets—Attraction of Gravity—Mov-
Jng Air Exerts Pressure—How Gliders Are Supported in the Air.
Force of Air in Motion.—Air in motion may exert consider

able force. A gentle breeze creates very slight pressure, but a
cyclone or hurricane, which means air traveling at a rate of
from 75 to 100 miles per hour, can do considerable damage.
Much destruction is caused by tornadoes due to the great pressure
of air traveling at a high speed which has sufficient velocity to
uproot large trees and tear buildings apart. Winds are caused
by the conflict between rising air currents due to the lesser weight
of heated air which rises from the earth's surface and the down
currents of cold and therefore heavier air which rushes down to
take its place.
The physical contour of the earth and variations of tempera
ture as well as seasons of the year all have their influence on air
movements termed winds. For example, the hot summer sun
beating down on a sandy plain will saturate the earth with warmth
and ascending air currents will move at greater velocity than will
22
STRUCTURE OF THE ATMOSPHERE 23
air currents ascending from a forest. An aircraft, passing from
the hot, rapidly ascending air current to the slower moving,
cooler air from the forest will lose lift and may drop appreciably
in the cooler air column. (See Fig. 6.)
Structure of the Atmosphere.—The Director of the Blue
Hill Observatory, Harvard University, Alexander McAdie, who
Downward
r Flow
Upward _.
Air Currerrf
F-Foresf B-P/onn F-Foresf
Fig. 6.—Diagrams Showing How Variations in the Nature of the

Earth's Surface May Cause Wind.
is an authority on the structure of the air, gives some interesting

facts about the atmosphere. He says :
"Air is a mechanical mixture, not a chemical compound. Four-
fifths of the air is Nitrogen and other fifth is Oxygen. There
are negligible traces of certain rare gases. But there are two
additional quantities; independent variables, water vapor and
dust, both important as affecting aviation. In fact, it is water
vapor that is responsible for most of a flyer's troubles. Fog,
poor visibility, snowstorms, thunderstorms, are all manifestations
of change of form of water. If there be extreme dryness, wooden
parts of the machine are warped; if too damp, there are bad
effects. The plane or airship may get an ice coating and the
load be so great that there is a forced landing.
''Contrary to expectation and to some degree contradicting
fundamental equations in physics, the atmosphere is not homo
geneous. Pressure, temperature and even density do not decrease
as we go up, at a fixed and uniform rate. We cannot regard the
atmosphere as a single layer. Tidal equations cannot be applied.
The atmosphere is actually a series of airspheres; and these are
not exactly concentric shells. Not only do we find stratification
or layers; but even striation."
The Stratosphere.—We know two distinct shells—the lower
or troposphere, a region of change, also of convection, about
ten kilometers or six miles thick in our latitudes. This is the
layer in which weather occurs. An upper shell is the stratosphere,
or so-called isothermal region in which temperature does not
continue to fall with increase in altitude. Half a dozen airplane
flyers have reached the stratosphere or have gone a small distance
into it.
The Troposphere.—The lower airsphere, the troposphere,
bulges up at the equator and contracts at the poles. If Com
mander Byrd could have stopped long enough when he was at
the North Pole to make an altitude record, he would have passed
through the troposphere at 4,000 meters and into the strato-
AIR HAS WEIGHT 25
sphere. On the other hand, at the equator he would have to go
up 17,000 meters to get into the isothermal layer.
A pilot can get pressure and temperature by direct reading,
but there is no instrument to tell him the density of the air. It
happens that at 8,000 meters the density is practically constant
over all the globe. Above this height, air is denser over the
equator than over the poles. In fact, density appears to be a
function of pressure and temperature in low levels. Hence two
words have been introduced into the language—barosphere and
thermosphere—one to represent the region where pressure controls
and the other the region where density is a function of
temperature.
There is but little prospect of any free-flying soaring plane
getting out of the lower airsphere though there is a possibility
that in the future, towed sailplanes may rise near its upper limits
or even pass through it into the upper shell.
Air Has Weight.—That air had weight and offered definite
resistance was known to the ancients. Mention can be made of
a glider that was constructed early in the eighteenth century by
a German architect, Karl Frederick Meerwin, which is mentioned
to show that even at that early day considerable was known of
the laws of air resistance. He computed that an area of 130
square feet would be necessary to support the weight of the
average man, and this was a very good approximation of the
truth. He also made the sensible suggestion that experiments be
made over water to avoid serious accidents, which advice was
followed several hundred years later by Count Zeppelin in Ger
many and Professor Langley, former head of the Smithsonian In
stitution, in experiments over the Potomac River at Washington.
Cause of Winds.—Heating air by its contact with the hot
ground causes it to rise and cooler air rushes down to take its
place. Air over a plain heated by the hot sun will rise faster than
the air over a lake or a forest, so the ascensional power will be
greater and the cold air will flow in faster, this producing the
WIND
From Beaufort Scale of Wind Force
Mean Wind Equiva

Force at Stand lent
General Specification of Beaufort Scale ard Density Velocity
Description For Use on Land Based on Ob in Miles
of Wind servations Made at Land Stations Lbs. per per
Mb. Sq. Ft. Hour
Calm .......... Calm ; smoke rises vertically. .... .00 .00 o

Light air ........ Direction of wind shown by smoke
drift, but not by wind vanes. . . . .01 .01 2
Slight breeze. . . . Wind felt on face ; leaves rustle ;
ordinary vane moved by wind . . .04 .08 5
Gentle breeze... Leaves and small twigs in con
stant motion; wind extends light
flag .......................... .13 .28 10
Moderate breeze. Raises dust and loose paper ; small
branches are moved. ........... .32 .67 15
Fresh breeze.... Small trees in leaf begin to sway;
crested wavelets form on inland
waters ........................ .62 i.3i 21
Strong breeze... Large branches in motion; whis
tling heard in telegraph wires;
umbrellas used with difficulty. . . I.I -^•3 27
High wind. ..... Whole trees in motion ; inconven
ience felt when walking against
wind ......................... i-7 3-6 35
Gale ........... Breaks twigs on trees; generally
impedes progress ............. 2.6 5-4 42
Strong gale ..... Slight structural damage occurs
(chimney pots and slates re
moved) ....................... 3-7 7-7 50
Whole gale..... Seldom experienced inland ; trees
uprooted ; considerable struc
tural damage occurs .......... 5-0 10.5 59
Storm ......... Very rarely experienced ; accom
panied by widespread damage. . . 6.7 14.0 68
Hurricane ..... 8.1 Above Above
17.0 75
AIR RESISTANCE 27
winds as well as ascending and descending air currents. The
force of air in motion increases as the velocity of movement
augments. Air moving at two miles per hour is a slight breeze
and it exerts a pressure of .01 pounds per square foot area on a
plane surface at right angles to air flow. An increase in speed of
15 miles per hour is called a fresh breeze and the pressure in
creases to .67 pound per square foot. Wind velocity may be
measured by an instrument known as an anemometer or with a
modification of the airplane air speed indicator.
Air Resistance.—The factor of air resistance is a very im
portant one which must be given careful consideration by the
designer of aerial craft. It is of considerably greater moment
than one would assume on first thought. The shape of the object
being forced through the air (or, in fact, any other gas or fluid)
will have a material bearing upon the resistance offered to its
passage. A "streamline" body has the least resistance.
Air resistance has been estimated to increase as the square of
the velocity, so that it will be seen that at ten miles per hour
atmospheric resistance is four times what it was at five miles per
hour; at 50 miles per hour, which is ten times the speed of five
miles, the air resistance will be a hundred times as great. It has
been found that air currents moving at the rate of 60 miles per
hour have a pressure of approximately 17.7 pounds to the square
foot, and from this basis the indication of almost any speed may
be determined with reasonable accuracy. In this case it is well
to know that the horse power required to overcome resistance
increases as the cube of the velocity, whereas air resistance
augments as the square of the velocity.
In the same manner in which varying power may be secured
by altering the pressure of the wind on the sail of the vessel by
changing its position, it will be seen that by varying the angle
of a plane in the air that it is possible to vary the degree of sus
taining effort. It is apparent that efficient airplane wings must
be proportioned with a view of offering minimum resistance to
the wind, and it must reach'this result with some sacrifice of
lifting effect or sustaining power. Wind tunnel experiments have
brought out in an unmistakable manner the retarding influence of
air resistance and in modern aircraft designs, especially in types
designed to fly with little or no power or those powered airplanes
intended for very high speeds, the factor of air resistance and its
reduction is carefully studied.
The supporting surface of a sailplane may be considered as
having some of the characteristics of a boat sail as the power of
sustentation or support it has is obtained from the action of wind
or air currents in motion over and under its surface. The air
movement is usually caused by a combination of the wind and
falling speed of the soaring plane or glider. It will soar if the
lift component of the slope wind is greater than the falling speed.
Relation of Lift to Resistance.—The resistance of an airfoil
or wing section is not nearly as great as that of spherical, cylin
drical or rectangular bodies. A properly formed airfoil, inclined
at an angle to the relative wind of less than 16 degrees (because
the lift becomes greatly reduced if that degree of inclination is ex
ceeded) will have considerably more lift than drift. As the plane
progresses through space with sufficient velocity to obtain a sus
taining influence due to the air beneath it and the suction effect
above it, it is thus able to overcome the attraction of gravity.
AIR RESISTANCE 29
Wind Direction
Air Flow around Body with poor Air Flow around Body with gooa
Stream Line Form. Note formation Stream Line Form. Note absence
of Eddies and large area of of Eddies and very small area
Negative Pressure of Negative Pressure
How Positive v
and Negative f
7 Pressures are
Distributed
********** TtTvv around Body of
-< Wind —— good Stream Line
Length of Body
Value- of Positive ^fr^
Pressure least
at Tail 1 Value of Positive
Negative Pressure greatest
Pressure at Nose
Flow of Airstreom around Air Stream deflected by

Aerofoil Section which may curved Aerofoil entering
be considered an Element Edge
of Body of Good 'Area of Low:- }
: ::^\
Stream Line Form Pressure results in X--.
Suction
Direction of —5
Aerofoil Movement
Trailing I Angle of
Edge ''' J ''Incidence of
Line of Flow of Relative Wind Aerofoil
Fig. 7.—Diagrams Showing Air Flow Around Various Bodies and

Positive and Negative Pressures Produced by Air Currents. Note
Influence of Camber in an Inclined Airfoil to Produce an Area of Low
Pressure at the Top of the Airfoil Because the Air Stream Is Deflected
Upward by the Curved Entering Edge.
In this connection it is well to state that the lift on the ordinary
airplane wing section is not due solely to air pressure on the lower
surface of the airfoil, but, on the other hand, a study of the
diagram at Fig. 7 will indicate that there is a pronounced suction
effect acting at the top, because there is an area of reduced or
negative air pressure which, of course, contributes materially to
the total lifting effect, averaging 75% on most airfoils.
PcosCC
-Resultant
Force
Lift
Component--*
Angle of
Incidence
Drag\ Component
Direction of Relative Wind
Flat Plane
Fig. 8.—Diagram Showing Meaning of Lift and Drag and Forces

Represented by These Terms on a Flat Plane. By Using Airfoil
Section Planes or Wings the Lift Component Is Greatly Increased and
the Drag Component Is Reduced.
It may be stated that this area and the attending lifting influ
ence will vary with the shape of the airfoil, and that this will
also depend upon the aspect ratio of the plane, the angle of inci
dence and the velocity with which it is passing through the air or
that of air currents passing over it. To lift the plane, therefore,
we must have both compression under the bottom surface and
partial vacuum at a portion of the top surface, the direct pressure
produced by the former and the increase of lift produced by the
yielding of the other raise in ratio with velocity of the airstream.
It is apparent that the movement of the air or velocity of the wind
must be sufficient to cause a partial vacuum above and com
pression below to secure either dynamic or static soaring flight.
How Air Pressure Varies With Speed.—The following
tabulation will give the wind pressure acting against a square foot
area at right angles to the wind at the different velocities:
WIND PRESSURE AT VARIOUS VELOCITIES
Feet Velocity feet Miles Pressure per

per second per minute per hour square foot
1.47 88 i .005
7-33 440 5 .123
14.67 880 10 .492
36.6 2,200 25 3-075
73-3 4,400 50 12.3
102.7 6,160 70 24.103
146.6 8,800 100 49-2
The figures given above have been determined by considering

the pressure of the wind upon a fixed object, but there is proba
bility that there would be some departure from these values in
the event of an object being driven at the speeds indicated against
the atmosphere. The table is, therefore, of value only that it
shows that with the increase in air velocity there is a great in
crease in pressure, which obviously can be taken to mean that
there would be a greater sustaining force when the plane is placed
at its most advantageous angle of inclination with the relative
wind, because it is at this point that the greatest lifting effort
will be secured with a minimum of resistance. The lift-drag
ratio is greatest when the "lift" force is high and the "drag" or
"drift" force value is low. (See Fig. 8.)
The effect of the strength of wind at higher velocities is well
known and can be easily understood by any one who has flown a
kite. On a windy day there was a much greater pull upon the
string than when the movement of the air was less and, unless a
favoring air current was found, it was impossible to keep the kite
in the air unless one exerted a pronounced pressure under the
kite by running along the ground in order to draw it through
the air by means of the restraining cord. In still air the kite will
not raise itself from the ground, and it will fall as soon as the
air lift produced by drawing it through the air stops.
It will be evident, therefore, that if one or more surfaces of
the usual airfoil section are attached to a frame that is capable
of sustaining a pilot and if the surface curvature and area are
sufficient to displace the air to an extent capable of exerting a
vertical component reaction called "lift," which must be greater
than the entire weight of the apparatus and its load, we have
contrived an airplane which will be capable of flight. The amount
of wind force required depends upon many factors, and as a
general rule the greater the surface of the airplane for a given
weight the less the speed that is necessary to drive it through
the air to secure sustentation and in case of soaring planes and
gliders the less the amount of wind power required to lift it from
the ground.
The smaller the wing area, or the more the value of the wing-
loading factor is increased, the greater the wind power necessary
to secure flight. Airplane or glider design, the same as that of
any other mechanical contrivance, is a series of compromises and
BUMPS AND AIR POCKETS 33
the final form can only be arrived at by a careful consideration
of the many differing factors on which design is based. The
difference between a powered airplane and one without power is
that the latter can only be flown (short glides excepted) where
air currents are favorable. The former produces its own air cur
rents as it is drawn through the air by the motor-driven air screw.
Bumps and Air Pockets.—Bumps are encountered through
out the altitudes in which most flying is done. They are to be
found in the entire cloud region below the cirrus clouds. They
are not uncommon up to 15,000 feet, but they are most prevalent
in the lower stratum—below one mile. Any region regardless of
the thickness of the stratum of air may be divided into two parts
in a discussion of bumpiness, according to Luckiesch. One part
is that close to the ground and the remainder constitutes the other
part. Of course, bumpiness near the surface due to uneven
topography and artificial obstructions is absent over oceans and
great lakes. However, it can be bumpy over the water due to
mixed air currents and slightly due to rising air.
In hilly country, in mountains, and even in deep valleys all
factors combine to produce bumpiness at times. Air may be
deflected and eddied by mountains. It will be cooler at the crest
and on shaded areas. It will be hotter over barren rocks in the
sun and less hot over sunny wooded areas. Cool air will flow
down the slopes from the crest or from the woods. Any of many
conditions may be found here and there so that such regions are
naturally bumpy. A third type of bumpiness is not as general as
those due to topography and to unequal heating of the earth's
surface, but it is more serious. This is the bumpiness on the
borderline between two great air currents or between two widely
34 ABC OF GLIDING AND SAILFLYING
different conditions, according to Luckiesch, writing in Popular
Ariation.
The magnitude of the jar or bump depends not only upon the
abruptness of change in the direction of the air current but also
upon the velocity and total weight of the airplane and its load.
Earth
Earth
Air Currents in a Cumulus Cloud Air Currents in aThunderstorm
Wind blowing across Hilltop causes

reversed Eddies to leeward
Bump
Hole or (Pocket)
Ascending '^*
0escend-\ \\
'•k—o
In Sunshine . ' . In Sunshine

Warm Land In onaae
Cool Woods
Cool Piver
Fig. 9.—How Air Currents Are Produced by Clouds and Elevations

on the Earth's Surface. The Illustration at the Bottom Shows the
Influence of Ground Configuration and Influence of Water and Trees
on Atmospheric Conditions,
BUMPS AND AIR POCKETS 35
Sailplanes will be more easily carried by ascending air currents
than motored airplanes and as their speed is less, they will not
receive the violent impact a fast-moving, power-propelled airplane
will meet when moving across from one air current to another.
The sailplane in soaring flight rides the air currents, it does not
pass through them rapidly as an airplane with power does. How
ever, a sailplane may be tossed about more in turbulent air than
a power plane will on account of its lightness. A light canoe
moving along slowly over turbulent water is tossed about by the
forces of the deflected water which would make little or no im
pression upon a heavy boat.
If the turbulence is not too great the bumpiness becomes less
and less noticeable as the speed of the canoe is increased. Thus,
it is seen that bumpiness depends upon the vehicle and its charac
teristics as well as upon the medium and its characteristics. The
relatively great spread of the wings of airplanes gives the air
currents a correspondingly great leverage so that the abrupt side
ways tilt is commonly noticeable in bumpy air. If the airplane
strikes a deflecting current squarely, the movement of the craft is
upward or downward.
Before considering the many forms and locations of bumpiness
in the aerial world let us confine ourselves to that really dangerous
layer at the earth's surface. The topography of this surface,
including trees, hills and artificial structures, is fixed but bumpi
ness can arise from two causes. When there is no wind there
can be a difference in the absorption of heat from the sun which
gives rise to upward (convection) currents of air of various
velocities. The difference in these velocities depends upon the
difference in the temperature of the various surfaces and upon
the intensity of the solar radiation. Other conditions being equal
bumpiness is less at night than in the daytime. Furthermore,
where there is no wind this kind of bumpiness practically disap
pears when the various surfaces become cooled to the same tem
perature. (See Fig. 9.)
When a wind is blowing every stationary object deflects the
course of the air current just as partially submerged rocks do to
the water in a trout-stream. Besides these deflections there are
eddies and general turbulence. Much of the force or energy of
winds is expended by such deflections and air-movement near
the earth's surface and is generally slower than at some distance
above it on account of this "friction." An air hole or air pocket
is simply a descending current of air and the transition from
an ascending to a descending current and vice-versa always re
sults in a "bump" in a powered plane.
Attraction of Gravity.—We will now concern ourselves with
defining the attraction of gravity. Every mass of matter that is
near the earth if free to move pursues a straight line toward the
center of the earth, and the force by which this motion is pro
duced is called gravity. At the same distance from the center
of the earth the gravity of different objects varies as the mass.
If a body is not free to move, its tendency to go toward the
earth's center causes pressure, and the measurement of this
pressure is called the weight of the body. Weight is usually
employed as a measure of mass. The more the pressure of a
body is towards the earth's center, the greater, the weight. The
body that is said to be the lightest is one that has the least
gravity attraction. The attraction of gravity varies directly as
MOVING AIR EXERTS PRESSURE 37
the mass, the greater the mass the greater the force acting to
bring it towards the earth's center; the nearer the earth's center
the less the attraction. A body 2,000 miles under the earth's
surface would be attracted with only half the force that would
obtain were it at the surface. It is at the surface of the earth
that this force is greatest and at great heights it is less. For
example, 4,000 miles above the earth's surface gravity is one-
fourth the amount it is at the earth's surface. At heights at which
it is possible to carry on experiments the variation is very slight
and may be regarded as negligible.
It will be evident that one of the most important forces to be
overcome in flying machines is the attraction of gravity, and
considerable power will have to be utilized for this purpose alone.
With either primary gliders or soaring planes, it is the pull of
gravity as represented by the sinking speed compared to the
flying speed and to the velocity of the slope wind that determines
the gliding angle or length of glide of the machine after it is
launched. As lighter machines have less gravity attraction, all
other conditions such as velocity of slope wind, wing loading,
etc., being equal, they will have a more gradual gliding angle, i.e.,
they will glide further after launching than heavier machines.
\
Soaring planes are lighter in proportion to their size than gliders
and also offer less resistance to the air because of the streamlining.
Moving Air Exerts Pressure.—All bodies moving through
the air have their movement resisted because air is a medium
having definite weight, just the same as water resists the passage
of a ship through it. The resistance varies with the shape of
the object drawn through the air and the speed at which it is
moved. A kite is kept aloft by the lifting effect of the wind
or air in motion under its lower face, the kite being kept from
traveling with the wind by a string leading to the ground. The
wind pressure is sufficient to keep the kite aloft, though if the
wind dies down the kite will fall to the ground.
Similarity in Operating Forces of Kite and Glider. Note Area of Reduced Pres-
sure or Vacuum over the Upper Surface of the Glider Wing. InaOlider the
Resultant of Sinking Speed and Flying Speed Owes the 61iding Anyle
Kite Tail for

Stabilizing Effect
Starting Pope Just Leaving Hook

as Breslau Glider is Launch-
ed- Stretched Cord Gives
Initial. Impulse.
Fig. 10.—The Attraction of Gravity Compared to the Pull on a Kite

String, Showing Its Influence on the Gliding Angle of a Simple Train
ing Glider. Bottom Illustration Shows Launching of Glider by Shock
Cord Catapult.
The action of a kite is often used to illustrate the principle on
which the airplane or glider flies, as shown at Fig. 10. The kite
is a simple plane surface, held against the wind at an angle of
HOW GLIDERS ARE SUPPORTED IN THE AIR 39
attack that insures a sustaining effect or lift under its face. A
tail is provided to give a stabilizing effect and any one who has
flown a kite knows the careful and numerous trials that were
necessary before the right combination of tail length and weight
was found, to keep the kite from pitching about. The simple kite
shown was invented by the Chinese several thousand years ago and
is satisfactory as a toy for small boys, but for more scientific pur
poses, such as elevating meteorological instruments, the box kite
was found to have greater stability and lift and could be flown
without a tail. This is just another way of saying that the com
bination of the two tandem-mounted, box-like members with their
vertical sides and partitions is more stable than the kite and tail
combination. The first airplanes experimented with in Europe by
Voisin and Farman were really large box kites provided with
motive power and the Chanute and Wright biplane gliders were
also evolved from the box kite.
How Gliders Are Supported in the Air.—The motorless
airplane of modern form consists of one or more lifting surfaces,
which are cambered planes attached to a suitable body member or
open fuselage carrying the control surfaces, a suitable landing and
starting gear and the pilot. The action of a glider and the way
sustentation is obtained is different from that of an airplane.
The weight of an airplane is supported in the air because the air
lift due to compression under the wings and suction lift above
the wings is greater than the weight of the contrivance fully
loaded. An engine furnishes power to draw the motored airplane
through the air at high speeds by an aerial screw and the high
speed of movement compresses the air under the inclined wings.
As long as the lift is greater than the weight, and pull is greater
than the resistance to forward motion, the airplane will resist
gravity and overcome the retarding influence due to air resistance
as well; thus maintaining its position above the surface of the
earth independently of wind or air currents as well as moving at
rates of speed depending upon factors of design, now well known
to engineers and under full control of its operator. An airplane
can be maneuvered as desired regardless of wind or weather.
The simple type of training glider is usually launched into the
wind by elastic shock cord and the force of gravity replaces the
pull of the kite string or the "traction" thrust of an airplane
motor. As will be seen by the sketch at Fig. 10, the gliding angle
of a training type glider will depend upon the ratio between the
falling speed and the flying speed and the resultant of these
component forces is the "gliding" angle. The flying speed de
pends on the intensity of the slope wind and the supporting area
of the glider. The falling or sinking speed depends on the weight
of the glider loaded and the skill of the pilot in manipulating the
controls. In a slope wind of a definite value, the skilled glider pilot
will be able to make a much longer glide than an unskilled pilot
of the same weight because he will have a lower "sinking" speed
and a higher "flying" speed which produces a resultant force of a
smaller angle, which means a more gradual glide.
CHAPTER THREE
A STUDY OF SOARING BIRDS—INFLUENCE OF

BIRD FLIGHT ON GLIDER DEVELOPMENT
Dr. Magnan's Study of Birds—Birds Employ Various Methods of Flight
—Soaring Birds Utilize Air Currents—Birds with Largest Wings
Have Weakest Muscles—Bird Has Efficient Aerodynamical Form—
Center of Gravity Location in Birds—Bird Wing Profiles Vary—In
fluence of Bird Flight on Glider Development—Nature's Flying Crea-<
tures—Loading of Birds' Wings—Wing Area of Birds—Bird Flight
Difficult to Imitate—Lessons Taught by Birds—Sailplane Moves in
Three Planes—Bird and Plane Form Compared—Plane Forms and
Aspect Ratio.
Dr. Magnan's Study of Birds.—Dr. Magnan, Doctor of

Science and director of the "L'Ecole des Hautes Etudes," Paris,
France, has made an exhaustive study of bird flight and the
physiological and anatomical characteristics of various forms of
birds. As over 500 different species were studied, ranging from
large species such as the albatross and great bustard to very small
birds, such as wrens, he has collected 17,000 numerical data;
some on wing surface, forms and areas and others on the parts
of the organism of birds utilized during flight, such as the tails
and muscles of the wing. Dr. Magnan is convinced that the
plastic body of the bird, with its fuselage and supporting surface
can only be the result of the molding action of the air, which
offers considerable head resistance and that considerable data of
value to designers of motored and motorless airplanes could be
secured by a careful study of birds. Dr. Magnan states:
41
"To wish to imitate soaring sea birds and practice soaring
flight is to seek to make progress in aviation and to enlist aero
nautic science in the cause of the airplane without any engine or
with an engine of small power and is, consequently, a means of
obtaining quickly commercial communication at low cost, due to
the utilization of aircraft which, as soon as they are in the air,
can be piloted without expense for fuel with a speed approaching
that of express trains. It also means an early knowledge of the
aerodynamic conditions of flight, which the laboratory alone can
not give, and thus pave the way for great discoveries. It is also
the only way to render aviation accessible to every one and to
make it popular."
Birds Employ Various Methods of Flight.—In the course of
his studies, Dr. Magnan found that birds employ many kinds of
flight, but he considers it reasonable, if we would not complicate
the problem, to reduce these kinds to two types, flapping and soar
ing, remembering that, while we have in nature all degrees of
transition from one to the other, one of them predominates for
each kind of bird. (See N. A. C. A. Tech. Memo. No. 220.)
Flapping flight consists in successive blows of the wings, this
method being employed more or less, according to the species.
All the birds are capable of flapping their wings and most of
them can support themselves in the air by this means though
some, like our domestic fowls, can only make very short flights
and others, like penguins, have their wings so shrunken that they
cannot fly at all. It has long been known that nearly all birds,
before rising, endeavor to acquire a preliminary speed by running
on the ground with their heads to the wind, like the vulture, the
stork and the bustard; or swimming in the water, like the albatross,
STUDY OF SOARING BIRDS 43
or by dropping from an elevated place, like the goshawks and the
martin; or by jumping to a sufficient height in comparison with
their size, like the small waders, and sparrows. At this instant,
all species flap more or less violently, in order to acquire altitude.
A large number of species belonging to all the groups, employ
flapping flight exclusively. For many, this manner of flight is
habitual and is practically continuous. Some birds, after attain
ing sufficient altitude cease flapping and glide through the air.
Most swallows fly thus. They have a peculiar kind of flight,
consisting of alternate periods of rapid flapping and a complete
cessation of flapping. When the speed acquired seems sufficient
to the bird, he closes his wings and shoots through the air like an
arrow.
Other birds, like the martins, after a series of strong rapid
strokes hold their wings rigidly extended and glide for a short
space of time. There are other birds capable of gliding for a
comparatively long period of time. Such are all the species pro
vided with large wings, like birds of prey, large waders or long-
winged, web-footed birds. They flap their wings much less
frequently than the members of the other groups. Their wing
strokes are always made slowly and but few in succession. Gen
erally as soon as they have attained a more or less elevated
position, according to the species, they glide with their wings out
spread at right angles to their bodies. Thus they describe suc
cessive circles, each a little lower than the last. This gliding flight
is executed even in still air.
Dr. Magnan has stated that all birds flap more or less and glide
more or less and that it is not necessary to separate the two kinds
of flight. They are, in fact, only two different phases of the
same manner of aerial locomotion, one phase being utilized more
than the other by the bird during the course of its flight, accord
ing to the different conformations of the various species, as clearly
demonstrated by his investigations.
Gliding flight, of whatever length, during which the bird loses
altitude, must not be confounded with soaring flight. The latter,
may be continuous, but requires for its production, at least accord
ing to Dr. Magnan's personal observations, the existence of a
more or less strong wind and its action against the under side of
the wings. This view has been supported by sailplane pilots who
can only soar where the wind conditions are favorable. He holds
the opinion that there are two kinds of soaring flight. In one
kind the bird utilizes ascending currents, the wind having been
forced to ascend by encountering a mountain, for example, or as
a result of the air becoming heated near the ground.
Birds of prey often practice soaring flight, like the eagles in
the mountains and the vulture over the desert. With their wings
wide open, they can thus rise in the air until lost to view, generally
in a spiral motion, without flapping their wings. In the other
case, the bird mounts on the wind (which may be horizontal)
while facing it. With his wings more or less extended, according
to the strength of the wind, he does not give a single stroke, but
merely balances, in order to maintain his equilibrium. By means
of this wind he acquires altitude, his ascent always being quite
slow. In order to hold any desired direction, he uses his tail as a
rudder. He also uses it as an elevator, if the wind has a tendency
to upset him.
When the bird, which never flies at a great altitude under these
conditions, ceases to face the wind (after a turn, for example), he
45
makes a swift glide with the wind behind him and wings out
spread, thereby losing in altitude. In soaring flight, there are
accordingly two phases. The first corresponds to the first phase
of flapping flight with the difference that a soaring bird, in con
tradistinction to a flapping bird, makes no effort to raise himself
and finds the force required for his elevation not in the muscles of
his body, but in the surrounding medium. The second phase, on
the contrary, is the same in both methods of flight, since both
Dr. Mag nan's

Soaring Plane Design
Rear View
Fig. ii.—Front and Rear Views of Monoplane Soarer Designed by

Doctor Magnan from Data Obtained by His Comprehensive Studies of
Bird Flight.
the soaring and the flapping bird utilize and combine two forces,
the force of gravity and the resistance offered by the air to their
fall, according to the area of their supporting surfaces, for the
purpose of controlling the speed of their descent.
Soaring Birds Utilize Air Currents.—Good soaring birds,
which fly against the wind, can maintain themselves in the air
for a long time without giving a single stroke with their wings.
It has seemed that birds made their best flights when the wind
appeared to an observer on the ground to be continuous but rein
forced at intervals by squalls. This kind of soaring flight can be
employed only by certain species having a special conformation.
Among birds of this type are the albatross, frigate bird, gannet,
petrels and gulls. For soaring flight, the three former species do
not require a strong wind. The two latter families, on the con
trary, seldom practice soaring flight without a strong wind.
The flapping bird also utilizes the wind. He can also make
soaring flights in the theoretical sense of the term, but since his
conformation does not enable him to be a true soarer, he only
utilizes the wind to diminish his efforts in flapping. Thus the
small waders and quails, which possess characteristics recalling
in miniature those of the gannets and gulls, succeed in flying
across long stretches of sea in their migrations, for which their
own motive power would be insufficient.
Birds With Largest Wings Have Weakest Muscles.—Dr.
Magnan found that the relative weight of the small pectoral
muscles varies, on the whole, like that of the large pectorals and
that, moreover, the same as there are groups more or less well
equipped with wings, there are also groups more or less well pro
vided with muscles, with this peculiarity, that the best rigged with
wings have the poorest muscles. We learned in physiology that
the work of which a muscle is capable is proportional to its weight.
In fact, the strength of muscles is proportional to their size, i.e.,
to the number of fibers they contain.
The inverse ration which exists, on the whole, between the
weight of the pectoral muscles and the relative wing area is, more
over, very easily explained. Flappers have a rather small or very
STUDY OF BIRD FLIGHT 47
small wing area. They can support themselves in the air only by
flapping their wings more or less rapidly. Their down-stroke
muscles are well developed, by reason of the expenditure of the
muscular energy required by this method of flight. The same
holds true for the flapper-gliders. The size of the large pectorals
is in proportion to the rapidity of the strokes. They are small on
the night raptores, which flap slowly and glide frequently. They
are very much enlarged on the passeres like the martins which
fly by means of very rapid strokes separated by longer or shorter
periods of gliding.
Soarers, on the contrary, flap only to ascend or support them
selves when there is no wind. Most of the time they soar by
utilizing ascending or horizontal winds or glide through the air
with their wings extended and without the least stroke. The
muscular effort being small in all cases the large pectorals are
less powerful. As regards the small pectorals, the same reason
ing applies to the soarers. On the latter, these muscles are small,
because most of the time the wings are motionless and also because
their lifting may be considered as automatic, on account of their
large area. On birds with small wings, the weight of the small
pectorals, on the contrary, is ten times as great proportionally as on
soaring birds. Furthermore, although the up-stroke muscles of the
latter average twenty times smaller than the down-stroke muscles,
they are not over three times as small, for example, on the gallinse.
Lifting the wing therefore requires a great muscular effort when
the wings are small, this being true even for birds which fly
scarcely at all. Their down-stroke muscles are partially atrophied,
but their up-stroke muscles are large enough to lift the wings
during their rare flights.
In 1911 Dr. Magnan explained the inverse ratio existing be
tween the motive power of birds and the size of their wings. For
birds, as well as for airplanes, small wings necessitate a large
motive power, but with one point of difference. Hitherto the
improvements in engine construction have conduced to the idea
that the best airplane is the one propelled by the most powerful
engine and capable of carrying the heaviest load. On the con
trary, soaring birds, which are the best fliers, have the smallest
motive power and carry the smallest load. The same applies to
sailplanes used in soaring flights, the wing area is large in pro
portion to the weight.
Bird Has Efficient Aerodynamical Form.—The master
section of a bird is shaped very much like that of a fish. There
is, in both, an inversion of the body, i.e., a compression in front
in the horizontal plane and a compression in the rear in the
vertical plane. The master section of a bird, projected on the
vertical plane or on the horizontal plane also has, therefore, the
shape of a parabolic curve. If the bird is laid on its side the
summit of the curve is toward the head in the vicinity of the
greatest width of the body which is always located at the posterior
part of the shoulder joint and on the axis of the body, i.e., on the
straight line between the beak and the tail. The horizontal plane,
passing through this axis, divides the body into two very unequal
parts. The ventral part is much the larger and the branch of the
master section belonging to it is much the longer. When the bird
is laid on its back, the summit of the curve is, on the contrary,
situated on the ventral line toward the tail and both branches are
equal, producing a good streamline form.
The shape and, consequently, the position of this master section
also vary with the manner of flight. Its projection on the hori
zontal plane is a parabolic curve whose branches are very divergent
and whose summit is very much in front of the body proper on
soarers and flapper-gliders. For flappers, this projection presents
an elongated form. The branches, originating near the shoulder
joints, extend backwards with the formation of an acute angle
and join on the ventral line near the middle of the wings. The
master section is therefore in front of the body in birds of small
motive power and much farther back in those of great motive
power.
f~\
r L v
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0123456783 10 D,,JJ»» £/evafor SOAR PLANE
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Courtesy o-f Fligh+-Lo Tdon '
Fig. 12.—Outline Drawings of the Needham "Albatross" Soaring Plane,
Showing How Bird Form Is Approximated in Creations Intended for
Motorless Flight.
The general shape of a bird's body very evidently resembles
the shape of a fish. Both the body and the wing are thicker in
front and tapered toward the rear, this conformation being par
ticularly noticeable in all birds with their feathers on. ' This
streamline section (see Fig. 7) produced by nature is also used in
man-made soaring planes and powered airplanes where the airflow
by the surfaces with the minimum of drag or resistance is desired.
The faired fuselage and tapered wing of the modern sailplane
closely approximate the shape of a soaring bird, such as a gull or
albatross. (See Figs, n and 12.)
St Marfin's
Buzzard is a
Day Soarer
The Heron iso

Wide Tail Flapper - Glider
Note Chord-Span ratio
CC
L— -.---Spa/7'-- -
The Albatross is a
Soarer
Small Tail
Note Aspect rat,oofWing
Curie* -ftapper
The Loon is a Diver
Flapper
Fig. 13.—Drawings by Doctor Magnan Showing the Center of Gravity

Location, Body and Wing Form of Various Types of Birds. The
Birds Are Drawn the Same Size to Show Body and Wing Proportions
More Clearly, But Actually There Is Considerable Difference in
Weight and Wing Area.
Center of Gravity Location in Birds.—Dr. Magnan has also

determined the location of the center of gravity of various birds.
For this purpose, he employed various methods, which we cannot
describe here. It was found that the center of gravity, which is
always situated practically in the vertical plane passing through
BIRD WING PROFILES VARY 51
the longitudinal axis, is consequently placed far forward on
soarers and flapper-gliders and much farther back on flappers. In
the former, it always corresponds to the front third of the wings
and is nearer the front sixth in the best fliers. In flappers, on the
contrary, it is nearly opposite the middle of the wings and ap
proaches the line joining their middle points in proportion as they
are poorer fliers. Moreover, the center of gravity always lies
below the longitudinal axis and a little above the middle of the
greatest thickness of the body in birds of small motive power and
slightly below the middle in those with large motive power. (See
Fig. 13.)
Bird Wing Profiles Vary.—The wing profile of the Pondi«
cherry vulture is very peculiar, in that it has a recess on the lower
side just back of its leading edge. According to Hankin, similar
recesses are possessed by the adjutant, crane, and flamingo, hence
by land soarers with a high wing loading. It was therefore as
sumed that the recess facilitates soaring. According to Hankin
the birds with the recessed wing profile soar swifter than those
with the eagle or owl wing profile while, on the contrary, the
gliding angle of the latter profiles is better than that of the
recessed profile. Airplanes with this profile were wrecked in
their first tests. The recessed profile is likewise unsuited for
dynamic soaring flight because it develops vortices, which increase
the drag. The recessed wing section of the dusky horned owl
shown at Fig. 14 was modified and became the R.A.F. No. 5 air
foil section shown above it.
Influence of Bird Flight on Glider Development.—Nature
had, for hundreds of thousands of years, endowed certain crea
tures with power to move at will through the air and prehistoric
reptiles with enormous wing spreads were the remote ancestors
of our present-day birds. Naturally, the first reasoning human
beings envied the birds this power to navigate the air and many
studies of bird flight were made by early philosophers. It was
the study of soaring birds, rather than those that fly only by
R.A.F. No.5 Aerofoil Section
Wing Section of Dusky Horned Ow
R.A.F. No. 3 Aerofoil Section
Radius---
Wing Section of Herring Gull

' Tensor Paiagii L on gas
Fig. 14.—How Birds' Wing Sections Compare with Early Airfoil

Sections Used on Powered Airplanes.
rapidly flapping their wings, that gave man the first clue to avia
tion. The reader is asked to study the diagrams presented at
Fig. 15. The gull shown at A, is soaring and with wings fully
extended, head thrust forward, tail extended and feet retracted,
offers the minimum resistance and maximum supporting surface.
NATURE'S FLYING CREATURE3 53
Lateral balance is obtained by the flexed wing-tip feathers; move
ments of the tail vary the angle of attack for best meeting the air
current. The bird makes these movements instinctively. In
alighting, the bird's position changes materially. The body is
tilted upward, the wings are changed so they are at a sharp angle
with the air currents, the feet are extended and tail depressed.
The position of every part is such as to offer maximum resistance
and bring soaring flight to a stop. The lift of the wings is de
creased and their resistance or retarding power greatly increased
by the sharp angle of attack shown at Fig. I5B.
The Le Bris glider, shown at C, Fig. 15, was the invention of a
Frenchman who, as early as 1867. conceived the idea of flexing
wings to secure lateral balance, and its form was such that if a
sufficiently light power plant had been available, the creation would
undoubtedly have left the ground and made powered flights at that
early date, and as directional control by use of rudders was an
ancient art, the machine could have been controlled in flight. A
later form of soaring plane shown at Fig. 11 was designed in
1914 by Dr. Magnan, a French scientist previously mentioned
for flights in horizontal and slope winds and also closely followed
bird form and was based on an exhaustive study of the propor
tions of soaring and other birds. A typical modern soarplane is
shown in outline at Fig. 12. This only approximates the plan
form of a bird.
Nature's Flying Creatures.—Nature has provided othef
creatures that fly besides the birds. The insect world offers many
examples of flying creatures. The dragon fly, with its large wing
spread, appears to glide at times, as does the butterfly, but other
insects can only keep in the air while their wings are vibrating
rapidly. The beetle family are wing case insects. (See Fig.
150.) The membranous members are protected by hard cases
when the insect is at rest, and when in flight the wing cases are
spread out to offer cambered planes for support while the rapidly
vibrating membranes serve as a propulsive medium. Insects such
Soaring bird,with wing tips flexed to secure

lateral balance and wings curved to secure
lift from air currents
Hexed Wing Tip

*S '
extended for Balance

Feet retrotated to reduce * S*
Re sis tance Air Currents
Air Currents
Jail depressed
to increase
Gull alighting with resistance
wings in position
Body
to secure braking The Le Bris'Glider ^
effort by offering A man made soaring machine th^t used
maximum resistance flexing wings to secure balance as early
Feet Extended
as I867,was patterned closely after
bird forms
Hard wings case offers f?s give some degree
a cambered pl Large tail ofsupport in the air
for support- used in air or
D and act as
wings
V
Rapidly vibrating
^membranes for Small''' f^ Vertical fin for
propulsion fins used 'balance in the air
in water only
The Beetle is a Wing-Case Insect Flying Fish
E
Fig. 15.—Study of Bird Flight Gave Man the Clue to Mechanical

Flight. A—Position of Wings and Body of Soaring Gull. B—How
Alighting Gull Changes Wing and Body Position to Offer Maximum
Resistance and Thus Arrest Forward Motion. C—The LeBris Glider,
an 1867 Model, Closely Approximated Bird Form. D—Wing Case
Insects Use Hard Wing Coverings as Planes for Support and Mem
branous Members for Propulsion. E—The Flying Fish Leaps from
Wave to Wave and by Extending Its Fins Derives Some Degree of
Support from Air Currents.
NATURE'S FLYING CREATURES 55
as beetles have considerable weight and size in proportion to their
supporting area, while butterflies have much greater supporting
area and can fly with more deliberate and slower \ving movements.
The Hying fish, as shown in Fig. I5E, is able to leap out of
the water and by extending its fins, which are of much larger area
than most fish have, it is able to derive some support from the
air currents before gravity returns it to its native element. The
tail is large and a vertical fin under its body has sufficient area to
provide some stabilizing influence. The flying fish is not capable
of extended flights, as birds are, but of long leaps from one wave
crest to another. Certain reptiles, such as frogs with extremely
large membranes on their feet and mammals such as the "flying"
squirrel which has a skin joining its front and back legs that can
be distended to give it a certain supporting area can make quick,
steep glides but cannot soar. The small mammal, the bat, our
modern survival of prehistoric times, has flexible membranes of
considerable area and powerful muscles by which they may be
vigorously flapped so that flights are possible and steep glides can
be made by keeping the membranes extended.
Loading of Birds' Wings.—There is some similarity in cross-
section of some of the airfoils used for early airplanes as shown
at Fig. 14 and the wings of birds. The wing loading of birds,
i.e., the amount of weight carried per unit area is light compared
to that of flying machines as it varies from a minimum of half a
pound to 2 pounds per square foot. The wings of a black vulture,
for instance, are loaded 1.25 pounds per square foot. The sus
taining members of the dusky horned owl and the tawny eagle
are loaded about .90 pound per square foot. All birds' wing
sections as well as their plan forms are different and undoubtedly
have changed in form as a result of a natural development or
evolution depending upon the habits of the birds, such as whether
they were gliders, soarers, flappers or swimmers. Soaring planes
also have a low wing loading of about 2 pounds per square foot
or slightly more but the airfoil sections of modern airplanes and
gliders differ considerably from sections of birds' wings, being
thicker and shorter in most cases.
Wing Area of Birds.—The student of airplanes may wonder
what the proportions of the flying machine devised by Nature are
and how the supporting surfaces compare in different birds in
reference to their weight and flying power. It is conceded that a
study of bird flight and form may be of interest to the student and
it is necessary to give this more than passing consideration at the
present time because modern sailplane design was influenced con
siderably by the study of the flight of soaring birds. It has been
stated that in prehistoric times much larger creatures inhabited
this earth than we know of to-day. These included peculiar fly
ing forms that were neither bird, reptile nor mammal, but which
had characteristics of all these. Many centuries ago a large flying
creature which was a combination of reptile and bird and which
was known as the Pterodactyl existed, and while it is not possible
to give the exact size of this creature, from the present existing
skeletons reconstructed by modern scientists, it is assumed that
the wing spread was about 20 feet and that a supporting area of
about 25 square feet was available for supporting it in flight. The
weight was 30 pounds and it was estimated that it was capable of
exerting about 1/25 H.P.
If we consider the modern birds, among the largest of the soar
ing bipeds is the condor, which has a wing stretch of 10 feet from
tip to tip, a weight of 17 pounds, a wing area of about 10 square
feet and which is capable of exerting about 1/30 H.P. The
turkey buzzard is a smaller soaring bird which has a wing stretch
German Taube Design Soaring Bird
Wing Flap
Elevators •-;?
How Airplane Approximates Bird form if Viewed from Above
Wing
Bird Nosing Up
Wing. ,. , ,_ ., , ' Center of
Center of Gravity Pressure
Bird i
^Cen ter ofGra vity
Centers of Pressure Centers of Pressure
" Center of Gravity-''

Movement of Wings
Changes its Position B
Fig. 16.—Diagrams Showing Plan View of Early German Airplane

Design Compared with Plan of Soaring Bird at Top of the Illustration.
The Other Illustrations Show How a Bird Can Shift the Relation of
Pressure and Gravity Centers by Wing and Tail Movements to Secure
Changes of Direction in a Vertical Plane.
of 6 feet, a supporting area of 5 square feet, a weight of 5 pounds
and a power capacity of but little over i/ioo H.P. It will be
evident that the ratio of supporting surface to the weight of the
creatures does not always vary directly with their weight and,
strange to say, the larger the creature the less the relative power
and surface area needed for its support.
It has been stated that the lungs of a bird, filled with air and
the fact that all of its major bones have very light walls and are
hollow greatly reduced the body weight in proportion to its size
and its form was such that a certain aerodynamic lift was obtained
by air pressure under the body while in flight. Then again, much
of a bird's bulk is due to feathers, which are light in proportion
to their size. When plucked, a large bird shrinks in size in an
amazing manner. Feathers are nearly as light as the air they dis
place and even quills are picked up by the wind and carried away
because of their light weight in proportion to their size and sup
porting area. In modern airplanes and sailplanes, many of the
structural members, such as box spars and frame tubes are hollow
to save weight just as the bones of birds are and of course, the
wings and fuselage are extremely light for their bulk.
Bird Flight Difficult to Imitate.—When one compares the
flight of birds with the principles that underlie the support of an
airplane or sailplane in the air, it is only because the bird is
Nature's flying machine and such comparisons are not fair because
a part of the supporting force through which a bird flies is
obtained by the flapping of wings, which so far has not been suc
cessfully imitated by man-made mechanism. It is not strictly a
flapping movement, but one that combines a flapping to provide
lift with a forward thrust. Another thing that can never be
imitated is the peculiar instinctive coordination of various body
parts by which a bird can change its center of gravity in its rela
tion to the center of pressure and secure up or down flight by
BIRD FLIGHT DIFFICULT TO IMITATE 59
movement of its head, tail or wings. (See Fig. 16.) Proponents
of the early types of suspension gliders thought they could shift
their bodies and do this balancing instinctively with practice but
they found that the centuries of evolution birds had gone through
to perfect their technique could not be condensed in the lifetime of
an individual.
A comparison between birds and sailplanes can only be made
when one considers soaring birds and then only as long as the
creature supports itself by changing the relation of its wings and
body so as to secure the support it needs from varying air cur
rents—obviously as soon as the bird starts flapping its wings it
ceases to act in the same way as an airplane, which cannot have
any relative movement of its supporting surfaces or shift weights
so that changes of the center of gravity may be obtained, though
the control surfaces can cause center of pressure movement on
the wing within reasonable bounds by changing the angle of attack
or the incidence of the wing.
Lessons Taught By Birds.—By watching the flight of gulls,
the Wright brothers conceived the idea of wing flexing for lateral
balance, that next in importance to a light powerful engine, was
to make flying commonplace. They observed that the soaring
birds, such as gulls, maintained lateral balance by flexing or dis
torting the tips of their wings so they arranged their supporting
planes to obtain a greater positive lift on the wing on the low
side of the airplane by flexing down the tip. Studies of bird flight
have also led to streamline monoplane designs; the use of wings
having much greater span than chord and a plan form for the
complete structure when viewed from the top somewhat the same
as that of a bird with wings extended. (See Fig. 16.) An ob-
60 A B C OF GLIDING AND SAILFLVING
server who noticed that a bird held its talons close to its body
when flying- suggested the retractable landing gear to reduce re
sistance, now a feature of nearly all practical amphibian airplanes
and being incorporated in some land planes as well to secure an
increase in flying speed.
Moveable
in
Tip
"La Pruvo"
Dimensions in
Elevator Meters
Skid Rudder „ Center Section

I '''
Fuselage Wing Panel || / Wing Panel
Fig. 17.—Diagram Showing Outline of La Pruvo Sailplane, Having a

Plan View That Closely Resembles That of a Soaring Bird with Wings
Outstretched and Securing Its Lateral Balance by Movable Wing Tips.
Modern practice for planes and gliders of ordinary size is

towards the simplest or monoplane structure and few airplanes are
built that utilize more than a pair of wings on each side of the
fuselage. The principle of the wide advancing edge is made use
of—just the same as obtained in nature's creation. In a bird,
which is always a strictly monoplane design because nature's plan
seems to be always to provide maximum possible efficiency in its
BIRD FLIES INSTINCTIVELY 61
living mechanisms, the body is sustained between two wings that
have sufficient supporting area to perform the necessary functions
of sustentation during soaring flight, but the control of this is so
delicate that by the simple movement or flexing of feathers at the
wing tips, not necessarily the movement of the wings or of the
body, it is possible to decidedly change the poise or balance of the
bird in the air.
The application of such natural force is instinctive with a bird
and the utilizing of speed or wind velocity is all performed
automatically without materially affecting the progress of the
creature. The fact that this instinctive control is not impossible
of attainment to a more limited degree by man can be shown by
the instinctive balancing which obtains when one becomes familiar
with bicycle riding—the unconscious movement of the body so
easily accomplished by the rider who has had considerable experi
ence is very difficult for the novice to acquire, and even after
several years' rest it is possible for one who is familiar with
bicycle riding or who has learned it to get on a machine and ride
off without any trouble. By continual practice, the movements of
the control stick of airplanes or gliders to secure proper balancing
also becomes automatic to a degree.
Of course, the mass of a modern airplane or sailplane is too
great to be affected by any conscious movement of the operator,
though this principle of leaning the body to secure equilibrium
was used in early suspension gliders.
The new system of control, however, does not utilize move
ments of the entire body, though an inherent sense of equilibrium
is absolutely necessary in order that the aviator may tell when his
plane is not flying as it should, such as having one wing lower
Rudder
SIDE
VIEW
Elevator
/ Landing Skid *Zaunkoenig."

Fuselage All Dimensions
in Meters ' v Vertical
Elevator Aileron Rudder
PLAN VIEW
Fin, ^-Rudder
Âileron Wing
The "Darmstadt."
PLAN VIEW
Fuselage SIDE
— Elevator
Landing Skid VIEW
Rudder
Fig. 18.—Outline Drawings Showing the Dimensions of Two Successful Types of German Sailplanes, One of
Which Approximates Birds' Plan Form More Than the Other. The Zaunkoenig Has Its Vertical Rudder Above
the Wing Tips, a Somewhat Unusual Construction. The Darmstadt Is a Very Efficient Soaring Design Having
a Large Aspect Ratio and a Wing Loading Approximating That of Some Soaring Birds.
SAILPLANE MOVES IN THREE PLANES 63
than the other, or climbing at too steep an angle. When high up
in the air, there is nothing to compare this to except certain parts
of the machine which practice and observation tells the operator
must occupy a certain position relative to the horizon when in
normal flight.
Instruments have been devised to give this information to the
airplane pilot so that in a fog or when flying after dark or in a
storm, one can have an artificial horizon and navigate and control
the airplane properly. As gliders and sailplanes will undoubtedly
be operated during daylight hours, for relatively short periods
of time and under only favorable weather conditions, complete
sets of navigating instruments are not necessary though simple
instrument boards with an air speed indicator, a turn and bank
indicator and an altimeter are fitted to some of the recently devised
soaring planes.
Sailplane Moves in Three Planes.—There are really three
axes about which a sailplane structure can operate, so that three
distinct sets of control surfaces are required. In the usual form
all of the control planes are at the rear of the fuselage and wings.
Those at the tail are called the "empennage." The elevator, which
consists of two flaps capable of moving up and down, is at the
extreme rear of the fuselage and controls "pitching" or up-and-
down movements. The rudder, which has a vertical surface, is
utilized for the turning or "yawing," as it is called. The lateral
balancing or "rolling" control, is produced by the ailerons or wing
flaps or by movable wing tips. Wing warping is now obsolete.
Bird and Plane Form Compared.—If one compares the form
of a bird with that of some of the late gliders and airplanes, it
will be apparent that they are somewhat similar in form, because
both have a wide advancing edge or wing spread and that the
plane or wing is comparatively short, and, as will be evident, the
bird can utilize its tail as an auxiliary wing which aids and directs
its flight. The section of a bird's wing is similar in the main,
to the cantilever monoplane, being thicker at the point of attach
ment to the body than it is at the wing tips. While airplanes have
flown successfully with wings of rectangular plan, the most
efficient of our modern designs utilize wings which not only taper
in sectional area but also in plan. It is necessary to provide
some form of rudder or auxiliary plane on an airplane in the
form of an airfoil which can be lifted or depressed, so that the
air will act on the top or bottom of its surface, depending upon the
direction it is desired to fly in to correspond to the elevating
function of a bird's tail.
The bird has no surface that corresponds to the vertical rudder
necessary on an airplane, because it is possible for it to flex its
wings and to flap them simultaneously and thus secure propulsive
effort and change the direction at the same time. It is also pos
sible for a bird to move its wings forward or back and alter the
center of pressure as well as the angle of attack in a way that
would be very difficult for man-made mechanism to imitate even
approximately, because the bird does it instinctively and probably
without thinking about it. This is not possible with the wings of
an airplane, which must be immovable relative to the fuselage in
order to secure the necessary strength. It is possible, however, to
turn an airplane without the use of the vertical rudder by merely
working the ailerons which would correspond to some degree to
the flexing of the bird's wing tips. The vertical rudder is neces
sary, however, to make good turns in the man-made living
PLANE FORAI AND ASPECT RATIO 65
machine even though it can be dispensed with in Nature's model.
(See Fig. 16.)
Plane Forms.—The effect of using wings or planes of the
same area but of varying shapes and forms is marked, and also
with those of different aspect ratio and airfoil section, but in
tests the actual results obtained were so much different as to be
the cause of considerable comment. There was no question but
that the form of the wing of a bird when extended in soaring
flight had proportions that could be followed to advantage by the
designer of airplanes; however, the curves of a bird's wings are
not easily duplicated in man-made machines, so that various forms
of airfoils have been devised that give really good results when
driven through the air at sufficient speed by the thrust or push of a
propeller.
Experiments have demonstrated that within certain limits the
supporting wings of soaring planes should be long when viewed
from the front, and short when seen from the side. The best
proportions have never been definitely determined and vary in
many of the successful creations. The usual aspect ratio of a
motored airplane is about 6 or 7 times the depth or width,
measured along the chord. In soaring planes the aspect ratio, i.e.,
that of span to chord may be anywhere in the range from TO to
15 to i. Wing spreads of 60 feet with a chord of about 4 feet
have been noted in some of the German sailplanes.
CHAPTER FOUR
SAILFLYING AND TYPICAL SOARING PLANES

Grouping Sailplanes into Classes—Monoplane Construction Now Fa
vored—Control of Sailplanes—How Sustained Sailplane Flights Are
Made—Meaning of Glide Ratio—Some Typical Efficient German Sail
planes—1921 Dresden School Biplane—1922 Darmstadt Sailplane
"Edith"—Darmstadt Sailplane "Konsul"—Hannover Glider "Vampyr"
—Hannover Glider "Greif"—Hannover Sailplane "H 6" ("Pelikan")
—Sailplane "Der Dessauer"—Darmstadt Sailplane "Geheimrat"—
Dresden Monoplane Glider—Messerschmitt Glider "S 13."
Grouping Sailplanes Into Classes.—First of all it is neces

sary to group sailplanes into classes. It is not always possible to
make a definite distinction between gliding and sailing planes, for
here and there sailing flights have been made with primitive glid
ing planes and glides have been made with sailplane types.
The chief method of classification is according to the nature of
the control. As follows :
1. Planes controlled by displacing the body weight. (Now
obsolete.)
2. Planes controlled by movements of the rudder, ailerons and
elevator.
3. Planes controlled by altering the angle of attack or warping
the wings or carrying surfaces themselves. These involve the
use of movable wings and are still in the experimental stage.
In the first group, planes which are steered by displacing the
body weight, are, in general, called suspension or hanging gliders.
Most of the motorless planes of the first period of development
such as the Lilienthal and Chanute and up to the time of the first
66
Type
Rear View of Early
Lilienihal Glider
"La Pruvo" in Flight
The Sailplane Type for —Rudder
Experienced Pilot
Movable Wing Tip * "Elevator

for Lateral 6a/ance
Pilot's Cockpit-—* Monoplane
An Esrly Suspension
Type Glider "Supporting Surface
Wing Tip
UpperSupporfinff P/ane ' Moved to
\ Lift Low Wing
Panel to Landing
- reduce Wires *
Side Slip
Northrop Primary
Training Type
Panel to reduce
Side S/ip
Lower Supporting P/ane
• fixed Vertical and- A Modern Glider is

Horizontal Stabilizer a Motorless Airplane 'Aee/
of the MonoplaneType
The Ancestor of the Airplane -Chanute Biplane Glidei
Crudely Built and Controlled by Body Movements
Fig. 19.—Various Types of Gliders and Sailplanes. An Early Type of Chanute Biplane Suspension Type Glider
Shown at A. B—Modern Monoplane Training Glider. C—A Monoplane Sailplane Type for the Experienced
Pilot.
motored flight, that of the Wrights in December, 1903, belong to
this category, which is now obsolete. (See Fig, IQA.)
At the beginning of the sailflying movement most of the sail
planes, as in the motor flying field, were biplanes as shown at
Fig. 19A. This is explained by the smaller surface load and the
relatively simple construction and the greater strength. Thus,
by bracing the two wings by interplane struts in connection
with the diagonal wire reinforcing, a great static construction
safety is obtained with simple constructive means and in spite
of the small span width a great surface area is possible. Through
the introduction of the free-carrying or non-reinforced (externally
of the wing) design by Professor Junkers the cantilever wing
monoplane, however, soon gained in importance, and in the first
Rhon contest the tremendous superiority of the non-reenforced
wing sailplane had already showed itself. With the same velocity
in sinking and the flying speed increased by the elimination of all
exterior stays and wires, the gliding angle was thereby decreased,
so that in contrast to the reinforced biplane such aerodynamically
high grade sailplanes of the new type can sail under comparatively
small wind velocities. (See Fig. 190.)
Monoplane Construction Now Favored.—The free-carrying
monoplane with control by displacing the rudders can be con
sidered as a standard, whereas for schooling and instruction pur
poses the strutted, or braced and reinforced monoplane deserves
the preference. The purpose of the schooling plane is to acquaint
the student with the initial state of sailflying, which is gliding
flight, so that later he may control a high grade sailplane success
fully. A wire braced primary training plane is shown at Fig. 19!}.
Naturally a less strong ascending current is required for a plane
CONTROL OF SAILPLANES 69
with a low sinking velocity than is needed for a plane with a
greater sinking velocity. However, it would be a fallacy to
assume that one must build a plane for the static sailing flight
which shows extremely low surface load and with a minimum
sinking velocity. Such a plane is possible only by sacrificing
aerodynamic efficiency because a lightly built plane requires rein
forcing struts, stays, etc., on the outside. The detrimental re
sistance caused thereby consumes a large proportion of the flying-
speed, which is necessary for attaining a good gliding figure. This
is understood wThen one considers that the gliding angle of a plane
is derived as a resultant from the sinking speed and the flying
speed ; so by increasing the flying speed—precluding constant sink
ing speed—the gliding angle flattens. Therefore, in sailplane con
struction, efforts should be made towards low sinking speed as
well as towards higher flying speed. (See Fig. 2oC.)
Control of Sailplanes.—A sailplane, controlled by adjustment
of the rudders has three control organisms:
1. The altitude control (for flying up and down).
2. The side control (for flying sideways).
3. The transversal or lateral control (for maintaining trans
versal stability).
Altitude and transversal controls are operated by a vertical con
trol stick which can be moved to all sides. The side control is
actuated by a double foot lever. Corresponding to these three
control organs the plane can be turned in the air around three
axes as shown at Fig. 2oD. These are the transversal axis, A-B,
the vertical axis C-D, and the longitudinal axis E-F. The con
trols operate in the same manner as do those on a motored plane
equipped with stick control. The transversal axis is not, as one
Wind goes
over the Top
of a Ridge
wind goes Cross Section through Hill

Deflection of the Wind on Around Cone Ridge. The Letter "a" Indicates
Mountain Cone and on a the Zone of the Ascending Wind
Long Extended Hill Ridge '/ most Favorable for a Sail Flight
Ailerons for
Transverse Control
Illustrating the Control

Effect of a Sailplane - Rudder for
1 Side Control Side Control
2 Transverse Control
3 Altitude Control Schematic Representation
C of Slope Wind. The Resultant
of Flying Speed and Sinking
Speed give Gilding Angle
of Hills at
Fig. 20.—Diagrams Showing How Air Currents Are Produced by Wind Passing Over a Ridge
Resultant of Flying Speed and Sinking Speed Give the Gliding
A and B. The Drawing at C Outlines How the The
Schemati c Represen tation of the Value of the Slope Wind.
Angle of the Sailplane and Also Presents a .
Sketches at D Indicate the Method of Direction al Control Used with a Glider or Sailplane
CONTROL OF SAILPLANES 71
would suppose, formed by the center of gravity (point of balance)
but by the resultant of the air forces attacking the carrying wings.
This resultant, called the average pressure line, is dependent upon
the cross-section of the carrying wings, therefore, the profile and
the angle under which the carrying wings are exposed to the
direction or flow of the air (angle of attack). This is located in
about the first third of the carrying wings.
Gusts, that is, irregular winds, attempt to bring the plane out
of balance. Gusts attack one side of the wing more than the other,
which means that they lift or lower one side of the carrying wing.
The machine can be brought back from this inclined position by
means of the transversal controls. They are flaps or ailerons
which are jointed to the rear beam or tips attached to the ends of
the carrying wings and are rigidly coupled so that a positive move
ment of the one results in a negative movement of the other.
They do not differ essentially in construction, operation or effect
from the ailerons of motor driven airplanes. The type of sail
plane with warping wings forming the third group is not favored.
How Sustained Sailplane Flights Are Made.—It might be
well to mention something on how these sustained flights are
made. Flights for endurance are considered simpler than those
for altitude or distance. They consist mainly in staying in an
area or zone favored with an up-current of air of suitable velocity.
However, a great deal depends upon the skill of the pilot as he
must utilize as much of the energy of the wind as possible. Often
the air currents vary in intensity and it is necessary to soar to
attain altitude in one current and then glide downward to a point
where it is known that there is another up-current, and then to
gain altitude again and repeat the process.
72 A B C OF GLIDING AND SAILFLYTNG
A hill or range of hills arranged like a horseshoe is ideal for
this purpose, when the wind is blowing toward the open side of
the horseshoe, as an up-current established on the entire inside of
the range, thus allowing the pilot to glide from one side to the
other, soar upwards, and glide back again. To reach great heights,
such as those desired for altitude records, one must search more
carefully for specially shaped hills that afford the strongest type
of up-current. These up-currents have been classified as either
convectional or turbulent. (See Figs. 6, 9 and 21.) The con-
vectional currents are caused by warm air rising and being re-
i ^'^ _^ Diagram of soaring flight made below cumulus clouds,

* \' if.'
^-^/.l-O I I (
XA/-i.-' i-
\ "-^\ vS-N
' x
An Example o-f Convec+ional

Air Curreni Above Air Currents deflected
up by Hi// exert Lifting
fffecf. _ y
Wind Sweeping across P/ain towards
Hill acquires considerable Ve/ocity
An Example of a Turbulent Air Current
Fig. 21.—Diagrams Showing the Difference Between Convectional and

Turbulent Air Currents Used in Gliding and Sailflying or Soaring.
placed by cool air descending. This often takes place over wooded
areas, rivers, cities, bare ground surrounded by shaded ground,
and under cumulus clouds, when they are forming. Turbulence is
usually caused by some obstacle on the ground deflecting a hori
zontal wind upward, such as a hill, a forest causing an up-current
on its windward side, ocean waves, etc. In utilizing these currents
a great deal depends upon the judgment of the pilot, who must
r
decide whether it is best to glide to another zone or not. (See
Fig. 21.)
MEANING OF GLIDE RATIO 73
Meaning of Glide Ratio. —In making flights for distance it is
necessary to get as much altitude as possible before starting, as
one's altitude at the beginning determines the length of glide
possible before another up-current can be reached. A plane has a
definite maximum glide ratio and can go only a definite distance
horizontally for a proportional vertical drop. (See Fig. 2oC.)
This ratio may vary from 10 to i up to about 15 to i, according
to Richard Mock, depending upon the aerodynamic efficiency of
the plane. (It is usually somewhat lower than the high figure, a
good average being 12 to i.)
The first flights for distance were made in 1922, when it was
learned that after one left the original upward current zone one
could make use of the energy of the air by gliding to other hills
or to bare fields with sunshine on them heating the air above the
field. Later, other up-currents were discovered. Of course, to
utilize these up-currents one must take into consideration the time
of day, local and general atmospheric conditions, etc. The skill-
fulness in utilizing the natural resources of the air when flying
cross-country is considered most important in soaring and is
obtained by experience combined with training in meteorology.
After learning to fly cross-country, sailplane pilots desire to fly
to a predetermined place and return to the starting point. It is
often difficult to return, as the winds usually had changed or
varied or, if they had not changed, one was on the opposite, or
leeward, side of the hill which aided the first half of the trip. In
flying cross-country it has been found possible to utilize the forma
tion of clouds or storms. One can often soar for a considerable
period below a cloud that is forming, as it is being formed by
warm air rising and cooling, causing its moisture to condense.
Often, high hills almost reach the under surface of clouds and in
that way one can gain altitude. It may thus be seen that a soar
ing plane pilot must always be on the alert to utilize all the possible
energy of the air as well as to control his machine properly.
Some Typical Efficient German Sailplanes.—The following
description of German sailplanes is from the technical memo
randum No. 443 of the National Advisory Committee for "Aero
nautics, translated from Der Gleit and Segelflugzeugbau or "The
Glider and Sailplane" by Alfred Gymnich. While these types are
machines of seven years or more back, they are representative of
modern sailplane practice as it is difficult to see how they can be
improved in the light of our present aerodynamical knowledge.
The following tabulation summarizes some of the important
weights and dimensions of the ten types described.
APPROXIMATE DIMENSIONS AND WEIGHTS OF TEN

GERMAN MOTORLESS PLANES
Figure Span Length Height Wing Wing Dead

Type of Glider Number ft. ft. ft. Width Area Weight
ft. sq. ft. Ib.
Dresden ...... 22 26 and 20 14 5 5

Edith ......... 23 40 18 5 4 161 198
Konsul ....... 24 62 21 4 4 237
Vampyr ...... 25 40 IS 4 5 172
Greif ......... 26 38 17 4 6 161
Pelikan ....... 07
49 17 161 165
Dessauer ...... 28 41 19 4 167 253
Geheimrat ....
Dresden
29
30
40
40
18
15
5
4 5 154
167
176
«_/w
260
4 4
Messerchmitt . . 31 46 16
1921 Dresden School Biplane.—This glider (Fig. 22) was

designed by H. Muttray, R. Seiferth and R. Spiess and built by
the Dresden Aviation Club in less than two months. The upper
DRESDEN BIPLANE GLIDER 75
wing had a span of 8 m (26.25 ft.) ; the lower wing, 6 m (19.68
ft.). Both wings had slight sweep backs. The upper wing was
continuous and was partially supported by a cabane, while the
lower wing was interrupted by the fuselage and had a dihedral
1.25C
2.0 m
a_1.5 ra '(6.56 ft,)
(4.92 ft.)
Dresden Biplane
.70 m Glider
(2.30 ft.)
4.2 m
(13.78 ft.)
Fig. 22.—The Dresden Biplane Glider Had Twin Runner
Alighting Gear.
angle. It lay about 25 cm (9.84 in.) above the ground, where

it joined the fuselage and about 40 cm (15.75 in.) at the tips.
The incidence or angle of setting of the lower wing was some
what greater than that of the upper wing. Each wing had two
box spars 4 cm (1.57 in.) wide and 6-9 cm (2.36-3.54 in.) thick.
The side walls were hollowed in. The leading- edge of the
medium-thick wings was covered with two layers of veneer glued
together so as to give it good penetration. The lower wing was
staggered slightly backward. The cabane struts were made by
gluing the two halves together. They were streamlined, hollow
and wound with linen. They were fastened to one another and to
the fuselage without fittings. In fact, the only fittings on the
whole glider were for the wing struts. The fuselage was approxi
mately square and had a maximum cross-section of 70 by 70 cm
(27.56 in.). It was streamlined longitudinally, the stern being
bent upward to protect the elevator. The fuselage was covered
with fabric and tapered backward into a horizontal wedge. The
elevator and rudder were operated by cables. Banking was
effected by warping the wings, although they were doped. The
strong landing gear consisted of two laminated wood runners
separated by the width of the fuselage. They were joined by two
ash arches cross-wise to the fuselage. In addition to the elasticity
of the runners, blocks of rubber wrere employed as shock absorbers.
Though of light weight and very flexible, this glider was very
strong, as was demonstrated by its many landings on various
kinds of ground, including newly plowed fields. The runners
were attached to the fuselage only by gluing and binding. The
empty weight of the glider was 70 kg (154.32 Ibs.), so that with
a pilot weighing 70 kg, its wing loading was 8 kg/m2 (1.64
Ibs./sq. ft.).
This glider proved to be especially well suited for school use.
Many pilots were trained on it and flights up to ten minutes'
duration and 3km (1.86 mi.) were made with it. Several hun-
DARMSTADT SAILPLANE "EDITH" 77
dred flights were made without any particular damage. It par
ticipated successfully in the 1921-1923 Rhon contests, but was
seriously damaged by a fall in the last contest.
1.35 m
(4.43 ft.)
5.50 m
18.04 ftT
Darmsiadf Sailplane
"Edith"
1.50 ra
4.92 ft.)
Fig. 23.—Side, Plan and Front Views of the Darmstadt Sailplane

"Edith"; Note Large Size of Empennage.
1922 Darmstadt Sailplane "Edith."—This type (Fig. 23)
was designed by members of the Aviation Section of the Darm
stadt Technical High School and also built by them with the
exception of the fuselage. It was originally intended to be used
only for school purposes, but made excellent soaring flights in the
Rhon contests.
It was a high-wing monoplane with fuselage struts. It had a
span of 12.6 m (41.34 ft), a length of 5.5 m (18 ft.), and a
height of 1.5 m (4.92 ft.). The chord was 1.35 m (4.43 ft.) and
the wing area 15 m2 (161.46 sq. ft.). The upper camber of the
wing was 17 cm (6.7 in.) and was the same throughout. The
wing was divided in the middle and had two spars. At a distance
of 2 m (6.56 ft.) from the middle in each direction it was braced
to the bottom of the fuselage by a pair of parallel struts. In order
to obtain good penetration, the leading edge was covered with
plywood. The wing had both main and intermediate ribs, the
former being 30 cm (11.81 in.) apart. The spars were braced.
Darmstadt Sailplane "Konsul."—The "Konsul" was designed
by Botsch and Spiess, and built by the "Bahnbedarf" Company of
Darmstadt. (Fig. 24.) The design was based on two different
principles. On the one hand, it was sought to utilize the varia
tions in the slope of the wind (Knoller-Betz effect) and, on the
other hand, to develop static soaring flight with especial attention
to distance flight. This glider was an overhung high-wing mono
plane of 18.7 m (61.35 ft.) span and 1.2 m (3.94 ft.) chord,
corresponding to an aspect ratio of about 15. In spite of its
great span, it had no struts and only one wing spar. The latter
was box-shaped in the 8m (26.25 ft.) central section and I-
shaped in the outer sections. The leading edge, from the top
of the spar around to its bottom, was covered with plywood. The
spar junctions were made with sleeve couplings according to the
Junkers system, the false spars being connected by ball and socket
DARMSTADT SAILPLANE "KONSUL' 79
LO in
co m
in
<H
i>• in-
co
CD •
H H
CD
_ 1.3 m in
S c\a
(3.94 ft.) o •
•CD
4.5 m
(14.76 ft.)
1
-p
S«H
m in
co 10
in
_1.45 m
(4.76 ft.) Sailplane
Darmstadf ul"
"Kons
Sailplane
Fig. 24.—Side, Plan and Front Views of the Darmstadt
"Kon sul."
n
bolts. The profile used was the Messerschmitt S 13 (Gottinge
535). The wing tapered rapidly at the outer ends and was kept
symmetrical by reducing the angle of incidence or setting, in order
8o A B C OF GLIDING AND SAILFLYING
to obtain a perfect warping effect and more favorable lift dis
tribution.
The ailerons were so connected with the steering gear that,
when the rudder was not deflected, they operated in the usual
manner. In steering to the right, however, any warping maneuver
of the control stick actuated the right aileron more than the left
one. In steering to the left, this action was reversed. With the
enormous span, such a reinforcement of the rudder by the ailerons
seemed very opportune. The fish-shaped plywood fuselage had
sharp edges, both above and below, which produced the necessary
keel effect. The wing area was 22m2 (236.81 sq. ft.). The
estimated weight of 130 kg (287 Ibs.) was apparently somewhat
overrated, which would partially explain the unexpectedly high
speed of the glider. The best lift-drag ratio was i 121.4 at
14.8111/8 (48.58 ft./sec.) flight speed. On September 29, 1923,
Botsch made, on the "Konsul," a new world's distance record of
18.9 km (11.74 mi.).
Hannover Glider "Vampyr."—At the suggestion of Pro
fessor A. Proll and Engineer H. Dorner, this glider (Fig. 25)
was designed by the students Martens, Hentzen and Blunie from
a rough sketch by Dr. G. Madelung, and was built by the
"Hannoversche Waggonfabrik." It was an overhung high-wing
monoplane of 12.6m. (41.34 ft.) span by 1.45111. (4.76 ft.)
chord and had a wing area of about i6nr (172.22 sq. ft.). Its
mean aspect ratio was 10. The wing consisted of a middle section
of 6.6 in (21.65 ft.) span and two end sections of 3 m (9.84 ft.)
each. The Gottingen profile 441 was used, which had, in the
central section of the wing, a maximum upper camber of 2^ cm
(9.84 in.). The end sections were tapered. The angle of in-
HANNOVER SAILPLANE "VAMPYR" 81
cidence (or wing setting) to the upper edge of the fuselage was
zero.
It was on the "Vampyr" that the method, subsequently adopted
on all high-grade gliders, of constructing the wing with a single
-p
a <H
1.45 m lO CV2
03 00
(4.76 ft. co cd
0 *< C\2
5,50 m O 00 M
(IS. 04ft.) _ j. - U .
05
II
,0
O 03
CO CD
fi 03
CO
O 00
CO .
• O
CO rH
flj
Hannover Sailplane
"Vampyr"
m
j{S_.61 ft.)-
Fig. 25.—Outline Drawings Showing the Side, Plan and Front Views
of the Hannover Sailplane "Vampyr."
spar and covering the leading edge with plywood, was first used.
The spar was located in the line of mean pressure of the wing
and took the form of an I-girder with pine flanges and a plywood
web. The ribs, constructed according to the lattice-girder method,
were made extremely light. Nevertheless, each rib could stand a
load of 40 kg (88.2 Ibs.) alone, with one or more intermediate or
nose ribs, according to the magnitude of the air forces. From
the spar back, the wing was covered with light fabric, well doped
and varnished. The wing was attached to the fuselage at three
points, the main forward fitting united the wing spar to the main
fuselage bulkhead by means of a bolt. Both rear fittings rested
on the ends of two reinforced rods, which held the rigid front
part of the wing and lay on the upper fuselage longerons. Each
rod was in turn fastened by a bolt to a fitting secured to a fuselage
bulkhead.
The main fittings were easily accessible through traps, to
facilitate quick assembling, and were so secured that, after loosen
ing the bolts, the wing could be shifted so as to remedy any nose
or tail-heaviness. On each side of the fuselage the wing spar was
connected with the main bulkhead by a short strong strut, in order
to protect the wing fittings, which covered only a narrow base,
from possible excessive stresses. The end sections of the wing
were likewise joined to the middle section at three points. The
flanges and web of the wing spar were each held by a fitting which
transmitted the bending and lateral stresses to a bolt on the false
spar, transmitted the frontal pressure and shared the torsional
stresses with the fitting of the main spar. These junctions were
also easily accessible.
In the first model of the "Vampyr" in 1921, the trapezoidal end
HANNOVER SAILPLANE "VAMPYR" 83
sections of the wings had the usual ailerons. In the 1922 model,
the end sections were rectangular with a slight swoop back. The
ailerons were omitted and warping was effected by means of an
aluminum tube with lateral arms and the introduction of flexible
rods into the wing. The balls used to protect the wing tips in the
1921 model were likewise omitted. Curving flight was facilitated
by the elimination of the inertia moments due to these balls.
The fuselage showed a peculiar type of construction, which
proved very successful and which was subsequently much imitated.
Rectangular in its main dimensions, the portion of the fuselage
behind the pilot's seat was slanted sharply upward so as to obtain
a greater angle of attack in starting and in landing and tapered
out into a horizontal wedge. The front portion of the fuselage
was slanted downward. It consisted of strong longitudinal ash
strips and transverse bulkheads, triangular at the top, forming a
streamlines framework, which was covered with plywood and
gradually passed over into the rectangular stern. For all its
strength and rigidity, the fuselage weighed only about 25 kg
(55 Ibs.).
The undamped elevator, whose axis of rotation lay in the
central line of pressure, was mounted on the horizontal rear edge
of the fuselage. It was operated by a rod connected with the
normal control stick. The area of the elevator was i.875m2
(20.18 sq. ft.). The rudder, which had an area of 0.48 m2 (5.17
sq. ft.), was operated by pedals and cables. It formed a con
tinuation of the fin, which had an area of 0.8 m2 (8.61 sq. ft.).
The landing gear also differed from the customary one. It con
sisted of three balls, similar to footballs, with their axles inside
the fuselage. One ball was under the nose and the other two
slightly behind the center of gravity. The Vampyr is known
especially for the hour-long flights of Martens and Hentzen in
the 1922 Rhon contest. In the 1923 contest this excellent glider
was unfortunately destroyed through the carelessness of a new
pilot.
Hannover Sailplane "Greif."—For continuing the soaring-
flight research of the Aviation Section of the Hannover Technical
High School, begun with the "Vampyr," the "Greif" was de
signed by Hentzen and Martens (Fig. 26), again with the friendly
cooperation of Professor A. Proll and H. Dorner. The construc
tion was likewise again undertaken by the "Hannover sche Wag-
gonfabrik." It was sought to effect a considerable diminution in
weight with a smaller span, in order to obtain a more maneuver-
able glider. Especial importance was attached to reducing the air
resistance. This over-hung monoplane therefore exhibited espe
cially fine lines. The wing was made in three sections. The
central section, however, has a span of only 1.3 m (4.27 ft.) and
was firmly secured to the fuselage as a cabane. The trapezoidal
wings were each 5.15 m (16.9 ft.), making the total span n.6 m
(38.06 ft.). The wing chord diminished from a maximum of
1.8 m (5.91 ft.) to I m (3.28 ft.) at the tips, thus making a wing
area of 15 m 2 (161.46 sq. ft.). At the cabane the upper
camber was 28 cm (11.02 in.) and decreased uniformly.
The wing had a single spar combined with a rigid plywood
leading edge. The spar was an ordinary lattice girder with a
plywood web. The flanges and lattices, which were especially
stressed in landing, were reinforced. The main ribs were 40 cm
( I S-7S m -) al)art, but light intermediate ribs were added to the
front part of the wing. The plywood tubes which, together with
HANNOVER SAILPLANE "GREIF" 85
the spar, absorbed the torsional stresses, terminated at about the
center of each end section. Hence the wing tips were not torsion-
proof. In each wing tip the torsional forces were absorbed by a
1.0 ra
(3.P8 ft.)
Hannover Sailplane
"Greif"
Fig. 26.—Side Plan and Front Views of the Hannover Sailplane "Greif."
duralumin tube parallel to the spar and firmly bound to the end
of the latter. It was possible to rotate this tube and thus warp
the wing tips. This method of warping proved to be very
effective. The lower edges of the wing tips were protected by
sheet duralumin. The wings were connected with the cabane,
the same as on the "Vampyr." The aileron-control tubes were
connected by a claw coupling, which enabled the safe transmission
of the stresses. The fuselage was spindle-shaped.
The cabane had a cutaway for the pilot's head, the rest of the
pilot being fully enclosed in the fuselage. The fuselage bulkheads
were firmly held by four light longerons, since the stresses were
exclusively absorbed and transmitted by the plywood covering.
The wing spar was firmly attached to the main bulkhead. An
auxiliary spar of the cabane likewise transmitted the stresses to a
strong bulkhead. From the spars, streamlined steel bands pro
vided for the stress transmission corresponding to every case of
loading. The landing gear consisted of only two tandem balls.
The undamped elevator, of 1.8 m2 (19.38 sq. ft.) area, was actu
ated by a rod. The rudder was actuated by cables in the usual
manner. The rudder had an area of 0.05 m 2 (5.38 sq. ft.) ; the
fin, 0.6 m2 (6.46 sq. ft.).
In the 1921 and 1922 Rhon contests numerous flights were
made, including three of 45 minutes each by Martens, Hentzen
and Koch, but the "Greif" did not equal the "Vampyr," notwith
standing its better aerodynamic design. This fact is ascribable
to the poor aspect ratio and to the complete enclosure of the pilot,
whereby the sensing of the air flow was rendered more difficult.
Hannover Sailplane "H6" ("Pelikan").—This soarplane
(Fig. 27) was designed by the students Giinther, Martens and
Meyer, under the supervision of Professor A. Proll of the Avia
tion Section of the Hannover Technical High School. It was
built by the "Hannoversche Waggonfabrik." It was a remarkable
HANNOVER SAILPLANE "H6" ("PELIKAN") 87
development of the "Vampyr" and "Greif" but, unlike these, had
ailerons for the lateral control. The wing had a single spar and
IT) CD
Hannover Sailplane
H6 "Pelikan"
Fig. 27.—Outline Drawings of the Hannover Sailplane "Pelikan" H6

Showing Large Aspect Ratio of the Wing.
was made in three sections. Its front portion was made into a
torsion-proof tube in the usual manner by means of a plywood
covering. The plywood fuselage had an oval cross-section and
tapered to a horizontal wedge. As in the "Greif," the landing gear
consisted of two tandem balls. The ailerons were very narrow
and long. The elevator and rudder were rectangular. There was
no fin nor stabilizer. This glider had the following characteristics :
Span ........................... 15.0 m (49.21 ft.)

Length ......................... 5.26111 (17.26 ft.)
Wing area ...................... I5.oom 2 (161.46 sq. ft.)
Wing loading ................... 9.7 kg/m2 (1.99 Ibs./sq. ft.)
Weight of fuselage. .............. 125.5 kg (56.2 Ibs.)
Weight of central wing section. ..... 20.0 " (44- 1 Ibs.)
Weight of each end section of wing.. 12.5 " (27.561135.)
Weight of elevator. .............. 3.4 " (7.5 Ibs.)
Weight of rudder. ............... i.i " (2.4 Ibs.)
Total weight .................... 75.0 " (165.3 Iks.)
Especially remarkable were the sinking speed of only
0.447 m/s (i .467 f t./sec.)

and the gradual gliding angle.
The "Pelikan" was not finished in time for the 1923 Rhon con
test. In the 1924 Rositten soaring-flight contest, under the pilot
ing of Koch, it made a flight of 30 minutes above a comparatively
small dune.
Sailplane "Der Dessauer." —This machine (Fig. 28) was
designed and built by members of the Dessau Aviation Club with
the backing of the "J unkerswerke" of Dessau. The wing was
made with a single spar and a torsion-proof plywood leading edge
SAILPLANE "DER DESSAUER" 89
and was divided in the middle. The lower flanges of the two
sections of the wing spar were joined at this point and were
._ 1.2S m
(4.20 ft.)
5.7 m
(I8.70f¥)
Sailplane
u Der Dessauer"
1.35 m
(4,43 ft.)
Fig. 28.—Side, Plan and Front Views of the Sailplane "Der Dessauer.'
secured to the fuselage by an adjustable fitting for the purpose of
trimming the aircraft. The upper flanges butted together and
were thus firmly held by compression during flight. For con
structional reasons the wing halves were given a uniform cross-
section (Gottingen profile 289), while the thickness was gradu
ally reduced in the outer portions. The fuselage tapered to the
elevator, its main bulkhead being pentagonal.
The fuselage was built without diagonal bracing, since the ply
wood covering distributed the stresses. The landing gear con
sisted of a central runner with an air-cushion shock absorber, the
same as was first used by the "Geheimrat." On each side of the
fuselage the wing was attached to the main bulkhead by a short,
strong strut. In order to soften the landing shock, rubber pads
were built into the struts, which yielded about 5 mm (0.2 in.)
under compression, but remained perfectly rigid under tension.
This glider has an adjustable stabilizer which, like the fin, was
entirely covered with plywood. The ailerons and rudder were
quite large, while the stabilizer was comparatively small. The
aileron controls were constructed on the principle of differential
steering, i.e., a given downward deflection of one aileron corre
sponded to a greater upward deflection of the other aileron and
vice versa. The steering controls were actuated by rods and bent
levers. The chief characteristics were as follows:
Span ........................... 12.8 m (42ft.)

Chord .......................... 1.28 " (4.2 ft.)
Aspect ratio ..................... 10.6
Length ......................... 5.7 " (18.7 ft.)
Height ......................... 1.35 " (443ft.)
Wing area ...................... 15.5 m2 (166.84 sq. ft.)
DARMSTADT SAILPLANE "GEHEIMRAT" 91
Stabilizer ....................... 0.95 m2 (10.23 scl- ft-)
Elevator ........................ 1.5 " (16.15 sq.ft.)
Fin ............................ 0.44 " (474 sq. ft.)
Rudder ......................... 1.3 " (14.00 sq. ft.)
Ailerons, each ................... 1.66 " (17-87 sq. ft.)
Weight, empty ...................115.0 kg (253.5 Ibs.)
Wing loading .................... 11.3 kg/m 2 (2.31 Ibs./sq.ft.)
In the Rhon contest excellent results were obtained by the pilot

Thompson. In this glider the inertia moments were eliminated
as much as possible by a good distribution of the load, thus
enabling excellent curving flight. On the next to the last flight
day, the wings broke just above the ground, apparently due to the
resonance vibrations, which were favored by the rubber buffers
built into the side struts, and the glider was dashed to pieces.
Darmstadt Sailplane "Geheimrat."—This overhung high-
wing monoplane was designed by Nicolaus and Hoffmann and
built by the Darmstadt "Bahnbedarf" Company (Fig. 29). It
was owned by the Aviation Section of the Darmstadt Technical
High School. It had a span of 12.1 m (39.7 ft.) ; length 5.45 m
(17.88 ft.); chord 1.41 m (4.63 ft.); wing area 14.3 m2
(153.92 sq. ft.). The wing was made in three sections. The
central section had a span of 6 m (19.68 ft.) and a uniform
profile with an upper camber of 24 cm (9.45 in.). The
trapezoidal end sections each had a span of 2.75 m (9.02 ft.)
and tapered uniformly. The wing had a main and auxiliary spar
and could be rotated around the former by means of the control
stick and push-rods. The leading edge was covered with ply
wood. The lateral control was exercised in the usual way by
ailerons.
The fuselage was 4.92 m (16-14 ft.) long and had a rec-
tangular cross section. It was streamlined and ran into a hori
zontal wedge. The landing gear consisted of two low runners
at the outer edges of the fuselage. The space between the fuse-
. 1.41 m
(4.63 ft.)
a '
o o
H £>
03 CD
Darmstadt Sailplane
"Geheimrat"
Fig. 29.—Outline Drawings Showing Layout of the Darmstadt Sailplane

"Geheimrat."
lage and runners was occupied by an air cushion protected by

sheet duralumin. The balanced undamped elevator had an area
DARMSTADT SAILPLANE "GEHEIMRAT" 93
of 1.4 m2 (15.07 sq. ft.) and was operated by a lever beside the
pilot's seat. The elevator could be given the best angle of
attack for the prevailing \\ind conditions and then locked in
position during the flight. In front of the 0.35 m 2 (3.77 sq. ft.)
rudder, there was a fin of 0.47 m2 (5.06 sq. ft.). The wing
weighed 43 kgs (94.8 Ibs.) ; the fuselage 28 kgs (61.7 Ibs.). The
wing loading was 11.5 kg/nr (2.36 Ibs./sq. ft.).
This creation accomplished excellent results in the 1922 and
1923 Rhon contests. In 1922 Hackmack flew 1.5 hr. and reached
an altitude of 320 m (1,050 ft.) above his starting point. In
1923 Thomas won the first prizes for the greatest single and
total flight duration".
Dresden Monoplane Glider.—This wing-steered, strutted,
high-wing monoplane (Fig. 30) was designed by H. Muttray
and R. Seiferth of Dresden, and was built by members of the
Dresden Aviation Club. It had a span of 12.2 m (40 ft.) ;
chord 1.35 m (4.43 ft.); wing area 15.5 m2 (166.84 scl- ft.) ;
aspect ratio, 9.5. The wing was made in four sections, the two-
meter end sections being removed only for railroad transportation,
to enable it to be loaded into an ordinary closed car. The wing
had a box spar with internal diagonal bracing and open-work
side walls. The leading edge of the wing was covered with ply
wood. The spar was computed for a safety factor of 7. Taking
into consideration the centers of gravity and pressure of the
wing, the position of the axis of rotation of the wing was so
chosen that no stresses were developed in the control stick during
normal flight. The wing was joined to the fuselage by a special
form of cabane.
The wing (Gottingen profile 441) tapered only near the tips,
where it changed into a streamlined profile with zero incidence.
The wing tips were pointed, so as to prevent the formation of
eddies or vortices. Each half of the wing was supported by two
r\
struts which met at the wing. The wings could therefore be
s
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X_x
"(1
4.27 ft) / v
\^~h CM CD
•
C\2 C3
p
r-l ^ I* —.
13 -Hf i ———__——- ".___It •*.
(J g±Y_ jf
pt-^"~f^
j
• 1 \
V '/ a =C .60 m
L.97 ft.)
s «H
O CD
p^-~N
/ 8S
/ r
CD / 03 CO
3.3 0 m \f *~**
d 0.8 3 ft .)
V
.85 m
c (2 .79 ft. )
,65 m
v/
d "(2
.13 ft. )
1 .00 m
0
(3 .28 ft. )
f = .70 m
S 'Z'pJ f4. \ '
<--d- -c-
Dresden
1
f'* (L N s^^~ ^7^4, t
1 1.15 m
Sailplane
\ 1_ ^~
-^
>-^.
-———
—/ I N^ ^ (3.77 f1;.)
^LJ—— -I T
I (.42 ft .)
Fig. 30.—Side, Plan and Front Views of the Dresden Sailplane with
Movable Wings for Lateral Balance.
DRESDEN SAILPLANE 95
rotated in unison for vertical steering- and oppositely for banking.
The fuselage had a maximum rectangular cross section of 60 x 70
cm (23.6x27.6 in.) and tapered to a horizontal wedge for at
taching the balanced undamped elevator of 1.9 nr (20.45 scl- ft-)
area. The 0.55 nr (5.92 sq. ft.) rudder followed a fin of 0.66 m2
(7.1 sq. ft).
The rudder was actuated by a special lever in the cockpit.
Normally, however, the elevator was not operated during flight.
In the 1923 contest the wings and elevator were so coupled that
an increase in the angle of attack of the wings produced a corre
sponding deflection of the elevator in the same direction. This
simultaneous deflection of the wings and elevator was intended
to enable the fuselage to retain its normal position, so as to avoid
longitudinal inertia moments. The bow of the fuselage was
shaped by ash strips and covered with plywood. The landing
gear was the same as on the Dresden biplane previously de
scribed. The weights of the monoplane were as follows :
Wing .......................... 55.2 kg (121.7 Ibs.)

Fuselage ........................ 45.1 " (994 Ibs.)
Rudder ......................... 3.6 " (7.94 Ibs.)
Elevator ........................ 4.6*' (10.14 Ibs.)
4 steel tube struts. ................ 10.0 " (22.05
Weight, empty ................... 75 " (165.3
Including 75 kg (165.3 Ibs.) for the weight of the pilot, the

Wing loading was ................ 12.5 kg/m2 (2.56 Ibs./sq. ft.)
Numerous successful flights were made over the landing field

of the Dresden Aviation Club in the "Erzgebirge" (Erz Moun
tains). The lift-drag ratio was found to be i 114.6 in still air.
4.9m _
(16.08ft.)
E
O
in
Messerschmitt "513"
Sailplane
Fig. 31.—Outline Drawings Showing Construction of the Messerschmitt

"Sis" Sailplane.
In the 1923 Rhon contest, one wing broke about 200 m (656 ft.)
above the valley and the glider went into a spin and crashed,
thereby losing its elevator also. Through a lucky chance the
MESSERSCHMITT GLIDER "813" 97
pilot, Muttray, escaped with a broken leg and a few abrasions.
The wing-break, in spite of the sevenfold safety factor, was
explained by the presence of an unnoticed internal defect pro
duced by a previous fall.
Messerschmitt Glider "S 13."—Up to the "S 12" Harth and
Messerschmitt had developed their gliders together. The "S 13"
was, however, designed and built by Messerschmitt alone (Fig.
31). He abandoned the previous two-stick system and installed
only one control stick. The stabilizer was made adjustable by
means of a lever which could be locked in position. The wing
warping was effected by a strong steel torsion tube mounted
parallel to the wing spar. The span was 14 m (45.93 ft.) and
the length 4.9 m (15.08 ft.). The wing was made in three
sections and had a single spar, with alternate main and auxiliary
ribs.
The fuselage was rectangular in cross section and streamlined
longitudinally. For landing gear, it had a long central spring
runner. The wing was attached to each side of the fuselage by
a short strut. The wing warping was parallel for one-third of
the wing and differential for the remaining two-thirds. The
balanced undamped elevator was likewise operated by a rod,
cables being employed only for the rudder. Only the central
section of the wing was doped, so as not to interfere with the
warping. With the "S 14," which differed but slightly from the
"S 13," Hackmack made, in the 1923 Rhon soaring-flight con
test, a "storm" soaring flight over land and attained a maximum
altitude of 303 m (994 ft.). Another glider of this type,
equipped with a 500 cm3 (30.51 cu. in.) Douglas engine, on
June 19, 1924, remained in the air Bamberg for 43 minutes and
reached an altitude of 600 m (1,968 ft.).
CHAPTER FIVE
HOW TO FORM A GLIDING CLUB

Club Organization—Suggested Constitution and By-laws—Number of
Members Per Glider—National Glider Association—Classification of
Glider Records—Glider Sporting Licenses—Status of Motored Pilots
—Gliders Should Be Licensed—Gliders Must Follow Airworthiness
Rules—Requirements on Towed Flight—Airworthiness Requirements
of Air Commerce Regulations, U. S. Dept. of Commerce Bulletin
7A, Part 3—Light Aircraft.
Club Organization.—The big majority of the glider enthu

siasts over the country are young men and women of very
limited means. Therefore, in organizing a club, it is well to
have a nucleus of business men or others of sufficient means to
purchase the equipment of the club for the first year. All mem
bers should pay dues, however, as only those who feel enough
interest in the movement to contribute to it will make worth
while local members. A club of twenty-five members should
have not less' than $1,000 for the first year's equipment and
expenses. A start may be made with as little as $600 as an
approved type of glider may be purchased for around $400. If
the proper presentation of the subject is made to business men,
funds on this basis should be easily forthcoming. Many of the
younger business men will want to glide themselves. Once a
start is made, the rest is easy.
Organizations such as Aviation Clubs, Aeronautical Societies,
Chambers of Commerce, Athletic Clubs, etc., may form a glider
98
HOW TO FORM A GLIDER CLUB 99
section or division and this will be recognized as a glider club on
a basis of the number in the particular group. As a general rule,
the local newspapers, particularly the aviation editors, are.
familiar with gliding as a result of the National Educational
Campaign which reaches over 800 American dailies. Local per
sons desiring to organize a club should get in touch with them
at the outset. They will give space liberally to stories of what
it is planned to do. Often they take the lead in organizing clubs.
The National Glider Association will send to any interested group
or individual, application forms to be used in organizing a local
club. It also provides a standard membership card for local clubs
and each organization gets a beautiful membership certificate.
In organizing a club, the best results will be had if the organizer
or promoter will restrict the membership to about ten men until
organization is completed. He should then call a meeting and
appoint a temporary chairman and a secretary. The members
should then elect a board of directors consisting of seven mem
bers. The board should then appoint or elect the officers from
its own membership. The officers will consist of a president,
vice-president, secretary-treasurer, and a technical committee of
four members. The technical committee will have charge of the
flying and of all repairs on gliders, and will organize the ground
school course. The temporary officers should then retire and the
new officers take charge. The constitution and by-laws should
then be read by the president and adopted section by section. The
constitution and by-laws appended is a good working model. It
can be amended to fit different conditions or added to as needed.
ioo A B C OF GLIDING AND SAILFLVING
CONSTITUTION AND BY-LAWS
This club shall be known as Blank * Glider Club.
ARTICLE I
A special meeting of the club members may be called at any

time by resolution of the board of directors, or upon the request
of one-half of the glider members, of which meeting notices shall
be properly given.
ARTICLE II
The board of directors of the club shall consist of seven mem

bers. They shall be chosen by the Blank * Glider Club once a
year. It shall be the duty of the board of directors to exercise a
general supervision over the affairs of the club.
ARTICLE III
The officers of the club shall be a president, vice-president and

a secretary-treasurer.i- They shall be chosen by the board of
directors of the club. A technical committee of four members
should be named.
ARTICLE IV
The president shall preside over all meetings of the board of

directors and in general shall be the chief executive officer of
the club.
* Substitute any desired descriptive name such as "Alexander Glider

Club," "Fairfield Glider Club," etc.
FORMING A GLIDER CLUB 101
ARTICLE V
Club members are to use glider in rotation, so many each day

as assigned. Names are to be posted three days in advance and
member must sign notice within 24 hours that he will be present
on date assigned him, so that if he does.not sign then, another
can take his place.
ARTICLE VI
Glider must not be taken out without permission of the presi

dent or some member of the board of directors.
There will be an instructor or assistant instructor assigned
each clay, who will be in charge of the glider. Members must
obey the directions of this instructor and report to him for flight.
ARTICLE VII
Members will take their instructions from the leader or in

structor and do as told, or be grounded for two weeks, or tried
by the board of directors.
Any member damaging a glider must help repair same within
three days, or else pay for the doing of this work.
Any member signing notice and then failing to appear must pay
25 cents into a general fund or lose his next turn—unless excused.
Number of Members Per Glider.—The board of directors

should then appoint a contest committee approved by the National
Glider Association and the National Aeronautical Association;
this committee to have charge of all timing for both organizations.
At this point the question of dues and membership should be
taken up. Experience has shown that in an open club where
any one over the minimum age can join, the membership should
be restricted to 50 members to one glider. The average turnout
probably will not be more than 20 members, and with fast work
about 50 flights can be made in five hours by the shock cord
launching method. In a school or where the members all come
from one organization, 30 members per glider are enough.
Much of the club's success will come from the manner in which
the training program is carried through. Best results will be had
by having the members study some textbook on airplane flying,
such as is used by most flying schools in their ground instruction.
"Everybody's Aviation Guide," 'The A.B.C. of Aviation" or
"Modern Aircraft" by Major Page and published by the pub
lishers of this volume are examples of standard texts that have
been widely used for student instruction.
There is no expense of flying instructor, motor fuel and oil
as in the operation of an airplane. Under the club form of
glider ownership a person can learn the operation of the controls
and acquire the "feel of the air" for less than the cost of one
hour of airplane instruction. P'reliminary glider instruction is
generally given on the ground. Later, brief flights are made in
the air. As the control surfaces and their operation are identical
to those of an airplane the glider pilot becomes thoroughly
familiar with them. He learns to coordinate automatically move
ment of the controls of the plane almost without conscious effort.
In enabling the student to acquire the "feel of the air" or the
ability to sense that he is maintaining a sufficient amount of
"lift" on the upper and lower surfaces of his wings, the glider
renders its greatest service. This skill is more easily acquired
than the average person believes.
NATIONAL GLIDER ASSOCIATION 103
National Glider Association.—Early in 1928, Edward S.
Evans, prominent Detroit capitalist and sportsman, President of
the Evans Auto Loading Company, chairman of the Aircraft
Bureau of the Detroit Board of Commerce and a director and
stockholder in such aviation companies as the Stinson Aircraft
Corp., the Bellanca Corp., Northwest Airways and others, con
ceived the idea of founding a national association for the develop
ment of motorless flight in the L^nited States and Canada. Pro
ceeding with this idea, he formed the Evans Glider Clubs of
America, later, on January i, 1929, changing the name to the
National Glider Association with headquarters at Detroit, Michi
gan. In this body Mr. Evans has associated with him some of
the leading authorities on aviation in America. Leaders in boys'
work, aviation enthusiasts and sportsmen find a common meeting
ground in gliding. All \vide-awake and red-blooded young
Americans are enthusiastic about the sport. They are ready to
form the rank and file of any club in any community in the
United States which can be financed by the older men who are
interested.
Clubs or others desiring to establish ideal soaring locations in
their vicinity are invited to send to national headquarters for
Government contour maps showing the terrain within a radius
of fifty miles of the desired center. These maps will then be
referred to the Technical Committee which will recommend
various locations which appear desirable. Local committees can
then inspect these locations for obstructions and other objection
able features. After the list is reduced to two or three possible
locations, national headquarters, if requested, will send out repre
sentatives to aid in making the final selection. Actual expenses
of those making such a visit will be charged the local organization.
Classification of Glider Records.—The N. A. A. recognizes
officially the following classes of glider records:
Duration with return to point of departure.

Duration without returning to point of departure.
Distance with return to point of departure.
Distance air line.
Altitude above starting point.
Speed returning to the point of departure over a distance
greater than one mile.
The N. G. A. also recognizes contests for ''Landing on a

Mark."
Glider Sporting Licenses.—The National Glider Association
is authorized by the National Aeronautic Association to license
third and second class glider pilots and to supervise the licensing
of candidates for the First Class or F. A. I. license in the name
of the N. A. A.
For the Third Class license, the pilot must keep a PTG or STG
in the air for thirty seconds in a flight straight down hill and
give such other evidence to the examiners as they may require
that he is competent to handle a simple glider under normal
circumstances.
For the Second Class license, the candidate must fly a PTG or
STG for one minute down hill, making a full right and a full
left or "S" turn.
For the First Class or F. A. I. license, the candidate may
enter any type glider and must fly it for five minutes at an
GLIDERS SHOULD BE LICENSED 105
altitude higher than the point from which it was launched.
A Third Class license is required before the second test may
be given, and the Second Class license must be shown by candi
dates for the First Class license.
A complete set of the Contest Rules is furnished each club
and individual member and additional sets may be secured at cost
upon application to National Headquarters.
Status of Motored Pilots.—Motored pilots holding N. A. A.
Annual Sporting licenses are eligible for glider contests and
individual record attempts even if not holding a glider license.
In events not requiring sanction by the N. A. A., motored pilots
holding Department of Commerce licenses may compete without
glider licenses at the discretion of the Contest Committee in
charge. Motored pilots so competing shall be classed with First
Class Glider pilots and must comply with rules covering same.
(NOTE: Competitions for the Edward S. Evans cash prizes for
duration flights are sanctioned by the N. A. A.)
Gliders Should Be Licensed.—Hundreds of gliders through
out the country may be grounded by local authorities unless their
owners secure licenses from the Aeronautics Branch. Although
according to U. S. Federal regulations, gliders do not have to be
licensed unless they engage in interstate commerce which is hardly
a likely case, 20 states now require Federal licenses for gliders
and glider pilots under terms of their statutes regulating aircraft
and airmen. The N. G. A. will require all gliders entering con
tests after September i, 1930, to hold Department of Commerce
licenses.
The states which require Federal licenses are Alaska, Arizona,
California, Delaware, Idaho, Indiana, Iowa, Michigan, Missis
sippi, Missouri (except solo pleasure), Montana, New Mexico,
io6 ABC OF GLIDING AND SAILFLYING
North Dakota, Texas, Vermont, Washington, Wisconsin and
Wyoming.
Although the Department of Commerce has adequate machinery
to license gliders as to airworthiness, for a time no formal re
quests were received by the department for glider licenses or
for glider-approved type certificates. Applications had been
made for identification marks for 600 gliders, but such marks
mean little more than what the term designates, "identification."
A license number of a glider, as with powered craft, must be
preceded by a "C."
To secure a license on an approved type, it is necessary first to
submit a complete stress analysis to the Aeronautics Branch at
Washington. Upon approval of the design and completion of
the craft, a local inspector will inspect the glider for workman
ship and adherence to the approved design. If the completed
glider is built in accordance with the approved design, it is then
licensed. Powered-plane pilots, who feel they are qualified to
fly a motorless craft, will meet with a set-back when they learn
that it is necessary to take proper tests and secure another license
applicable strictly to gliders. Unlicensed pilots of all classes, in
cluding students, must take the same physical examination as
required for a powered-plane student's license.
Must Follow Airworthiness Rules.—The general airworthi
ness requirements for airplanes with power plant are applicable
to gliders. Certain aspects of the glider problem differ materially
from those encountered in powered craft and must be given special
consideration. These are the design loads for wings, fuselages,
landing gears, control surfaces and control systems; the material
and method used for covering surfaces; the provision for towing;
GLIDERS MUST BE AIRWORTHY 107
the equipment and instruments to be provided and the method of
conducting the engineering inspection and flight tests. With
regard to flight tests, the director of air regulations explains that
there are, of course, no quantitative performance requirements for
gliders. Qualitatively, it is required that, under all load condi
tions, they be longitudinally, laterally and directionally stable.
They must also exhibit no undue tendency toward falling1 off into
a spin. Any tendency toward wing flutter will be cause for dis
approval. Aircraft, in which no air controls are provided, and
shifting of the pilot's weight constitutes the sole means of ad
justing the angle of attack and obtaining lateral balances, are
not considered safe and will not be approved by the Department
of Commerce. An efficient longitudinal air control is required.
The lateral and directional control may be obtained by weight
shifting providing that the stability of the aircraft is such that
it will respond properly to such shifting of weight, as determined
by actual flight tests, and providing that the pilot may recover
his normal position from any other position in any attitude which
the aircraft may assume.
Requirements on Towed Flight.—It is explained also that
towing of gliders may be practiced by man power, automotive
power—such as automobile and speed boats—or by an airplane.
In all cases except when man power alone is used, an approved
device shall be used for cutting loose the towing cable at the will
of the pilot in the light aircraft. In order to eliminate the chance
of failure of the main supporting structure due to excessive tow
cable pull, the strength of the tow cable shall not exceed two-
thirds of the maximum wing structure design load.
io8 A B C OF GLIDING AND SAILFLYING
Airworthiness Requirements of Air Commerce Regulations
From U. S. Department of Commerce Bulletin 7A.
PART 3.—LIGHT AIRCRAFT 1
Light aircraft will include airplanes in which the power loading

is greater than 30 pounds per horsepower, and aircraft, heavier
than air, without power plant.
1. General.—The requirements of parts i, 2, 4, and 5 of
Section I shall apply except as herein modified.
2. Special.—Special requirements will cover the following
items:
(A) Design loads for wings.
(B} Design loads for control surfaces.
(C) Design loads for landing gears.
(D) Design loads for fuselages.
(E) Control systems.
(F) Covering.
(G) Towing.
(//) Equipment and instruments.
(7) Inspection flight tests.
Safety of the power plant will be considered from the stand
point of fireproofness but not from the standpoint of performance
or reliability, since such power plant as will be used in light air
craft will be merely an auxiliary and not a necessary essential to
safe flight. Propellers likewise will not be subjected to special
requirements.
1 The requirements of this section were prepared with the assistance of

J. A. Roche, through the courtesy of Brig. Gen. Wm. E. Gillmore, Chief
Materiel Division, Army Air Corps.
AIRWORTHINESS REQUIREMENTS 109
3. Design loads for wings. — Because of the great variance
existing among light aircraft as to aerodynamic characteristics,
it will be necessary to base the design loads of the structures
upon the performance characteristics, computed or tested, of each
individual aircraft. (These characteristics should be described by
means of a velocity diagram similar to that shown in Figure 17,
Bulletin 7 A. )
In this diagram the velocities corresponding to all the angles
of attack of the wings of the aircraft are plotted from the point
"o" neglecting the effect of the power plant, and the points repre
senting the extreme ends of these velocity vectors are joined by a
faired curve. The velocities can be obtained by computations
providing the airfoil characteristics, the parasite drag, and the
stabilizing forces are known. The results of free flight or wind-
tunnel tests can be of assistance in checking the computed veloci
ties. Sample velocity computations may be referred to in Air
Service Information Circular No. 444.
In general, it will be necessary to check the strength of the
wing structure for the following conditions :
(A) Maximum velocity, which usually occurs in a nearly ver
tical dive. In this case a load factor of 1.5 is required.
(B) Foremost center of pressure location for the wing airfoil,
which occurs at the attitude corresponding to minimum speed. In
this case the load factor will be determined by
(C) For the maximum velocity corresponding to a gliding

path having a slope of i in 6. In this case the load factor will
be determined by the expression
i io A B C OF GLIDING AND SAILFLYING
p _ /Fmax. \ 2
V^path i in6/
(In all cases the stress analysis will be made by taking the
wing- air force vector in the correct location and by applying
reactions corresponding to those set up by the tail load and
weights carried by the wings.)
(D) The wing structure shall be capable of carrying the above
load systems reversed in direction with load factors one-half those
specified.
(E) To insure proper resistance to loads imposed by handling
and on wing tip landings, the wing structure shall be capable of
carrying the airplane with a load factor of 2 when reactions are
applied at the wing tips in a transverse plane through the center
of gravity.
Wing ribs.—The wing ribs shall be capable of carrying their
proper portion of the load systems corresponding to conditions
(A), (B), and (C), for which the wings are analyzed, with a
margin of 30 per cent.
4. Design loads for control surfaces.—The control surfaces
shall be designed to carry loads as described in the following
rules:
(A) The horizontal tail surfaces shall be designed to carry
loads balancing those specified for the wing structure. A factor
of 30 per cent will be added to the tail loads thus determined, to
insure against failure through unknown and peculiar pressure dis
tribution. The average loading in this condition shall be not less
than 6 pounds per square foot.
(B) The load distribution shall correspond to that required
for airplanes in part 2, Section I.
AIRWORTHINESS REQUIREMENTS in
(C) The vertical tail surfaces shall withstand a unit loading
which is 75 per cent of that specified for the horizontal surfaces.
(D) The ailerons shall withstand the unit loading specified for
the vertical tail surfaces.
5. Design loads for landing gears and tail skids.—Gliders
having a theoretical landing speed greater than 20 miles per hour,
or weighing more than 50 pounds empty, shall be provided with a
suitable landing gear. This may consist of skids or wheels, but
must be resilient to prevent high shock stresses from being im
posed on the structure of the aircraft. The landing gear shall be
analyzed in the same manner as for airplanes—that is, 3-point
landing, level landing, and side load conditions. A drop from 15
inches in the 3-point and level landing conditions will be required.
A load factor of 5 shall be the minimum required. In the case
of the level landing analysis, if a sliding element is used instead
of a rolling element a horizontal component equal to one-half
the vertical component shall be used to represent, as correctly as
possible, the effect of ground friction. For the lateral design
loads the rules and load factors applying to airplanes shall be
used.
6. Control systems.—Aircraft in which no air controls are pro
vided and shifting of the pilot's weight constitutes the sole means
of adjusting the angle of attack and obtaining lateral balance, are
not considered safe and will not be approved.
An efficient longitudinal air control is required. The lateral
and directional control may be obtained by weight shifting pro
viding that the stability of the aircraft is such that it will respond
properly to such shifting of weight, as determined by actual flight
test, and providing that the pilot may recover his normal position
from any other position in any attitude which the aircraft may
assume. The strength of the stick and control system shall not
be less than required to carry the maximum air loads on the
various control surfaces.
7. Design loads for fuselages.—The fuselage structure shall be
designed in accordance with the methods prescribed for airplane
fuselages, excepting as noted below:
(A} The fuselage tail structure shall be designed to carry the
tail loads necessary to balance the wing loads.
(B) A factor of 5 for landing conditions shall be used.
8. Covering.—In view of the great variance of unit loading
and styles of construction in light aircraft, the use of cotton,
linen, and silk, doped, rubberized, varnished or oiled, attached
by means other than usual in the case of airplanes, will be accept
able providing it can be shown that after it is finally processed the
fabric and its attachment have adequate strength. In each case
where covering materials other than approved for airplanes are
used representative samples and test reports shall be submitted to
show the suitability of the covering. The specimen shall include
samples of the method of attachment of the covering.
The covering tests shall be performed on a sample section of
the wing and on a sample section of the horizontal control sur
faces. For such tests the covering shall be removed totally or
partially from the side of the test section against which it is
usually pressed by the air loads, leaving the stitching and taping
intact. The covering which is usually pulled away from its sup
porting structure shall be loaded from the inside with dry, loose
sand or lead shot until failure of the covering or its attachment
occurs. Notes and photographs shall be made to describe the
AIRWORTHINESS REQUIREMENTS 113
deformations of the covering at various stages of the loading
schedule. The intensity of loading shall be 75 per cent of the
highest used during rib and tail surface tests.
9. Towiny.—Towing of light aircraft may be practiced by
man power, automotive power, such as automobiles and speed
boats, or by an airplane. In all cases, except when man power
alone is used, an approved device shall be used for cutting loose
the towing cable at the will of the pilot in the light aircraft. In
order to eliminate the chance of failure of the main supporting
structure due to excessive tow cable pull, the strength of the
tow cable shall not exceed two-thirds of the maximum wing struc
ture design load.
10. Equipment and instruments.—Safety belts attached to suit
able anchorages shall be provided in light aircraft. The strength
of the belt and its anchorage shall be sufficient to withstand a
pull of 850 pounds applied to the belt in a manner simulating the
loading applied by a person weighing 170 pounds with a load
factor of 5.
An instrument indicating the approach of stalling speed shall
be provided. This may consist of an air-speed indicator or an
angle of attack indicator. In either case this instrument shall be
accurate at low speed and provided with markings indicating
clearly the range corresponding to unsafe conditions of flight.
11. Flight tests.—There are no quantitative performance re
quirements for light aircraft. It is, however, required that in
all load and power conditions they be longitudinally balanced and
stable, and that they be laterally and directionally stable. They
must respond to their controls in a normal manner, satisfactory
to the flight inspector who will make air tests.
ii4 A B C OF GLIDING AND SAILFLYING
Tests made in still air may be required to check the velocity
diagram on which the design load factors are based. The light
aircraft with full load, shall be dived on a path 30° from the
horizontal, for a sufficient length of time to acquire and maintain
the maximum velocity corresponding to this path, without de
veloping objectionable flutter in its wings or control surfaces. A
demonstration shall be made to show that the light aircraft will
readily recover from spins after spinning at least six turns with
the center of gravity in the rearmost position likely to be
encountered in its normal use.
(The regulations relative to spinning tests apply to motored
airplanes and gliders, not to free flying gliders or soaring planes.)
CHAPTER SIX
DESCRIPTION OF MODERN GLIDERS

AND SAILPLANES
Trend of Glider Design—Glider Blue Prints—Description of Detroit Gull;
Wings—Fuselage—Landing Gear—Empennage and Controls—Speci
fications of Detroit Gull—Specifications of Evans Gliders—Specifica
tions of Alexander Trainer—Specifications for Cadet II Training
Glider—Details of Bowlus Sailplane—Bowlus Wing Construction—
A Dual Control Glider—Water Gliders—Powered Gliders—Combina
tion Primary and Secondary Training Sailplanes.
Trend of Glider Design.—A striking development of primary

training glider design is the single-track skid landing gear, as
shown in side view of PTG at Fig. 32. Wheels have been
abandoned on some shock cord launched types because of their
resistance and also because of difficulties in stopping when landing
on an incline. Most gliders are equipped with skids or runners
as originally used by the Wrights, though some that are to be
launched by auto-towing have wheels, as shown at Figs. 33 and
34. Most gliders are made of wood. Very thin plywood is the
preferred material. Wooden beams and trusses joined by ply
wood gusset plates are assembled to form the most intricate and
elaborate internally trussed bridge works which, when covered in,
form extremely light wings. Cantilever wings, weighing less
than five ounces per square foot, are built that possess ample
strength. In motored airplanes wings weigh at least sixteen
ounces per square foot and 24 ounces is not an unusual weight.
Of course, the stresses in powered airplanes are greater and the
construction must be stronger.
TOP LONGERON
F-IO
PLYON
TOP
RUNNER
Detailed Plan of
NORTHROP GLIDER |"ASH CLAMP
By Weston Farmer
BOTTOM VIEW
COURTESY OF MODERN MECHANICS AND INVENTION
Fig. 32.—Dimensioned Side View of the Northrop Primary Training Glider Showing Sizes of Various Parts and
Nature of Materials Used in the Construction.
TYPICAL TRAINING GLIDERS 117
Waterproof casein glue is used almost exclusively for joining
wood parts. Nails are avoided by some designers, since they con
tribute very little to strength but considerably to weight and
deterioration. Other designers use brads to supplement the glue
at gusseted joints. The weight of successful gliders varies from
about 250 pounds down to as little as 90 pounds. Two persons
can handle them on the ground. Much ingenuity has been dis
played in facilitating disassembling and road transport. This fea
ture is a great asset after long-distance glides in hilly country
because it is not easy to handle and carry a sailplane having a
large wing spread on an ordinary motor truck over the usual roads
without dismantling it.
In the glider field the monoplane is the decided favorite. Ex
tremely large aspect ratio is a basic feature of all designs. Wing
spans consequently have grown wider and wider and wings, span
ning 12 and even 15 times their chord are quite common. Of
course, it is essential also to avoid struts and external bracing
on soaring planes. Structurally, it is a task to build a light wing
spanning 30 feet from root to tip on the cantilever principle,
having only five-foot base depth or less at the root. Responsible
designers of the old school hesitated to risk that, so it took the
boldness of college students to demonstrate that it could be done.
Klemperer says that the tapering of wings toward the tips has
been demonstrated to contribute enough to structural and aero
dynamic efficiency to justify the greater manufacturing complica
tion. The soaring planes have done much to demonstrate the
merits of the thick and semi-thick wing sections, and the advan
tages of well-rounded leading edges. In no other aircraft can
parasitic resistance be reduced so perfectly as in the modern sail-
u8 A B C OF GLIDING AND SAILFLYING
plane. Some of them that have been described in a preceding
chapter have nothing but a wing, tail, and a streamlined body
just large enough to house the pilot. Every aviator will agree
that the field of vision from a glider's cockpit is incomparably
better than from that of any regular tractor airplane. One can
see to the last second where he is going to land.
A number of rather unorthodox designs have been built and
flown as gliders with interesting and varying success. Among
them are tandem wings; tailless planes with pronouncedly swept-
back wings; slotted wings; machines having the control planes
in front of the main wings, and others with flapping wings. The
normal gliders are equipped with elevator, rudder, and ailerons
and are controlled much like airplanes. Control surfaces are large
to compensate for the low air pressure at soaring and gliding
speeds, but the tail is short in comparison with the wing span.
Many efforts have been made to eliminate the vertical rudder.
Birds have evidently quite good control without it. However,
all attempts at copying the ideal warping and folding mechanism
of the bird's wings or replacing it by some other device, so far
have produced nothing decidedly superior to rudder control.
Various kinds of wind brakes mounted on the wing tips, which
on a glider have such a long leverage, have been tried with partial
success. Flexible camber wings and tiltable wings have been
flown successfully, although the advantages claimed do not seem
to be exactly in proportion to the complication and increased cost
of construction. Some device with which to control the gliding
angle independently of the angle of attack and speed does have
some definite usefulness, however.
GLIDER BLUE PRINTS 119
Recording altimeters, air-speed meters, and so-called accelerom-
eters, however, have been of great assistance to both pilots and
students. The pilot can, by watching these instruments simul
taneously with the horizon and noting the physical sensations,
interpret much better whether he is gaining or losing energy.
Angle of attack and yaw meters, however primitive they may be,
are also a valuable asset, but instruments are of more value to
sailplane pilots engaged in soaring than to students undergoing
primary instruction by the short glide system.
Glider Blue Prints.—The National Glider Association reports
that it is swamped with requests for blue prints of gliders. Most
of these requests come from utterly inexperienced people who
have been led to believe that any one can construct a motorless
airplane. This is not true. A glider is an airplane in every sense
of the word, less a motor. Only persons acquainted with the
design and experienced with the construction of aircraft should
attempt to build a glider. In fact, it takes more skill and ability
to construct a high class soarer than it does to build a motored
plane. The National Glider Association believes that it would
be better for the sport if beginners would purchase their equip
ment from competent manufacturers. This can now be done.
An excellent Primary Training Glider with safety belt and shock
cord can be purchased for from $375 to $600 and the superior
utility gliders for from $650 to $1,000. As several club mem
bers can use the same glider, this brings the cost per individual
down within the reach of all.
Yet, in response to a quite general demand, and also for the
purpose of having in its files standard or master plans of the
Primary and Secondary Training Gliders, the National Glider
Association is having prepared blue prints of the Utility Training
Glider. These prints may be purchased when available at cost by
individual members or affiliated clubs only which give ample evi
dence that they have themselves or have affiliated with them, mem
bers who have experience and skill in the design and construction
of aircraft, and that adequate shop facilities will be available for
the construction. These plans will be approved by the Depart
ment of Commerce before being issued.
Description of Detroit Gull.—The wings are of standard air
plane two-panel construction. The two 17-foot spars of each
wing are built of 5^-inch selected spruce; and ribs are made
of spruce and-mahogany plywood. Leading and trailing wing-
edges are fitted with 28-gauge heat treated duralumin. Wing
fittings, where the most strain occurs, are of %2-inch carbon
steel. Wings are covered by the standard aircraft process, with
an especially light weight but durable glider fabric, and wing
tips are protected by ash strips covered with plywood. Drain
holes are placed in the wings for drainage of condensation. Com
pression struts of the wings are each %-inch square.
Fuselage.—Fuselage struts, of the highest grade Sitka spruce,
are machine shaped and sanded; and upon assembly, strut joiners
are set with waterproof casein glue, and reinforced with ply
wood gussets. The keel is built of three * He-inch laminated
spruce members, tightly clamped and glued; and to it is attached
a bottom member of sturdy ash. The keel is of box construc
tion, and is faced on the sides with /l% -inch plywood cut at a
45-degree angle to give the maximum strength. One 2O-inch
and one 3O-inch longitudinal external keel brace is bolted on the
side of each fuselage spar in four places to take up the shock
of landing. The seat and back rest are built of five-ply veneer.
DETROIT GULL P. T. GLIDER 121
(Steel fuselage construction of 1025 welded steel tubing will
shortly be available to those desiring same.)
Landing Gear.—For wheel landing gear installation, two steel
tubes are nested one inside the other for strength, and are placed
through the fuselage in a space provided at the normal point of
contact with the ground. The plywood is cut, and the tube axle
placed through, with four inches
allowed for absorption of shock
—which is taken up by a cross-
wound shock cord. Small air
plane tail wheels are used,
with 10x3 tires. (See Fig.
33-) t
Exhaustive engineering ex
periments, both in the factory
and under actual flight con
ditions, have proven the high
degree of safety of the "DE
TROIT GULL." The safety belt
is of high grade cotton webbing,
especially designed for gliders,
and is tested for 850 pounds
stress. Overload drop tests Fig. 33-—Partial Front View of
evidence its fine resistance to Detroit Gull Training Glider Show-*
ing Pilot Seated and Simple Wheel
hard landings; and the ship has Supporting Gear Employed for
n fptv fo rtnr for IraH rarrv- Launching the Glider by Towing
a <,saiety tactor tor load carry whh Automobile>
ing of six and one-half times
the actual average load it will ever be called upon to support.
Empennage and Controls.—The rudder is counter-balanced.
All tail sections are made of selected spruce and are thoroughly
glued and well nailed. Two double-drilled hinges are placed on
the rudder, and six on the elevator. The last fuselage bay is
counter-braced with plywood, making in actual effect a vertical
stabilizer.
Standard aircraft cables, thimbles and ferrules are used
throughout, in addition to aircraft cable girdles, regulation air
craft turnbuckles, and copper safety wire. Westinghouse Micarta
control pulleys are used exclusively. For aileron and rudder
horns, half-inch, five-ply birch is used, which is practically as
strong as steel. The control stick is made of heavy welded steel
tubing, and is the same size as those used in motored airplanes.
The rudder bar is of shaped ash, and is provided with foot straps
to prevent the pilot's feet from slipping.
DETROIT GULL SPECIFICATIONS—PRIMARY

TRAINING GLIDER
(This Glider is shown in flight in Frontispiece)
It is built to meet the airworthiness requirements of the De

partment of Commerce and all engineering data have been ac
cepted for Approval Type Certificate.
Length over all.................... 17 ft. 6 in.

Height over all.................... 7 ft.
Span ............................ 34 ft. 6 in.
Chord ...........................5 ft.
Aspect ratio ...................... 6.8 to I
AREAS
Wing (including Ailerons)......... 170 sq. ft.
Ailerons ......................... 16.5 sq. ft.
DETROIT GULL P. T. SPECIFICATIONS 123
Rudder .......................... 8 sq. ft.
Fin ............................. 3.5 sq. ft.
Stabilizer ........................ 10.0 sq. ft.
Elevator ......................... 14.0 sq. ft.
WEIGHT
Empty ........................... 180 pounds
Useful load ...................... 170 pounds
Seat Back
Steel Tube
dSkid
"" orftunner
Wheel
Fig. 34.—Close-up View of Front Part of the Alexander Training Glider

Showing Application of Simple Wheel Landing Gear.
Gross weight ..................... 350 pounds

Wing loading, per sq. ft. ........... 2.1 pounds
PERFORMANCE
Gliding angle ..................... 10 to I

Landing speed .................... 12 to 15 M.p.h.
REMARKS : Aileron Control at 8 miles per hour. Designed for a
maximum speed of 103 m.p.h. in vertical dive. Bracing has a safety
factor of 40% against required 20%. All cables have 50% margin
of safety. Wing is U. S. 35 B airfoil section.
Fig. 35.—Illustration at Top Shows the Evans Glider * Resting on the

Ground. Note Steel Tube Fuselage and Extension of Vertical Fuselage
Posts Above the Wing to Form Bracing Pylon for Landing Wires.
Bottom Illustration Shows Pilot Gliding Hands-off to Show Inherent
Balancing of the Design.
* For altitudes of 5,000 ft. or over, 25% additional wing- area is recom
mended for the primary type glider—furnished at an additional cost of
$50.00. Manufactured by Evans Glider Co., Los Angeles, California.
SPECIFICATIONS OF EVANS GLIDERS 125
SPECIFICATIONS
EVAXS GLIDERS (Fig. 35)
TYPE PRIMARY SECONDARY
Span 34 feet 44 feet
Chord 5 feet 5 feet
Length overall 18 ft. 6 in. 21 ft. 6 in.
Weight 175 Ibs. 225 Ibs.
Area 170 sq. ft. 220 sq. ft.
Spars Sitka spruce Sitka spruce
Ribs Aerotruss steel Aerotruss steel
Airfoil Gottengen 441 Gottengen 441
Fuselage Aircraft steel tubing Aircraft steel tubing
Landing gear Ash skid Ash skid
Price at factory $247.50, knockdown.
Double wire bracings on both primary and secondary.
Other airfoils optional at slight additional cost.
Safety belts included as standard equipment.
Secondary type has streamline enclosed cockpit.
ALEXANDER GLIDER
Exact designing by airplane engineers has created a glider in
herently stable in flight to a high degree. Any beginner may
strap himself into the comfortable seat and fly the craft with
ease after mere ground instruction in the operation of controls.
Careful instruction by skilled aircraftsmen, using airplane meth
ods and the facilities of a giant aircraft factory, has produced
a light but sturdy machine combining an ability to float "like a
feather" to that of withstanding the buffeting of bad landings
by novice pilots. The Alexander Glider is trim and inexpensive.
It would be difficult for a group of persons to build a glider for
the same price of $375 unless equipped with machines and
methods permitting mass production.
Fig. 36.—Three-quarter Front and Rear Views of the Alexander Trainer, Which Uses a Welded Steel Tube Fuse
lage and Monoplane Supporting Wing Having Appreciable Dihedral.
ALEXANDER GLIDER DETAILS 127
A large amount of high-lift wing area and unusually large
control surfaces make for a quick take-off, flat-gliding angle,
thistledown landing and good controllability at slow speeds. The
control surfaces are well balanced and the response highly sensi
tive. The motorless machine handles easily at the slowest flying
speeds.
The test of a good glider, of course, lies in its ability to sus
tain its pilot for a long duration of time, or to glide a long
distance. The test of a superior glider in the modern sense rests
in its controllability at slow speeds. If it responds easily to the
controls at slow speeds, its pilot may hold it at minimum flying
speed and yet return at will to take advantage of a vagrant up-
current, or side slope of a hill. Sufficient stability likewise has
been built into the Alexander Glider to enable it to recover itself
from abnormal attitudes. If the beginner on his first flight
should be catapulted into the air with a "wing down," as some
times happens, that wing would automatically strive to rise to
level flying position as a result of the dihedral designed into the
wings.
The glider pilot is protected from personal injury in event of
a bad fall by the following factors: First, the glider, being light,
maintains a large amount of sustaining force at all times and does
not fall hard. Second, the prow of the main skid, on which he
sits, protects the pilot from hitting the ground on a headlong
collision. A regular safety belt holds him in his seat. The wings
and tail offer similar protection in a sideslip or tailslip. The
lighter the glider, the better it flies. The stronger the glider, the
longer it lasts. The combined strength and lightness was achieved
through the scientific use of seamless steel tubing, with welded
joints in the fuselage. By virtue of this steel construction, the
Alexander Glider combines lightness with strength and compro
mises on neither score.
The Alexander Glider is built in the high altitude country to
fly in the thin air of the mountains. Consequently its perform
ance is correspondingly better in the heavier air of lower eleva
tions. The buoyancy of the glider is due to its lightness and
large wing surface. Flown by a heavy pilot, the Alexander
Glider has a "wing loading" of less than two pounds to a square
foot. It is less than a fifth of the amount of weight borne by
each square foot of wing area on the average airplane.
The glider is equipped with metal wing tip skids which pro
tect the wings on take-offs or landings. Its comfortable seat is
adjustable forward and backward so as to compensate for weights
of different pilots which in large variations would slightly affect
the balance of the machine. Controls operate on an efficient
pulley system and are readily open for inspection. The glider is
finished in a striking color combination of International orange
fuselage and silver wings. At the prow of the main skid is a
novel trip catch release suitable for the launching of the glider
by both towing and catapulting methods. A wheeled landing gear,
as shown at Fig. 34 may be fitted to facilitate towed flights.
A frequent error in glider design was avoided by making the
control surfaces unusually large. A glider is customarily flown
at near the slowest possible speed in order to attain maximum
duration of flight. The slow velocity naturally retards effective
ness of controls which are dependent on the force of air pressure.
It must also be remembered that the tail surfaces of a glider are
without the additional pressure of the propeller "wash," as with
SPECIFICATIONS OF ALEXANDER TRAINER 129
an airplane. Hence correspondingly larger ailerons, elevators
and rudder are provided on the Alexander Glider. These "extra"
control surfaces, together with the large high-lift wings, make
the Alexander Trainer a good secondary as well as "a primary
glider.
SPECIFICATIONS
ALEXANDER TRAINER (Fig. 36)
Manufactured by Alexander Aircraft Company, Colorado Springs,
Colorado.
Type: Primary and secondary monoplane.
Dimensions: Length overall, 16 ft. Height overall, 6 ft. Span,
36ft.
Chord, 5.5 in. Aspect ratio, 6.66 to i.
Areas: Wing (incl. ailerons), 198 sq. ft. Ailerons, 27*4 sq. ft.
Rudder, ioj^ sq. ft. Fin, 4 sq. ft. Stabilizer and elevator, 21
sq. ft.
Weights: Empty, 210 Ibs. Useful load, 200 Ibs. Wing loading,
2 Ibs. per sq. ft.
Performance: Gliding angle, 15 to i. Landing speed, 12-14 m.p.h.
Construction: Fuselage, welded steel tubing, triangular type, un
covered.
Wing, braced, high lift, double camber, spruce spars, spruce ribs,
fabric covered.
Equipment: Trip release tow hook, comfortable cushion, shock
absorbers, airplane safety belt.
Price (at factory) : $375.
REMARKS : Greater weight compensated for by extra large amount
of wing area, giving it light wing loading.
Sensitive response to the controls is appreciated especially by

the glider pilot when being towed into the air by automobile. In
the first stage of the process the glider is pulled down the runway
at a fast clip but without sufficient flying speed to take the air.
130 ABC OF GLIDING AND SATLFLYING
Until the towing automobile reaches a good speed the glider may
be one wing low or "get away" from its pilot unless he is afforded
good slow speed control.
SPECIFICATIONS FOR
CADET II—TRAINING GLIDER
The Cadet II, shown at Fig. 37, has not been designed to meet
the competition of the cheaper open type primary gliders of
limited performance. It has been designed and built by an en
gineer who has spent years in the study and actual design of the
highest performing "Darmstadt" gliders in Europe. The Cadet
II has been built to conform to the proposed glider specifications
of the Department of Commerce. The manufacturers are The
Baker McMillen Co., Akron, Ohio.
Type—High Wing Monoplane.
Fuselage—Welded steel—enclosed with fabric.
Tapered wings, span 37 feet 2 inches.
Wing area—160 sq. ft.
Chord—5 feet max.
Control—Tubular to Ailerons.
Aileron area—24 sq. ft.
Horizontal tail surface—19 sq. ft.
Vertical tail surface—17 sq. ft.
Length overall—18 feet 9 inches.
Height overall—5 feet 4 inches.
Weight—230 Ibs.
Angle of glide (approximate)—15-1.
Sinking speed (approximate)—3^ feet per second.
Landing gear—16 x 6 air wheel with brake.
Equipment—Special hook for either shock cord launching or
towing. 50 yards ^-inch shock cord.
Finish—4 coats clear dope and one aluminum with red trimmings.
Fittings cadmium plated.
PRICE—$650, plus crating at Akron.
Oo
o
JM
Fig. 36 A.—Wing and Aileron Frame of the Baker-McMillen Training Glider Shown at Top. The
Welded Steel Tube Fuselage Shown Below of the Cadet II Training Glider is a Light and Strong
Assembly.
Fig. 36 B.—Close-up View of Pilot's Cockpit Section of Cadet II Train
ing Glider Showing Seat and Control Members, Also Wing and Strut
Attachment Lugs.
A new type of training glider, known as the Utility model can be used
for all stages of training. The central fuselage and controls carried at the
tail are the same on the type used for primary and secondary training
and for that employed for soaring, but there is an important difference in
that wings of greater span and with augmented supporting area are used
on the soaring plane. The Baker-McMillen Cadet II shown at Fig. 37
is an excellent example of a Utility type glider when fitted with a wing
spread of 37 feet. Fitting new wings of 48 feet span converts it to an
efficient soaring type and the fact that the pilot's cockpit is enclosed on
either model familiarizes him early in his training period with the "feel"
of a closed-in cockpit and the control of a soaring type craft. Attention
is directed to the illustrations at Fig. 36A which show the substantial and
light wood spar and rib structure of the Cadet II wing frame with cover
ing removed. The other illustration on the same plate is of the welded
metal tube fuselage of the Cadet II glider and shows how closely the best
approved powered airplane practice is followed in the construction of a
modern Utility type glider or sailplane.
Vertical Fin
Tapering Semi-Can ft/ever W/s?g
Large Aileron
Air Wheel—-'-
Covered in 'Fuse/age-
Aileron WingTip
Skid
Fig. 37.—Views of the Cadet II Secondary Training Glider. Note Single Airwheel for Landing Gear and Braced
Monoplane Wing, Also Fairing of Wing and Fuselage.
Bowlus Sailplane.—This is a tapered high wing, full can
tilever monoplane and is illustrated in the frontispiece. The
fuselage is of rectangular cross section, tapering to a horizontal
wedge in front and in the rear to a rectangular section about 6
inches square. The wing is in three parts. The center section
is of six-foot span and is built integrally with the fuselage. The
wings are ig-foot lengths bolted to the center section which allows
the wings to be dismantled for transportation. The fuselage
maximum section is at the pilot's seat where it is 24 inches high,
by 19 inches wide. It is constructed of four spruce longerons,
%-inch by J^-inch, at the pilot's seat and tapering to J^-inch by
%-inch at the rear ends. Strut members of the fuselage are of
spruce and are similar in cross section to the longeron at the
station where they are installed.
Diagonal bracing is taken care of by the use of thin spruce
strips i /l 2 inches wide by /4 G-inch thick, which are moistened
and then glued and nailed in position with their center line
intersecting the joint of the longeron and strut. When the strips
dry they shrink enough to give the structure considerable rigidity.
On each side a fairing strip /l\. inch by ^g inch is placed on edge
for the purpose of holding the cloth away from the fuselage
sides. The forward portion of the fuselage from the nose of
the wing to the trailing edge, has a V bottom and carries a skid
for landing.
Directly behind the pilot's seat is a bulkhead of %6-inch thick
plywood which extends from the keel to the top chord of the
front wing spar. These two bulkheads transmit the load of
fuselage and pilot to the wings in flying and to the skid in landing.
BOWLUS SAILPLANE DETAILS 133
The bulkheads have an hourglass shape, being the full width
of the fuselage where they attach to the longerons and above that,
narrowing to approximately the width of the pilot's head and
again flaring out for their attachment to the wing spars. Above
the fuselage the bulkheads are boxed in forming a streamlining
for the pilot's head.
The center section, which is attached to the bulkheads, is 5 ft.
long and has a chord of 5 ft. 6 in. It is permanently attached
to the bulkheads. At the rear of the fuselage is a short stub
vertical fin, to which the rudder is attached. A light tail skid of
conventional type, with rubber shock cord, is built in about a
foot from the end of the fuselage, an inspection hole being
provided by the use of hookless fasteners.
Controls are of the conventional type using a stick and rudder
pedal operating the control surfaces by means of /^6-inch control
wire.
Bowlus Wing Construction.—The wings are of full cantilever
construction, tapered in plan form, using U.S.A. 35-A airfoil
section. This section gives high lift and at the same time is
well suited to cantilever construction because of its deep section,
the spars having a depth at the root of 10.95 in. and 9.13 in.,
respectively. The wings proper are 19 ft. long and have a chord
of 5 ft. 6 in. at the root, tapering to 32 in. at the tips and are
bolted to the center section by duralumin fish plates.
The spars are built-up Pratt trusses. The top and bottom
chords are made up of two strips of square spruce glued and
nailed on each side of the vertical and diagonal members, the
diagonal members being placed so as to be in tension under flying
load. The top chord of the spars is kept horizontal. The lower
13-} A R C OF GLIDING AND SATLFLYTNG
one slants up, thereby giving a slight dihedral to the lower surface
of the wing. The front spar is set at right angles to the center
line of the fuselage, the rear one slanting forward in order to
keep it as deep as practical. The taper in plan form is obtained
mostly by slanting the trailing edge forward.
The ribs are made by cutting a web of /Ic-inch plywood Y^
in. deep and gluing on this, cap strips y% x He in., nailed
occasionally to hold them while the glue is drying. These ribs
are found to be exceptionally light and very easy to construct
and are many times stronger than necessary for glider loading.
Every third rib is made a compression rib by placing spruce
compression members on each side of the web. The wings are
braced diagonally in the same manner as is the fuselage, with thin
spruce strips.
The leading edge, back as far as the front spar, is covered
with thin plywood to give a true airfoil section and to add
rigidity. A wire is used for the trailing edge. These wings prove
to be extremely strong and rigid, very little flexing being noticed
even in flight. The entire glider may be lifted by its wing tips.
The ailerons are of the wing tip type using the Gottingen 410
section. They are built up with wooden ribs on a ij^-inch dural
tube which rotates in wooden bearings in the outside ribs of the
wing. Control wires are attached to horns on this tube. The
ailerons are rigged with six degrees less angle of attack than
the wings.
The rudder is a balanced, full cantilever type of rather thick
section, the entire load being taken by a box spar placed one-
third of the chord from the leading edge. The balancing fin is
entirely cut away at the lower portion where the rudder is hinged
BOWLUS SAILPLANE DETAILS 135
to the stub fin. The ribs of both the rudder and the elevator are
of the same type of construction as the ribs in the wings. The
rudder is approximately 6 ft. high and has 33 in. maximum chord
tapering to a rounded top.
No fixed horizontal stabilizer is provided. The elevator is
balanced. The depth of the stabilizer ' at its center section is
approximately the depth of the fuselage and continues the general
streamline effect. Both the rudder and the stabilizer are attached
to a %2-in. duralumin end plate which has ears bent out to
make the hinges. This plate is securely attached to the longerons
by means of ears.
At the front end of the fuselage a quick release is installed.
Wings, fuselage and tail surfaces are covered with No. 100
cambric. This material is light and takes dope well. Three coats
of dope are applied, the last one having aluminum pigment.
As far as can be ascertained, the plane has a gliding ratio of
approximately 20-1, with a gross weight of 305 Ibs. It takes off
at 22 m.p.h.
SPECIFICATIONS OF THE BOWLUS SAILPLANE
Span .............................. 44 ft.

Chord at root....................... 5 ft. 6 in.
Chord at tip........................ 32 in.
Overall length ...................... 25 ft.
Weight, empty ...................... 160 Ibs.
Aspect ratio ....................... 11
Wing curve ........................ U.S.A. 35-A
Wing area ......................... 179 sq. ft.
A Dual Control Glider.—One of the first dual control or two
place training gliders to be offered the public is illustrated at Fig.
37A. This is known as the Leonard and is manufactured by the
Leonard Motorless Aircraft Company, Inc., Grand Rapids, Michi
gan. It is claimed that glider piloting will be taught in much
less time in the two seat form which permits the instructor to
accompany the student. This glider was designed by graduate
Front Seat Rear Contraf Stick

Right Hand Wing Panel j Left Hand Wmg Panel
tiff Struts
-""' -7
Front Control/ Steel Tube x\ Struts take Flying

Stick /
Fuselage and Landing Loads
Front Rudder Bar 7 anding Skid
Rear Seat
^Rear Rudder Bar
J
Fig. 37A.—The Leonard Two-place Training Glider Permits Instructor
to Teach Piloting with Dual Control.
aeronautical engineers to meet the requirements of the U. S.

Dept. of Commerce. The fuselage is of reenforced steel tubing
and is said to weigh less than a wooden fuselage of similar size
and strength. A feature is the use of struts to carry both flying
and landing loads instead of the usual wire bracing which means
the glider is permanently rigged upon assembly and the wings
may be attached to the fuselage and the glider be made ready for
flight in five minutes. As the glider may be operated from either
seat, the instructor may make the landings at the start of in
struction, thus minimizing the shock of rough landings and at
tendant damage to the glider. This glider may be equipped with
WATER GLIDERS 137
pontoons so it can be launched from water behind a speed boat.
The wing span is 34 feet and wing chord 5 feet, the aspect ratio
of the wing is 6.8 to I and the available lifting area, including
ailerons is 170 square feet. The weight unloaded is 205 pounds.
Wing spars and ribs are of airplane spruce. The rate of glide in
dead air is 15 to i and landing speed is 19 miles per hour with
both seats occupied by pilots of average weight.
Water Gliders.—Some proponents of the towed gliders believe
that the use of a motor boat in connection with a glider fitted
with some sort of flotation gear offers advantages that are not
present in flying land gliders over flat ground by towing them
with automobiles. Water offers unlimited landing space with
no buildings, wires, fences or rough ground to confuse and worry
the novice. It is stated that the modern boat glider can be flown
at altitudes only limited by the length of the tow rope or it may
be kept indefinitely only a foot off of the water, entirely at the
will of the pilot. The modern glider fitted with flotation gear
differs from the early types just as much as the land types do.
The accompanying illustration at the top of Fig. 38 shows an
early German biplane type compared with a more modern German
design which is now being built in the United States. The early
creation was a single surfaced biplane with lateral control ob
tained by working the wing tips. The elevator was placed at the
front as in the early Wright glider and the flotation gear was a
pair of cigar-shaped pontoons.
The modern Peel glider shown below the early design at Fig.
38 has a duralumin hull of adequate strength to resist hard
landings and good lines for offering minimum air and water
resistance. The wings are modern high lift airfoils and the
bracing is by means of streamlined tubes. Dual control may be
provided as the Peel glider carries two. The glider will climb
and fly at twenty miles per hour and will land at ten miles per
hour. It is stated that the Peel glider boat, either in tow or in
An Early German
Type of Water
Single Surfaced
Glider
Wing-
Front
Elevator
A Modern Type Biplane

WaferGlider
Peel Skipper
Fig. 38.—Diagrams Showing Biplane Water Gliders of Early and

Modern German Design.
free flight is as maneuverable as a power plane as large control

surfaces afford a quick response even at moderate flying speeds.
Another advantage claimed over land gliders is that no shock
WATER GLIDERS 139
cord catapult is needed for launching and there is no need of
rinding slopes on which to launch it as it can be operated where-
ever a boat can go. (Editor's Note: A high speed boat is used
for towing the glider so it can fly, so this supposed advantage
becomes rather doubtful where funds are limited.) The gliding
ratio is given as eighteen to one, which means that from an
altitude of a thousand feet it is capable of gliding a distance of
over three miles.
SPECIFICATIONS, PEEL GLIDER BOAT

Manufactured by Peel Glider Boat Corporation, Fifth Ave. and
loth St., College Point, L. I., N. Y.
Type: Secondary, 2-place, flying boat, biplane.
Dimensions: Length overall, 22 ft. Height overall, 7 ft. Span,
31 ft. Chord, 54 in.
Areas: Wing (incl. ailerons), 270 sq. ft. Ailerons, 30 sq. ft. Rud
der, 8 sq. ft. Fin, 6 sq. ft. Stabilizer, 22 sq. ft. Elevator, 19 sq. ft.
Weights: Empty, 250 Ibs. Gross weight, 600 Ibs. Wing load
ing, 2.2 Ibs.
Performance: Gliding angle, 15 to i. Landing speed, 19 m.p.h.
Construction: Hull, duralumin all-metal. Wings, braced, wood
spars, steel ribs, linen covered.
Equipment: Dual controls; special equipment.
Price (at factory) : $595.
REMARKS: Glider has been towed off water by motor boat to an
altitude of 1,000 ft.
The Lawrence biplane water glider, described in J\Iodcm

Mechanics and Inventions for April, 1930, and shown at Fig. 39,
is a simple machine that can be built by any one capable of con
structing a land glider. The single step pontoon is built of wood
THE LAWRENCE BIPLANE WATER GLIDER
RUDDER AND TAIL-POST
SPRUCE
FRONT SPAR
REAR SPAR
BRACE
INCIDENCE
I"X 2" STREAM LINE SPRUCE

SIDE VIEW BETWEEN GUSSETS
GUSSET 20 GA. ALUMINUM

OR \," PLY -WOOD GLUED
10 AND NAILED
'X 2" TAPER TO l"Xl!£ BACK
\YQ X 2" STREAMLINE
FR. SHORT STRUT-

32 '/2' X 2. ]/4 X
2'/£'x l3/J6-REAR STRUT
DIHEDRAL
PONTOON BRACES FASTEN

TO SPARS FRONT VIEW
COURTESY OF MODERN MECHANICS AND INVENTIONS- APRIL I£>3O
Fig. 39-—Side and Direct Front Views of Lawrence Biplane Water Glider Having Pilot Seated on Single Central
Pontoon or Single Step Float. Outrigger for Carrying Controls Similar in Construction to Fuselage of Primary
Training Land Glider.
POWERED GLIDERS 141
and covered with doped linen to make it water tight. The wings
are the usual glider construction and wing tip floats are provided
on the lower wings which have considerable dihedral. The
empennage is supported by an outrigger corresponding to the
rear end of the fuselage of the usual primary training glider and
control is by a single stick.
The pilot sits on the deck of the main float, a seat being pro
vided for the purpose on the center of gravity line of the glider.
The wing spread of the upper wing is 28 feet, that of the lower
wing is about 19 feet 6 inches, including the width of the pon
toon. The float is 7 feet 4 inches long and 2 feet 11 inches wide,
the step being placed 45 inches from the stern of the float. The
wing chord is 6 feet for the upper wing and 3 feet for the lower
wing. Some of the main details are clearly shown in the drawing
at Fig. 39.
Powered Gliders.—There is some difference of opinion re
garding the application of even small engines to gliders and sail
planes. It is hard to define the line between powered gliders
and airplanes but most authorities concede that a lightly loaded
glider fitted with a small motor and capable of only relatively
low speeds has more of the characteristics of the glider than it
has of the airplane. In Germany, sailplanes were provided with
small engines so the pilot could go from one soaring area to
another and keep in the air when there were no favoring air
currents over terrain between two locations where soaring con
ditions were good. Another reason for fitting power was that it
became possible for the skilled sailplaner or soaring pilot to get
into air currents under cumulus clouds by means of the motor
and after these air currents were reached, to shut off the engine
and soar. The engine takes the place of the wing flapping that
we have seen permits soaring birds to seek favorable air cur
rents. Low-powered engines are used so the load supported by
the wing is not over 3 or 4 pounds per square foot. Modified
motorcycle engines, such as the Henderson, have made it possible
to fly powered gliders at speeds between 45 and 50 miles per hour.
The big Harley Davidson or Indian Motorcycle engines or in fact
any engine of 70 inches cubic displacement will fly a powered
glider.
A typical powered glider, the Craw ford, greatly resembles a
training glider. It has a wing span of 40 feet and a wing chord
of 5 feet with a wing area of 200 square feet. It weighs but
400 pounds complete with a Henderson 4-cylinder motor. The
motor is carried in front of the pilot, directly over the skid and
drives a two-blade aerial propeller 5 feet 10 inches in diameter
by 5-foot pitch through a chain and sprocket reduction of 2 to i,
i.e., the air screw turns at half the motor speed. Crawford
gliders have been fitted with Szekely 40 horse power engines,
have climbed to 11,000 feet altitude and attained speeds of 60
miles per hour. It is stated that powered gliders get into the air
quickly and land more slowly than airplanes do.
There can be no question in the minds of most people familiar
with gliding about the relative safety of powered gliders and
non-powered gliders. Beginners can best get the feel of the air
by using the simplest and lightest form of glider even though
the services of a launching crew is required to get them into the
air. After they become proficient and are able to control the
simple PT type in the air, then they can go to motored gliders
and undoubtedly fit themselves for flying airplanes by a carefully
COMBINATION TRAINING SAILPLANE 143
worked out course of instructions with the power-fitted glider.
Powered gliders can take off without the aid of a launching
crew if provided with power enough and considerable experience
in controlling can be obtained by taxiing on smooth level ground
and making long flights just a few inches from the ground, under
which conditions all control is by the air controls. It is claimed
by the operator of a pioneer powered glider school that students
are taught to "solo" in about one hour to the point where they
can make turns and figure eights. It is stated that turns can
be made at relatively low altitudes because it is not necessary
to bank a slow flying glider as much as one must bank a high
speed airplane and the danger of side slip or going into a spin
is very much less with powered gliders than with powered air
plane, which features should make them valuable for training
powered airplane pilots.
Combination Primary and Secondary Training Sailplane.—
A combination sailplane which may be used for ground training,
primary and secondary gliding, and for soaring, and which may
be converted into a power plane and an amphibian glider, is now
being manufactured by the Bowlus Sailplane Co., Ltd., of San
Diego. Convinced of the utility of the combination sailplane, the
Bowlus company has discontinued the manufacture of primary
gliders and is centering its efforts on sailplane manufacture,
according to R. E. Pollock, general manager.
By replacing the 14-foot center section with a 2-foot section
and removing the wings, the machine may be towed along the
ground while the student learns the manipulation of rudder and
elevators. Going into the primary glider stage, the 2-foot center
section is retained and the wings are attached, the special 2-foot
center section giving them a dihedral of 5 degrees. This prac
tically removes the necessity of ailerons, it is said. The landing
gear is retained for towing. For use as a secondary glider the
2-foot center section is replaced by the 14-foot section and the
wings are attached with the dihedral removed. The wheels
are retained.
In making a soarer of the sailplane the large center section
and wings compose the regular 60-foot span of a Bowlus sail
plane and the wheels are removed so that it may be launched
with a shock cord. The sailplane may be converted into a hydro-
glider by the use of a canvas boot made to fit over the fuselage.
This boot is equipped with a skid, so that the sailplane may be
landed on water or land. The sailplane is designed so that an
engine can be installed at a cost of about $200.
One great advantage claimed for the combination sailplane is
that the student uses the same set of controls and the same cockpit
from the beginning of his primary training to the time when he
becomes a licensed soaring pilot. Moreover, by taking primary
training in a cockpit such as provided by the Bowlus sailplane
the student is, from the first, taught to watch the horizon and not
to look at the ground.
The combination sailplane has the same specifications as the
former Bowlus sailplane. The wings are each 18 feet long; each
wing tip aileron measures 5 feet. The 14-foot center section
fitted when the plane becomes a soarer makes the total span
60 feet. Substitution of the 2-foot center section with its 5
degrees dihedral, in place of the 14-foot center section, when the
plane is converted into a primary glider, gives it a 48-foot spread.
COMBINATION TRAINING SAILPLANE 145
The fuselage is 21 feet 3 inches long. The complete sailplane
weighs 350 pounds. Removing the landing gear may be done
by extracting six bolts. The landing wheels are equipped with
13-inch by 5-inch glider balloon tires.
The price of the new combination sailplane is $1,095 complete
at the factory. Bowlus officials say that this combination cuts
about 40 per cent from the investment necessary to purchase both
a primary glider and a sailplane bought separately.
CHAPTER SEVEN
GLIDING AND SOARING TERRAIN

Gliding and Soaring Flights—Definition of Sailflying—Static and Dy
namic Sailflying—Ascending Wind Currents Necessary for Sail-
flying—Factors Limiting Sailflying—Gliding and Soaring Terrain—
Balanced Balloon to Find Rising Air Currents—Use of Smoke Clouds
—The Wind Zone.
Gliding and Soaring Flights.—There are two kinds of flights

possible in gliders. One is plain gliding. This consists of getting
up in the air by some means and coasting down. This is best
done from a hill. However good the glider, such a flight can
not last long. At best, gliding is but preparation for the more
advanced type of flying known as soaring. A soaring flight may
last for hours. But this takes untiring practice, favorable ter
rain, and good winds, besides requiring a suitable ship.
We have learned that there are four general types of gliders
recognized; the primary training, the secondary training, the util
ity and the soaring ship or sailplane. The primary glider is a sim
ple glider of small span, and has an open fuselage. It has a fairly
light wing loading (one and a half to two and a half pounds per
square foot of surface, including weight of pilot). It is de
signed for one thing only, elementary gliding. It is sturdy and
easily handled. The construction is not refined to any great
extent, as high performance is not especially desired.
146
GLIDING AND SOARING 147
The secondary training glider is about the same size as the
primary glider. The wing may be somewhat longer and narrower.
The fuselage is enclosed instead of open. The wings are braced
by wires or struts as in the primary glider. This type of machine
is less sturdy than the primary training type, and is meant to give
the student practice and some soaring experience. It flies de
cidedly better than the primary type. The construction of this
type is not nearly as standardized as that of the primary training
type.
Soaring is mostly done in three types of ships. The Darmstadt
type of sailplane previously described and illustrated is a glider
with a long, narrow, tapering wing. The wing is sometimes
over fifteen times as long as it is wide. This wing is entirely
self-supporting, no external struts or wires being used. The
fuselage is narrow and carefully streamlined to offer the least
resistance to air. The tail surfaces are likewise self-supporting
or cantilever. Such a craft is usually constructed very sturdily
for a glider, weighing around two hundred pounds, and the wing
loading with pilot is sometimes more than two pounds a square
foot. The span is from fifty to sixty feet. Such a sailplane, in
spite of its speed of around forty miles an hour, will descend at
a rate of less than two feet per second, and, due to the careful
streamlining it will glide fifteen to twenty feet for each foot of
altitude lost, if carefully piloted.
The United States is the mother country of modern sailflying
flight, for it was no less a person than Orville Wright who suc
ceeded in 1901 at Kitty Hawk in making the first pure sailing
flight of nearly ten minutes' duration. However, the experiments
of the Wrights found no disciples and the real development and
the systematic building of the sailflying movement remained re
served for Germany, whose hands were of course tied in respect
to the development of motored airplanes by the peace treaty of
Versailles after the World War.
Mr. Alfred Gymnich, in a series of articles which appeared in
Popular Ariation has outlined the entire subject of sailplane con
struction and operation in an authoritative manner, especially as
the data are based on German experience. This authority defines
sailflying as distinct from gliding, though the latter term is
generally employed in English-speaking countries in describing
flights without power. To be technical in our definition, "Sail-
flying is maintained flight without loss of altitude, while gliding
involves a loss of altitude." For example, an airplane "glides"
in for a landing as it describes a flight path at an angle with the
ground. A sailplane that remains in the air by upward swoops as
well as downward glides cannot properly be said to "glide" nor
can it be called a "glider" \vith strict regard for accuracy.
Definition of Sailflying.—Mr. Gymnich says: "By sailflying
we understand a flight without any kind of motor or other driving
power in which the energy required for the flight without loss in
altitude, is taken solely from the air currents. This distinguishes
static and dynamic sailflying. Static sailflying is limited to the
landscape, that is, dependent on it, whereas the latter, or dynamic
sailflying, is based on the utilization of the inner energy of the
wind, among which are turbulent air currents, inversion layers
and the like. Static sailing flight is based upon the utilization
of thermic ascending winds, as they are conditioned by the differ
ences in the condition of the landscape, and upon the utilization
STATIC AND DYNAMIC SAILFLYING 149
of slope winds. It has not as yet been proved that man has
achieved actual dynamic sailing flight, and it is difficult to prove
sailing flight in ascending thermic air currents. All great sailing
flight achievements have been made in slope winds. For that
reason we will concern ourselves only with static sailing flight and
will analyze first of all the cause of the upward directed slope
winds and their utilization, for human sailing flight."
Static and Dynamic Sailflying.—Flying with sailplanes is
being differentiated by common acceptance into two types: the
sailing in ascending air currents or static, and the dynamic where
the glider descends into the slope wind or is towed into the wind.
In ascending air currents the air rises, thereby exerting a lifting
power. Since the ascending air currents are many, but small, the
sailplane should be designed for a minimum falling speed, so that
it will be possible to carry on static flying, that is, non-accelerated
flying, which permits carrying out endurance records. This kind
of static flying in utilizing the ascending air currents, may be
observed in birds. No definite or predetermined direction can be
followed by the glider in such a flight. Dynamic sailflying, ac
cording to popular understanding, includes flights made in slope
winds, though Gymnich gives a more technical and narrower in
terpretation to the term in the preceding paragraph.
It is very important for the glider sportsman to know where
the ascending currents occur, how strong they are, how they can
be recognized and utilized. Thus far it has been found that
about the only air currents that can be utilized in gliding are
those on the windward side of the mountain where an ascending
air current naturally exists. Therefore most of the sailflying
has been done above the mountain and sand dune slopes. The
altitude and the horizontal extent of the ascending air currents
naturally differs with the territory and with the characteristics
and source of the wind. There are vertical friction movements
in the air and these are caused by the descent of air made
necessary by ascending air currents. The decrease in friction
experienced with air currents when passing above rivers or lakes,
results in a descending air current which may be observed at
greater altitudes by the dissolution of clouds above lakes and
rivers. This opposing-friction is especially strong between land
and sea. Winds passing from the sea to the land, slow down due
to increased friction, so that more wind flows towards the coast
than passes into the land, thereby the wind stalls and as a result
moves upwards. This effect may be called ascending friction wind
or dynamic ascending wind.
Ascending Wind Currents Necessary for Sailflying.—The
wind which blows against an obstruction is forced by the re
sistance of the air, or its power to persist, and by the air which
flows after it, to escape either to the sides or upwards. Since the
air current always flows naturally in the direction of least re
sistance it will pass the cone of a mountain, for example, to the
side, but in the case of a long extended hill range, it will pass
over it, due to the greater resistance at the sides. In other words,
the wind adjusts itself to the contour of the landscape as shown
at A and B, in Fig. 20.
This ascending air current, which is defined as a slope current,
forms the source of energy for sailing flight. The extent of
the upward component or the upward force, of this slope wind
depends upon the strength of the wind and upon the contour of
the landscape. In order to make sailing flight possible, and to
FACTORS LIMITING SAILFLYING 151
achieve a flight without loss of altitude, the upward component
must at least be proportional to the sinking speed of the sailplane
in quiet air. That is: the wind must flow, in a given unit of
time, the same distance upward the sailplane would fall. As
the wind is greater than the sinking speed of the sailplane this
energy can be utilized for ascending by means of making the
correct changes in steering and control.
Factors Limiting Sailflying.—The flight of a sailplane in a
slope wind is shown schematically at C in the illustration, Fig. 20,
presented in an earlier chapter. The drawing conveys proof,
with little difficulty, of the fact that the upward component of
the wind is, in a given case, greater than the sinking speed of
the plane; so consequently we have a flight without loss of alti
tude ; and thus a gain in altitude is possible. As long as the
sailplane remains within the range of this ascending slope wind
it cannot sink, provided it is not pressed towards the ground by
the flyer in operating the controls. The reader can readily see
that the duration of a sail flight is limited merely by the wind
conditions and the physical endurance of the flyer himself. It
makes no radical difference what way the pilot utilizes the slope
wind for a duration flight. With grades that are high, from
an aerodynamic standpoint, and with speedy and flexible planes,
the pilot will, as a rule, describe circular or elliptical courses within
the zone of the ascending winds. (See Fig. 40.)
Regarding the construction of sailplanes, a few general facts
must be understood at the start. It might appear to the casual
observer that a sailplane differs from a motored plane merely by
the absence of motor weight. This is not the case, and even
though a few sailplanes are merely imitations of motored planes,
and even though sailing flights have been made, under especially
favorable conditions, in normal motored planes with the motors
stopped, there are essential differences between the two. In the
Air Currents Flowing Up
Cliff Sides Make Ideal Con-
ditions for Soaring But Not
for Primary Gliding.
Sailplane Soaring
in Figure ofEight / Gliding Down
on Uprising Cur-- f
rent of Air
Diagram Showing Fig.8.

Flight Path of Sailplane
Eddies - j,
The First Glides should be Launched fr
a Slope ofthis Type.Select a'Ridge
with an Even Peak. This wi/fAssure
an Even Flow ofAir in the W
t^^^^^^ ofH'll is not Truly

=*" ""' "^ ^ ^ -Suitable for Gl/ding.
33-
'S *t.
__
^_ — ~~ ^ Uneven Ridge Offers
"~ Swirls of Wind Ma/
Cause Faulty Launching^.
Fig. 40.—Diagrams Showing Types of Hills That Are Suitable to

Produce Air Currents for Gliding and Soaring. Hill with Irregular
Configuration at the Top Produces Eddy Currents Which May Result
in Faulty Launchings.
course of time experimental developments have shown the neces

sity and advisability of deviating from motor plane construction in
the fabrication of either sailplanes or simple gliders.
Gliding and Soaring Terrain.—The location of a site on
which gliding operations are to be carried out should be along
the face of a hill or bluff which faces the prevailing wind and
SUITABLE SAILFLYING TERRAIN 153
over which the prevailing wind must rise, thus creating an
upward current which may extend several hundred feet above
ground; however, the bluff should have a slope that is not too
steep because there will be eddy currents if the face of the cliff
or bank is precipitous.
In addition to this the ground along the base of the hill should
be sufficiently level to permit the pilot of a powerless machine to
make a landing without endangering either himself or the glider.
The ideal location would be along the face of the hill or bluff,
which has a fairly smooth side hill or gully running into it and a
level field along the bottom. The machines could then be turned
along the face of the hill so that they would receive the full benefit
of the rising current along its face for its entire length. (See
Fig. 40.)
A good gliding and sailflying territory includes mountains
or hills of the proper configuration and of suitable height, favor
able winds, smooth ground for landing and various desirable
facilities for establishing a summer camp. Experts prefer a
mountain territory rising quite vertically from the valley and
which recedes uniformly towards the directions of suitable winds,
without foothills to alter the air currents. The probability of
wind velocities of 20 to 39 feet per second should be at least
50 per cent and certain directions of wind should predominate.
The sub-soil should not be rocky but should have large spots
covered with humus earth and grass sod to permit starting
and landing; small patches of woods do not interfere as a rule.
The territory should be easily accessible for traveling and offer
tourist conveniences and plenty of accommodations should be
available in the vicinity at reasonable prices,
Successful glides depend on the pilot's knowledge of air cur
rents. Hills make good starting points because there is usually
an ascending column of air on one side. Any change in the ter
rain below, as free balloon pilots long ago have learned by
experience, means a change in air current aloft. Passing from
*
smooth ground to rough, from open country to a forest, or vice

versa, from overland to water, all can be utilized by a clever
pilot to get more altitude by facing his ship into the rising wind
so that the lift exceeds the normal loss of altitude in a glide. As
altitude is attained, the ability to stay up longer grows, for air
currents are more pronounced and the wind blows harder, as a
rule, at greater heights.
For simple gliding, low rolling hills with knolls facing all
directions and free of obstructions are ideal. The hills should
be from 30 to 150 feet in height. For beginners, only gentle
slopes should be used. The slopes should face all directions
because gliders should take off directly into the wind and if the
slopes face all directions, the terrain can be used with any wind.
If that is impossible, slopes facing the prevailing wind should
be secured.
It is more difficult to find suitable soaring terrain than it is
to locate good gliding ground. In this case, a ridge or chain of
hills is preferable to lone peaks. The wind sweeping across the
valleys is deflected upward when it reaches the ridge. In the case
of ridges, this zone of the up-wind is as wide as the ridge is
long and offers greater opportunities for flying figure eights back
and forth in duration attempts (Fig. 40). As soaring pilots
are of greater experience, steeper slopes with more obstructions
can be used. The ridge should face the prevailing wind to get
FINDING RISING AIR CURRENTS 155
maximum number of flying hours. Wind blowing in off a large
body of water has a tendency to deflect upward when reaching
the land even where there are no ridges or hills. Therefore it
has been found that lower ridges can be used along such bodies
of water than is the case inland.
Balanced Balloon to Find Rising Air Currents.—Various
methods may be employed to determine the height and speed of
Arrows snow direction

of air currents
Fig. 41.—Diagram Showing How a Skilled Sailplane Pilot May Soar

for Long Distances Over a Range of Hills. .On the Windward Side of
Each Hill Is an Ascending Current of Air. The Pilot Rises on One
Updraft and Glides Down to the Next Updraft Where He Again
Gains Elevation.
rising currents, but the simplest and cheapest is through the use
of a balanced gas balloon. The equipment required in these
experiments may be purchased for a trifling sum. The balloon
may be an ordinary rubber toy affair purchased at the five and ten
cent store. It is charged with hydrogen. A wide-mouthed bottle
with fairly thick walls is partially filled with water into which
156 A B'C OF GLIDING AND SAILFLYING
pieces of scrap zinc are thrown. Hydrochloric acid is poured
over the whole and a tight cork is placed in the mouth of the
bottle through which a glass tube is passed with the lower end of
the tube well above the surface of the liquid. Over the upper end
of the glass tube the inflation tube of the balloon is placed, after
all the air has been emptied from the bag. The pressure of the gas
generated in the bottle will inflate the balloon. On the nipple of
the balloon a small silk bag is tied with thread and into it lead or
iron filings are poured until the balloon will hang motionless in
still air. Should the balloon have a very slight downward tend
ency, no great harm will be done.
The balloon, after it has been balanced, is launched into the air
along the face of the cliff or hill, and if a rising current exists,
is carried upward to a point where the current becomes ineffec
tive when it will be blown sharply over in the direction of the wind
and may commence to come down due to leaking of gas through
the pores of the rubber.
The height of the balloon at the top of its rise may be worked
out very simply if two sights are taken on it from points whose
distance one from the other is known. Readings should be taken
from both points with surveyors' transits which may be borrowed
for the occasion. Care should be taken to see that the transit is
level and the reading on the vertical scale should be recorded from
each point. A triangle should then be plotted from data obtained
with the base drawn to a definite scale. The height of the
balloon above the ground will then be the perpendicular from
the apex to the base, which should be measured on the drawing
and corrected according to the scale on which the drawing is made,
or the whole thing may be worked out trigonometrically.
FINDING RISING AIR CURRENTS 157
Just as it is important to know over what spots upward cur
rents are found so it is to know where the downward currents
or "pockets" as they are sometimes called, are located. Every
effort should be made to find these spots which should be marked
on a map and studied so that they may be avoided.
In the preliminary work of establishing a gliding center co
operation is necessary, just as it is necessary after actual opera
tions have commenced. It is advisable also that those interested
in gliding pool their funds so that they may collectively possess
the best possible equipment. The interested parties may then
assist one another in building and repairing machines and in
launching them.
Use of Smoke Clouds.—A study of the air currents can be
made by means of smoke cloud, as follows:
Use white phosphorus. This can be had at any wholesale drug
house and many retail drug stores. Phosphorus comes packed in
cans and is covered with water. It is in sticks about the size of
a lead pencil. Care must be used in handling it, as it takes fire
as soon as taken out of the water. Take it from the can with a
pair of pliers or tweezers and drop it into a pan. It will give
off a dense white cloud, and by watching the cloud you can get
a good idea of the action of the wind currents. If it does not
take fire at once, use a match. Another method is to make a
fire of sticks and put in oily waste to make a black smudge or
smoke that will indicate wind direction.
The Wind Zone.—In order to rise with any motorless air
craft it is necessary to make use of air currents which move
vertically because these winds are themselves rising and are capa
ble of exerting a lifting force upon a flat body, in this case, the
wings of the soaring machine. For this reason some authorities
believe the ideal spot for gliding is a hill of normal slope well
cleared of trees and underbrush and facing into the wind. The
air currents sweeping along the ground are deflected upward
upon striking the foot of the hill, proceed up the slope and then
pass down the hill on the opposite, or leeward side. These air
currents passing up the hill form what is called the wind zone,
and this wind zone is said to extend into the air for a distance
of about twice the height of the hill. For the very best results
gliding should be done from the side of a ridge because the
wind zone is evenly distributed along the slope and does not
form a funnel-shaped mass of air currents as is often the case
when a breeze moves up a conically shaped hill.
Upon starting a flight of any duration the machine is car
ried up the side of a hill and faced into the wind, and the
pilot takes his place on the seat and fastens himself in with a
safety belt. To a hook on the front end of the fuselage is
fastened a long rubberized cable which is pulled taut at an angle
of about 30 degrees from a line projected straight in front of
the craft, thus forming a huge V. Other members of the ground
crew hold the soarer while these ropes are pulled. The men with
the ropes start forward at the pilot's command "Walk!" and
just as the cables are becoming taut the pilot shouts "Run!" and
almost immediately "Let go!" The result is that the machine is
catapulted into the air with great force, the cables fall out of the
hook and the glider is free.
The air currents coming up the hill take hold of the wings
of the little craft and buoy it upward. The skillful pilot allows
himself to be carried high above the hill by the force of the upwind
SAILFLYING REQUIRES SKILL 159
and does not glide into the valley. A number of very expert
pilots are able to ascend to a moving cloud where they take
advantage of the air currents which curl up in front of it. They
ride these currents and move across the valley on the leeward
side of the hill they started from. Here they descend into the
wind zone of the second hill where they allow themselves to be
borne upward again until they are able to attach themselves to
another cloud going over the second valley. By repeating this
process great distances may be traveled. An expert in Germany
recently soared for a distance of 42 miles and another was known
to attach himself to a storm cloud and ride with it for thirty-odd
miles. (See Fig. 41.)
Car used for
Anchor
Release
Mechanism
walking out to
stretch Shock Cord
Shock'
•Cord Holding 6liderback
Launching Cord drops Leaving the

off Hook Ground
Plan View
Ground showing method Ground
Crew Crew
Launching Glider
Fig. 42.—Diagrams Showing Method of Launching Primary Training Type Glider by Shock Cord Catapult. Note
That Glider May Be Anchored by an Automatic Release Mechanism or a Manual Release Controlled by the Pilot
to an Automobile or Other Heavy Object or the Glider May Be Held by Members of the Launching Crew.
CHAPTER EIGHT
TRAINING GLIDER AND SAILPLANE PILOTS

Launching and Flying the Catapulted Glider—Method of Training Sail
plane and Glider Pilots—Student Sits in the Open—Soaring—Pri
mary Instruction with Towed Glider—Notes on Towing Gliders—
Should a Club Build a Glider?—An Automatic Glider Release.
Launching and Flying the Catapulted Glider.—All persons

taking up gliding for the first time should use the Primary Train
ing Glider (PTG), the Secondary ship (STG) or the utility
glider. Learning to glide is both an extremely simple and safe
procedure providing that instructions given are painstakingly
followed. Gliding by novices who do not follow instructions can
be as dangerous as any other reckless flying. Experience has
taught the National Glider Association that any motored pilot
who is willing to follow instructions can soon fly a glider and
also teach his fellow club members to do so. The great difficulty
is that they usually expect to do too much at first. A simple glide
down hill of eight seconds' duration, is to the beginner, regardless
of how many hours he may have had in a motored ship, quite a
thrilling experience.
Persons without any flying experience at all should take their
first "hop" on level ground or off a very low hill. The glider
is pointed directly into the wind. There should be no obstructions
ahead for at least two hundred yards although the beginner will
161
not go in all probability a third that distance. There should be
a ground crew of from eight to ten persons divided into three
sections. Two sections of not less than three men each should
be assigned to handle the launching cord. This is a rubberized
cable. In the center is a metal loop. This fastens on a hook
in the nose of the glider. When the rope is tight it stays on.
When the tension relaxes, it falls off.
The modern glider is equipped with standard airplane controls.
The pilot takes his seat and is fastened to the glider with a
safety belt. (See Figs. 33 and 35.) One man gently holds the
tip of the wing to keep the glider in balance. (It is usually
equipped with a single runner for landing gear, not the standard
wheels of an airplane.) Others take hold of a rope fastened to
the tail of the ship. The crew on the launching rope take posi
tion so that the rope itself forms a "V" with the point of the
angle at the nose of the ship. Care should be taken to instruct
the ground crews to walk off together and stay together in order
that the glider may not be thrown right or left on the take-off.
(See Fig. 42.)
The pilot or his coach, if he is a beginner, commands, "Ready,
Walk," and in the case of beginners, the crew walks out ten
paces; then "Run," and the crew runs ten paces; "Turn Loose,"
and the crew at the tail do so and the glider "takes the air," the
mechanics of the operation being similar to the projecting of a
pebble in a boy's sling shot. Beginners should not be launched
in a wind of greater than fifteen miles per hour velocity. It is
to be expected that green pilots will frequently break some "ribs"
in the glider or otherwise injure it. As the pilot shows prog
ress, he is allowed to take the ship further up the slope and
TRAINING GLIDER PILOTS 163
gradually becomes a master of the simpler phases of the sport.
The proper equipment consists of a shock cord or rubber rope
% inches in diameter and 100 to 150 feet long, or / l 2 inch in
diameter and 200 or more feet long. This should have a steel
ring in the center to fit into the launching hook on glider. (See
Fig. 43.) A galvanized wire rope thimble will serve. If the
One Method ofjoining Simplest Method ofjoining Ring

Shock Cord, Rope S Ring and Launching Cord
Hooking on shock Cord, which stays with

King that stays in place white Cord is stretched
Hook for Nose is mode of two 18

Gauge sheets sfeeJ-tvelded together
Cordposses // f) Cord Support for Hook
thru here LI / L-" ^ ,_ . ,
Typical
Ringwe/dedfo Launching
Cord Support Hook Launching
Hook in Place
A" is Pla/e welded to
sides 'A- "Holes in Plotes
Steel Kino, to
fit Hook
Cord wound in
Fig.B to hold
Sho<* ^d Rope falls from Hook immediatly
thai Nose points up and 6/ider is
in the Air
Another Method ofjoining This Method ofattaching ring not as
Cord and Ring good as those to left on account of
wear on Cord
Fig. 43.—Diagrams Illustrating Construction of Launching Hook and

Methods of Securing Ring to Shock Cord to Prevent Abrasion of
the Cord.
ground is sandy, soft or rocky, a track should be constructed for
the skid. A strip of wood four inches wide with side rails makes
a satisfactory track. Cross strips, four inches apart, help to cut
down the friction, and the take-off will be faster if this track is
coated over with old crankcase oil or Albany grease.
A light two-wheel dolly is easily built and will simplify the
hauling of the glider back to the starting point. It should be
arranged so that the glider can be placed on the dolly with wings
behind the tow car. The tail group can then be taken off if
necessary and handled as a separate unit. The wings and fuselage
can be handled without disassembling. The wing should reach
to a point over the tow car so that it can be held by some one
riding the running board.
Method of Training Sailplane and Glider Pilots.—In train
ing glider pilots the student usually "solos" from the very start
and in that way the instructor can learn the ability of his pupil
and in no way endanger himself. (Passenger carrying gliders
have been successfully flown.) As there is no engine, it is possible
for the instructor to coach his pupil by calling to him from the
ground. The primary training or school machines are con
structed quite heavily, to endure the hard landings of the pupil
and for that reason they are not so very efficient. They are
gliders rather than soarers. At the beginning the pupil makes
a number of short jumps to get acquainted with the controls and
to the sudden acceleration when being catapulted into the air by a
rubber rope fastened to the front of the plane. The machine
usually picks up flying speed after being dragged over the ground
for about 50 to 100 feet and then being catapulted. Should the
pilot stall in the air, he can regain flying speed by a vertical drop
of about 25 feet. The wing area is so large and the weight so
low that the planes can fly at exceedingly low speeds.
Students Sits in Open.—The student usually sits in the open
in an entirely unprotected position. This type of construction is
claimed to lessen the liability of the pilot being injured in the
event of a crash. Since the student has no visible reference for
PRIMARY GLIDER TRAINING 165
the position of the glider with respect to the horizon, he is
obliged to learn to fly by feeling. The student usually begins
by making a number of short jumps, merely take-offs and land
ings. The length of the jumps are gradually increased, the
student starting at the base of a hill and progressing upward to
the crest. This takes about 18 or 20 jumps in the school machine,
before the student is ready for his first soaring flight in what
is called a secondary training machine. Conventionally, these
are high-winged monoplanes of somewhat higher aerodynamic
efficiency than the school machines; they have a fuselage, faired
struts, etc., as previously described.
After the student is thoroughly familiar with the machine, and
has mastered the controls, he is then launched on a few short
glides, or jumps of only a few seconds' duration over level ground.
This is to get him accustomed to the feel of the craft in actual
flight. Gradually the length of these glides is increased until
finally the student is taken a slight distance up the side of a gentle
slope and. launched from that point. When he has accomplished
a simple down hill glide of at least 30 seconds' duration he has
passed the "A" test and is ready, after making two glides of 45
seconds' duration, to take the "B" test in which it is necessary to
glide for at least one minute and make a right and left turn
while doing so.
The final, or "C" test is much more difficult. It calls for a
flight of at least five minutes above the starting point. To pass
this test the student must use a machine known as a secondary
glider or soarer. These gliders, or more properly "sailplanes,"
which is the name given high performance machines, are of re
markably high aerodynamic efficiency. They are extremely sensi-
A good, safe straight glide.
Flight Path unsteady, which is not good piloting.
////MM//////M^^ ^/^////^^^^^
Straightening too soon brings about a crack-up as Avoiding a tree or other Obstacle correctly to avoid
there are down Currents in lee of Obstacle down Currents and Eddies.
->
wAiW^^^
Just before landing. Landing the Glider
Fig. 44.—Diagrams Showing Various Phases of Glider Piloting. At the Top, Good and Safe and Unsteady,
Unsafe Glides Are Compared. The Sketches at the Center of the Page Show Method of Glider Control to
Pass Over Obstacle and Avoid Eddy Currents in the Lee of the Object. At the Bottom of the Page, the Correct
Method of Landing the Glider Is Illustrated at the Right. It is' Not Advisable to Stall Before Landing as Shown
at the Left.
tive to the controls and have a large wing span with a high lift
airfoil. It is claimed that some of these planes have a lift-drag
ratio of 21 or 22, which is exceptionally high when, according
to Mr. Mock, it is considered that theoretically, the limit of this
ratio for a plane having a fuselage, rudder, etc., is said to be
close to 31 or 32.
The one who builds his own machine, either from homemade
plans or those furnished by some qualified glider engineer, should
take a course of instruction, from a recognized glider school or
work out his plans carefully before permitting himself to be
launched from a hill into the air. The ground appears very far
away to the novice, and unsettled conditions of mind contribute
not a little to glider accidents that sometimes befall amateurs.
If he proceeds sanely, no harm will come to him. If he cannot
attend some recognized school or join some glider club having a
competent instructor, the next best method is to take his glider
to the top of a hill when there is a good wind blowing1 and there,
the glider firmly staked down in the wind, work all his controls
and learn how much they have to be moved to nose the ship up
and down or restore lateral stability.
One of the most important things is that a beginner must
be started below the top of the slope. Starting from down the
slope in this way, the craft takes off at the proper gliding angle
or approximately parallel to the slope. When launched from
the top, the beginner will usually try to go straight off and will
end in a stall. If the wind is more than three or four miles an
hour he is caught in an updraft as he gets over the brow of the
hill and the angle of attack increases. He is then carried up
before he realizes it, gets into a stall, and generally makes a
bad landing with damage to the glider. After the student has
had sufficient practice on the slope he is launched off the top,
where he can learn to take advantage of the updrafts.
Soaring.—Soaring, again, is a different matter. A pilot desir
ing to become proficient at soaring, is very foolish if he attempts
to gain the necessary knowledge by himself from experience. If
sufficiently clever and very patient, he might eventually get in
some fair flights but the effort would be terrific and the progress
painfully slow. Persons desiring to become soaring pilots, should
have expert instruction, not only in how to fly the ship but
in the fundamentals of meteorology as well. Plans are being
developed for several such schools or institutes over the country
and pilots desiring to take such courses should communicate with
N. G. A. headquarters. In a well organized school and with the
average student, the soaring course takes from 30 to 60 days.
It is impossible at this time to estimate the cost of such instruc
tion. It is known, however, that in addition to several special
schools for soaring, that several of the standard aviation schools
are considering putting in gliding and soaring as well.
How slight an upcurrent will sometimes keep a light soaring
ship in the air was demonstrated recently in Ohio. The "Akron-
Condor" soarer, with W. Klemperer, the famous sailplane pilot,
formerly of Germany, at the controls, was being towed from
Akron to Cleveland by one of the Goodyear blimps. Near
Wallings Corner, the towrope parted while the glider was 700
feet up. In spite of its low altitude, it sailed for five miles and
landed in a large field. The pilot had difficulty in landing because
the heat currents rising from the ground caused the soarer to
INSTRUCTIONS WITH TOWED GLIDER 169
float nearly the entire length of the field at an altitude of only
a few feet.
Primary Instructions With Towed Glider.—A writer in
Aeronautics for April 1930, describes one method of teaching
gliding in which the machine is towed by an automobile to give
the student the feel of the air prior to launchings by any stretched
shock cord or "Catapult" launchings. Of course, as there is
no noisy motor as in an airplane, it is possible for the instructor
to talk to the student in the glider. After hooking up the tow
rope, an instructor sits on the back of the car, megaphone in
hand, and directs the student while he learns to keep himself
steady in the air as the car tows the glider. When a student first
leaves the ground in a glider, even if for only three or four feet,
he usually overcontrols and shoots the machine up into a stall
or steers it suddenly away from its path. That is the reason
why, in teaching students, it is well to have them practice con
stantly on the elevator and rudder until they can keep the ship
level about a foot above the ground along a straight line in the
full length of the course, or approximately a half mile.
Teaching gliding to enthusiastic boys and to more patient older
men proves very interesting. An instructor reports he had a
student a few months ago who was 55 years old. He had been
interested in aviation for some years, but for the usual reasons
never had learned to pilot a plane. Gliders appealed to him,
however. On his fifteenth towed ride across the flying field he
was taken into the air to an altitude of twenty-five feet, where
suddenly the towing rope was released. He landed gracefully
without any help. The average student in a powered airplane
seldom can make a landing unaided on his fifteenth flight.
TTie Safest Way for Beginners D
GUOER
<^,.^-.- --- - ffU B B E R- >
SHOCK CORD yvTNjT
Glider totced (or launched) by motorcycles.
RELEASE
WIRE
RUBBER'
SHOCK CORDS
A brand new method of launching a glider;^ the rubber

.launching cords are anchored to two pegs. The car is started
toward the rear and at a signal from the pilot, the clutch is
released.
^^^^^^^^^M^^^
Towing glider, fitted with pontoons,

glider is sometimes tou/ed behind an automobile.
COURTESY OF AVIATION MECHANICS
Fig. 45.—Various Methods Employed of Launching Gliders. A—The Safest Way for Beginners Is Shock Cord
Catapult Launchings. B—Method Employing an Automobile and Release Mechanism. C—Towing Glider Behind
an Automobile. D—Towing Glider by Motorcycles. E—An Elaborate Catapult Device Suited for a Gliding
Center or School by Which a Falling Weight Pulls a Launching Car. This Is a Modification of the Early
Wright Airplane Launching System. F—Towing Seaplane Glider Behind a Speed Boat.
As soon as a student gains enough knowledge to fly and can
maintain a straight line flight across a field at an altitude of
10 to 15 feet, he is ready to go up to 30 feet for a fast flight and
quick release. It is at this point that he really begins to learn
something about glider flying. By quick release is meant that
when the glider is at an adequate elevation, the pilot releases the
rope quickly. The student must maintain his speed and climb
a little before coming in to land. The quick release method was
devised to prepare students for the shock cord launchings they
will experience when ready to shoot from hilltops over valleys
a long distance below. If a student does not have the "feel of the
plane," does not know by instinct and feeling when the release
comes, he is liable to stall the plane and crash to earth. Such
an experience from the low altitude at which a towed glider flies
holds no serious consequences.
After the instructor has inspected the tow rope to see that it
is properly fastened and that the release device is functioning
as it should, his instructions to the novice will be something like
this:
"Take your seat in the 'cockpit.' ^This is the rather frail seat
stuck out in front of the wing. Place your feet on the rudder
bar. Take the 'stick' in your right hand and put it in its 'neutral'
position or place it so that the elevators and ailerons are in the
inactive position. Be sure the safety belt is properly secured.
'Ready? Remember, do not move the stick. This is the first
lesson, and your only responsibility demands that you guide the
glider straight down the field as the automobile to the rear of
\vhich you are attached by a 200-foot rope, gathers speed until
the glider is sliding along 12 miles an hour/ 'Keep the stick in
neutral. Don't pull back or you'll find yourself in the air. That's
fine. Now you're sliding off to the right, so give it a little left
rudder. It works just like an automobile steering wheel. To
turn to the left, shove out with your left foot.' 'Oh, you did give
it left rudder? Too much? Well, one can expect that to happen.
Too much rudder and you swung clear away to the left of the
flight line. Give it a little right rudder, then. Now you're
oscillating. Can't be helped first time out, I suppose. You're
overcontrolling, but we'll dampen that out on the next flight.
That's better. Now you're in line.'
"So we will drive down to the starting line and repeat the
process. If you can guide the glider in the rear of the auto
mobile this time you are ready for your first towed glide. 'Use
your elevators now, but don't forget to coordinate the movement
of the elevator and rudder. No use rising from the ground if
you don't glide the plane along the path you want it to go. You
learned to guide it straight on the ground, now you must keep it
level in the air.'
"Away you go. The plane gathers speed—and soon takes off
without any help from you. It makes short hops the length of
the field. As you pull back lightly on the stick, which pushes the
nose of the glider into the air, you leave the ground, only to
settle back again as you shove the stick forward. That's really all
there is to flying a glider in the elementary stages. From this
point, practice will perfect the technique."
Notes on Towing Gliders.—The following notes are from
the experience of the Alexander Aircraft Company, builders of
the Alexander Trainer. They state :
Auto towing can be used with much success, but it is a practice
that can easily be abused, whereas the catapult launching method
NOTES ON TOWING GLIDERS 173
is hard to abuse. But with proper supervision much can be
accomplished with this method.
Four hundred feet of J^-inch steel cable should be used, or
better, 400 feet of J^-inch manila rope. The glider should have
a manual release so the student can cut loose from the cable. To
save the skid of the glider, it should have a simple landing gear,
a two-wheel gear preferred. (See Fig. 34.) Then by towing
the glider below the take-off speed the student will acquire the
feel of the controls.
When the student is ready to take off, the ring on the cable is
hooked into the manual release and the other end is wrapped
around the bumper or some other part of the tow car and held
by some one in the car. About two wraps are enough. In case
of emergency the man holding the wire can turn it loose, as some
times the student gets into trouble and forgets to cut loose.
The tow car should not be driven too fast. If the take-off
speed is 15 miles per hour and the wind is 5 miles per hour, the
tow car should not be driven faster than 25 miles per hour.
On the first flight the glider should be cut loose just as soon as
the student noses down. Under no conditions should the glider
be cut loose in a climb, as a stall is sure to result. And if he is
not cut loose when he noses down he will slack the cable, the
result being that the tow car will jerk the glider up when it takes
up the slack.
Sometimes the student will start drifting side wise; then if
the cable is suddenly made taut the glider is jerked around. If
the pull is strong enough it is possible to jerk the student out of
his seat and perhaps break or bend the skid.
The tow car should be started in second gear and be kept there.
If an attempt is made to shift to high it will slack the cable.
When the student is ready to fly, the landing gear should be
removed as a side landing is sure to damage it and at the same
time is likely to damage the glider.
Best results will be had if the control stick is pushed forward
and the student instructed to pull the stick back slowly as he
picks up speed. As the glider leaves the ground he should push
it forward until he is flying along close to the ground. This
method helps to eliminate overcontrol.
Gliders and sailplanes have been towed by airplanes and by
speed boats. (See Figs. 45 and 46.) Captain Frank Hawks was
the first man to be towed across the United States by airplane
in the sailplane "Eaglet." When towed by a motor boat the
glider is provided with a pontoon supporting gear instead of the
simple skid land gear. The same technique and precautions should
be taken with boat or auto towed sailplanes. Flying gliders towed
by airplanes should be left only to experts. In fact, special per
mission is necessary from the Aeronautics Department of the
U. S. Department of Commerce before flights can be made in
gliders towed by airplanes or other aircraft.
Should a Club Build a Glider.—Many clubs will at first plan
to build their own glider, but if they will look into it carefully they
find that money will be saved by buying a manufactured glider.
The greatest danger in a homemade glider is that if through
lack of experience they may make some important part too weak
or do not use the right material—this part, if it happens to be
highly stressed, may give way. They will find that Department
of Commerce approved plans are hard to get; and that even if
they get plans, the Department of Commerce requires a stress
analysis and load test before they can get a license. In the
LAUNCHING GLIDERS FROM AIRCRAFT 175
writer's opinion the only people who should undertake to build a
glider are those who have mechanical skill and are familiar with
the manipulation of the materials entering into the construction.
Boffom of Dirigible
HowLt Barnaby of the U.S. Navy flew a glider down from the
dirigible "Los Angeles " in a test at Lakehurst, N J.. He landed safely
after making a flight of twelve m/nutes
Launching a glider behind an airplane

for Expert Glider Pilots only
Fig. 46.—Methods of Launching Gliders Using Aircraft. The Gov

ernment Army and Navy Services May Use Military Dirigibles as
Shown Above the More Common Method of Using an Airplane, Pos
sible to Individuals.
Competent wood workers such as pattern makers, joiners, furni
ture and cabinet makers and others used to fine work will have
no difficulties in building gliders. Those wishing to build a
glider are referred to the instructions and drawings in the con
cluding chapters of this treatise.
If the membership of the club includes skilled wood and metal
workers or some of the members make a hobby of constructing
things and own tools, they can be appointed to the technical com
mittee and much useful experience obtained by constructing a
glider. The ordinary assemblage of young people, however, will
find it-advantageous to purchase a properly manufactured product
and save time and in the end some money besides enjoying the
gliders sooner. In addition to the advantages enumerated the
product of an established manufacturer will probably have U. S.
Department of Commerce approval. Much labor will be saved
and considerable useful knowledge obtained if a glider is pur
chased in "knockdown" form. All the parts are complete but
some work, such as assembling the wings, covering with fabric
and doping as wrell as rigging and lining up is necessary to com
plete the machine. This will give the assemblers just as good a
knowledge of glider construction as though they had built every
thing themselves.
An Automatic Glider Release.—Use of the A. M. A. C.
Automatic Glider Release, of the type developed by Mr. R. E.
Dowd and manufactured by the Russell Manufacturing Co.,
Middletown, Connecticut, proved of interest at the New York
glider carnival held May i and 2, 1930, at Bayside, Queens,
New Yôrk City, the device working handily throughout the meet.
This apparatus consists of a wooden box carrying a piston and
cylinder bound together with Rusco Aero Rings of a standard
elasticity. The box assembly is staked securely to the ground,
while the cord connects the piston and the tail of the glider. A
cover, sliding in a groove of the box, may be set for any desired
AUTOMATIC GLIDER RELEASE 177
pressure determining the time at which the glider will be released
when pulled by the usual shock cord methods from the nose.
Thus an auto may carry the regular nose shock cord at a steady
speed of say 10 m.p.h.; the glider is released by the box device
automatically. The Russell concern's price for the release unit,
staking cord, etc., is $35, with discounts available for clubs,
manufacturers, etc.
/ t.————————————————
Courtesy Aero Digest

Fig. 46A.—Construction of the A. M. A. C. Automatic Glider
Release Device.
Glider fans have been more than inquisitive as to just what sort of
a mechanism was contained in the so-called "Magic box" which has
been in regular service on so many Eastern airports. The accompany
ing diagram tells the story. The telescoping tubes furnish a guide for
the extension of the Rusco aero rings which are looped over cross
legs. The tension is applied to the mechanism through a short con
necting strap which attaches to the rear of the glider. This connecting
strap has a small link on the end which hooks over an open hook. As
the tension is applied the link tends to unhook but is restrained by the
cover. A metal track on the under side of the cover permits the
roller to run along until it rolls off the edge. This is the point of
release and is adjustable through the sliding of the cover. A lock is
provided to fix the cover location at points from 50 to 400 pounds on
50 pounds increments. A compressed air recoil check is provided
to absorb the recoil after releasing.
CHAPTER NINE
SOME DETAILS OF GERMAN SAILPLANE

CONSTRUCTION
Sailplane Wing Curves—Characteristics of Various Profile Forms—Sail
plane Wing Construction—Sailplane Wing Spars—Methods of Sail
plane Rib Construction—Internal Wing Bracing—Angle of Incidence
of Wing—The Fuselage—Making an Oval Fuselage—Landing Gear—
Construction of Skids or Runners—Wheel Landing Gears—Shape of
Skid or Runner Important—Use of Tail Skid—The Steering Organs—
Elevator Controls Longitudinal Stability—Vertical Rudder—Warping
Wing Control—Stick Control Best.
Sailplane Wing Curves.—Of very special importance for the

flying qualities of a sailplane is the wing cross section, or profile.
With a sailplane there is no compensating for an inefficient wing
section by using more power. Thick profiles with considerably
rounded entering edge and more or less marked concave arching
of the underside are generally used in sailplane construction in
Germany where the Gottingen sections are very popular. A
number of thick wing sections have been developed as the re
searches of the aerodynamic experimental station at Gottingen.
Therefore, very frequently the profiles tested by this experimental
station are being used. One finds the Gottingen profiles 441
and 535 frequently used in the construction of sailplanes. The
first one was used in the well-known sailplane "Vampyr," the
latter one in the record sailplane "Konsul" and in others. In
the United States, several effective wing profiles of moderate
178
GERMAN SAILPLANE CONSTRUCTION 179
and thick sections have been developed, but none have been more
popular than modifications of the Gottingen shown at Fig. 47.
In the movement of the supporting wings against the air, a
pressure effect is exerted against the underside, due to the ad
justment of the supporting wings against the direction of move
ment, that is, against the direction of the current. At the upper
side of the profile the streamlines of the air are pressed closer
together, due to the shape given by the profile, which effects an
Sailplane Wing Plans

Peli Kan
Edith Mampyr
Konsul Charlotte «" TYPICAL ONE

Wing Profiles Leading Edge -Spacefor SPAR RIBS
Molding
Braced Rib with Junction Gussets
-Cap Strip
I Section K a A ^BoxSpar Web

'A _^-<^g5:^==' H~
Space
Plywood Rib with flexible^- Flange or

Tra i I i ng Edge Cap Strip
A Box Rib with Flexi-
JleTrailingEdge
(Space
Fig. 47.—Diagrams Showing Sailplane Wing Planes and Airfoil Sec

tions, Also the Construction of Typical One Spar Ribs of the Warren
Truss Braced Type and of the Plywood Web Form With Cut-outs
and With and Without Flexible Trailing Edges.
i8o ABC OF GLIDING AND SAILFLYING
increase in speed, which again is always combined with an under
pressure or suction according to the laws of aero- and hydro
mechanics. The upper side is therefore also suitably called the
suction side and the lower side the pressure side of the profile.
Suction and pressure combined form the resultant air force,
which stands nearly vertical (somewhat inclined backwards) to
the chord of the profile; however, the suction effect is usually
about two-thirds and the pressure effect about one-third of the
total force, though with some airfoil curves, the suction effect
may account for three-fourths of the lift.
Characteristics of Various Profile Forms.—Concerning the
characteristics of the various profile forms, Mr. Alfred Gymnich
says the following:
1. A strong arching or camber of the middle line of the profile
results in high auxiliary ascent values.
2. At the same arching of the middle line the profiles with a
thickness relation of i \J to i 15 are more favorable than thinner
wing cross sections, due to their lower resistance. To this must
be added that these profiles permit a free-carrying or non-braced
construction, whereby the total resistance of the sailplane is
reduced.
3. A slight bending upwards of the trailing edge of the profile
has a stabilizing effect, but results also in a depreciation of the
gliding angle. Within certain limits this depreciation can be
•compensated by means of flexible, therefore, automatically adjust
able trailing edges.
4. The streamline-shaped development of the entering edge of
the profile, or the nose, results in a low or minimum resistance.
SAILPLANE WING CONSTRUCTION 181
5. The suction and pressure sides should be kept as smooth
as possible, in order to attain good results; as can be done by
avoiding the use of coarse impregnated materials, exterior fittings,
instruments, etc.
Box Spar Plywood Method for Fastening

^^m Side Ribs to Box Beams
\
Plywood
Sides
Routed Spruce ^Key \

I Beam
^Plywood Web
Spruce
Spruce ^Plywood
Pfywood Flange- • LO\
over
Gusseti
/
Grooved Spruce
Plywood Flange
Web wifh
SAILPLANE Cut-outs
SPARS
Lower Chore/
Fig. 48.—Illustrations Showing the Common Forms of Sailplane and

Glider Wing Spars of the Box, I Beam and Lattice Girder Types, Also
Method of Fastening Ribs to Box Beams.
6. The breaking or flapping of the trailing edge by manipu
lating the transverse rudder or aileron causes a cutting off of the
air streams at small angles of adjustment and therefore a decrease
in ascent. Therefore, a special value is to be placed upon a
harmonious form to secure smooth passage of air currents in
designing the ailerons.
Sailplane Wing Construction.—Depending on the construe-
182
tion, one or two beams are used for building the supporting
wings, which are built of plywood planks or spruce beams in
box form or I form; and also a number of ribs in the desired
profile shape, which are pushed at intervals of 30 to 50 cm. or
11.8 to 19.7 inches across the spars and glued to them by the
use of suitable corner ledges or plywood angles. The greater
the span width of the sailplane the greater becomes also the lever
arm under which the air forces act upon the supporting ^ wings
and the stronger must the beams be designed, for these form the
actual backbone of the supporting wings. Besides a most exact
figuring of the strengths of materials upon the basis of the
resistance figures of the construction materials for the weights
to be carried, under consideration of a safety factor, it is also
advisable to determine the actual strength of a beam or of the
beams by means of sand load tests.
The height of the beams is determined by the thickness of the
profile, and the latter again according to whether the sailplane
is to be built with exterior bracing or with cantilever wings, that
is, without exterior bracing. It is always suitable, even when the
calculations for strengths do not require it, to utilize the full
profile height for the construction of the beams, for the strength
of the spar beams lies, above all, in height.
If only one beam is used for the construction of the supporting
wings, it should, as much as possible, be placed within the pres
sure center of the supporting wings. (See Fig. 47.) The beams
are called, according to their location and dimensions, leading-
edge-, nose- or visible-beams, front beam, rear beam and auxiliary
beam. If the front beam is designed stronger than the rear
beam, or if this relation is reversed, the stronger beam is called
SAILPLANE WING SPARS 183
the main beam. The location and design of the various individual
beams is illustrated best in the drawings.
The shape of the ribs which serve to take up and transmit the
air pressure forces to the beams is determined by the profile.
The construction of the ribs, as clearly shown in the illustrations,
varies from the form having spruce capstrips and cut-out plywood
webs to types where lattice work is used for bracing. Some
Warren truss types have plywood gussets to reenforce the bracing
and to form a firm tie between the capstrips and vertical and
diagonal braces.
Sailplane Wing Spars.—The following extracts are taken
from the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics Tech
nical Memorandum Number 439 which is a translation of "Struc
tural Details of German Gliders" by Alfred Gymnich. Box
spars and I-girders with plywood webs, which combine small
weight with great strength, are now commonly used. The webs
are often open-worked so as to resemble lattice girders (see Fig.
48), in which case they are sometimes reenforced by narrow
strips glued to the plywood faces and acting as bracing for the
flanges. The flanges for the box spars can usually be bought
ready-made in all dimensions. Fine-grained, knotless spruce is
generally used for this purpose and, when necessary, is first
spliced, whereby care must be taken that splices of the upper
and lower flanges do not come opposite one another. Then
follows the fitting of the plywood webs, which must be done with
the greatest accuracy. The webs are glued to the flanges and
secured with small brads about the size of cigar box nails.
(See Fig. 48.)
The glued surfaces must be firmly pressed or clamped together,
because the strength of the spar depends on the perfect gluing
of the flanges and webs, and pressure assists in gluing. It is
very important to keep the spar straight during its construction.
This can be most easily accomplished on a perfectly level support.
Since plywood sheets can be procured only in certain sizes,
the webs must be spliced in some instances. Of course, this must
be done before gluing them to the flanges. Here also care must
be taken that two splices do not come opposite each other. The
flanges are often reenforced with thin plywood, as shown in
Fig. 48 in order to support the edges of the webs and thus relieve
some of the stresses on the glue. This reinforcement must like
wise be made under strong pressure, but only after the glue
on the sides of the webs has become well set. Box spars are
always used when only one spar is used without the plywood lead
ing-edge former, because they are much more torsion-resisting
than I-spars. The latter are used as main spars only when there
are two or more spars, or when the whole leading edge of the
wing, from the top of the spar around to its bottom, is covered
with plywood.
The construction of the I-girder is considerably easier and
also cheaper, on account of the smaller quantity of material re
quired. The webs are prepared in the same way as for box spars,
but web sections are not joined until after the flanges have been
added, the plywood connecting pieces being glued on both sides
of the web. The flanges of I-spars are often grooved to receive
the edges of the web. This method is not recommended, how
ever, since it increases the cost, with no commensurate advantage.
In using such flanges, the web must fit tightly in the groove and
the flanges must be driven on firmly after the slots are smeared
SAILPLANE RIB CONSTRUCTION 185
with thin glue with the interposition of a piece of wood between
the hammer and the flange. Any cutting out or "open working"
of the spar web is done with the aid of a stencil or pattern after
the flanges have been attached.
Methods of Sailplane Rib Construction.—The ribs receive
the air pressure and transmit them to the spars. Their shape is
determined by the wing profile. There are two main types, those
with triangular bracing and those with open-worked plywood
webs. The latter are more difficult to make and more expensive,
but their greater strength makes them decidedly preferable to the
former. The ribs at the junctions of the wing sections and the
attachments of the struts are often of the box type since these
can withstand greater stresses. The variations in the form of
plywood ribs depend on whether the wing is to be rigid or flexible.
The web is often a single piece, which is pushed over the spar
and secured with corner brackets. It is also made in two or three
isections, so that the spars can be made the full thickness of the
wing. Webs of the same height are made with a pattern, which
always facilitates the work. The task is more difficult when the
wing tapers toward the tips. In the latter case, each individual
rib must be made with the greatest care from the working design
as practically each rib is different.
The intervals between the ribs differ greatly. Some con
structors prefer to use many ribs, in order to obtain a smooth
surface without hollows—while others use only a few ribs and
cover the wings largely with plywood. In general, the intervals
are 30-50 cm. (12-20 inches). With greater intervals, inter
mediate or former ribs are used. These nose ribs generally
extend but a short distance back of the main spar and serve
Plywood Gussets _5*ingle Spar
Covered with
"Fabric
Sing/e Spar Warren Truss Rib
Two Spar Rib Two Spar Rib

^Space for Spar
Space
,Wood Drag
Front SpaK Lattice
Bracing
Compression, Brac'mcj
Member--,
Former Entering Edge

Rib X7'Section Cap Strip Former Rib
Trailing- 1*
Edge SAILPLANE RIBS
Fig. 49.—Drawings Showing the Construction of Typical Sailplane Single and Two Spar Wing Ribs of Various
Forms. Note Use of Plywood Covering Over Leading Edge of Single Spar Wing. The Illustration at the Lower
Left Shows Use of Diagonal Wood Drag Bracing in Two Spar Wing.
SAILPLANE RIB CONSTRUCTION 187
principally to prevent the hollowing of the fabric and consequent
profile changes at the leading edge. (See Fig. 49.)
The weakest point of a rib is at the spar. In breaks, especially
of single-spar wings, the failure usually occurs at this point.
The risk is not so great with sectional ribs. With continuous
ribs, the flanges are often reenforced at this point by pieces of
plywood, or special flanges are used, which are wider at this
point. LTnder no circumstances should a large number of nails
be used to fasten the rib flange to the spar, since the material
is weakened by the nails and would be apt to break. One or
two light gauge brads to locate the rib capstrip will not do any
harm. •
The ribs are pushed over the spars which fit in spaces left for
the purpose and are secured by small triangular pieces which are
glued and nailed to the faces of the spar. The ribs are then
glued at equal intervals to the leading-edge molding. The wing
is then strengthened against torsion by the introduction of diag
onal side bracing, which must intersect every rib interval or
every second interval. This is not necessary on biplanes, since
the same object is accomplished by the external bracing. On
biplanes every space, or every other space, is braced only by
steel wires, in order to prevent any lateral displacement of the
ribs. The same method is employed on cantilever monoplane
soarers controlled by wing warping. The torsional rigidity is
then maintained by the steering controls connected with the con
trol stick, which is operated by the pilot.
Internal Wing Bracing.—In the diagonal bracing, it is im
portant to use firmly fitting attachments which will not weaken
the spars. One end of the steel wire is secured to an eye bolt or
'188 A B C OF GLIDING AND SAILFLYING
metal-fitting lug, while the other end is attached to a turnbuckle,
in order to be able to adjust the whole wing after the brace
wires are installed. (See Fig. 51.) After the wing has been
Plywood-^ Plywood Cosset fêel F.tting Spruce Hange^
| _ /\ \./r\ o ^——— *> ^
Box
Spar Fitting for Braced Wings

i —
Triangular Section •P/y wood Patch
Remforcemfrrf " or Lozenge
Reinforcing ihe
Flange ofa Box
Divided Rib for Full-height Spar with Giraerwifh Thin
Reinforcing Strips over Flanges and Box Spar Fitting for Plywood
Filler Pieces, of Triangular Section at Cantilever Wings
Ends in Contact with Spar Sides
P/ywoOi
-Spar Tube
Intermediate Plvwood
the " ""Rib for Preserving Junkers Wing Connections
the Profile
Plywood
./' Sides
** Plywood Covering of
flange Leading Edge
Splicing the Web of a Box Spar
^Plywood Cover
Schon-Hasenfuss
Strut for Small
Cross Section of Triangular Spar
Stresses with Webs
of 3 mm Plywood and ^-Longitudinal Members
Ordinary One-piece (Wring of
y&$'Two-part \/
br- Corner Brackets for
""" [mm Plywoocl
Key ^ Strut of Routed Spruce '•* wouu Stiffening
_ ,^x
«- -^ Hollow Stnjts
Fig. 50.—Group of Details Outlining Sailplane Wing Construction

Showing Spar Attachments to Fuselage; Method of Splicing Web of
Box Spar; Use of Plywood Covering of Leading Edge; Section of a
Triangular Wing Spar and Two Forms of Lightweight Interplane
{Struts.
WING CONSTRUCTION DETAILS 189
adjusted, all the turnbuckles are secured by safety wiring as shown
in Fig. 51. No subsequent alterations can be made in the diag
onal bracing, for which reason great care must be taken to
adjust both wings symmetrically as regards the angle of setting.
,b
a - Si-eel wire Ear orLug-for Flange

b- Spiral wire winding Wire Bracing(
Web
c- hitting filler Block "
d- Cooper sheath to protect
fitting.
-Sheet Steel Socket
— ~~7i/r/}buckle
^Metal
Wing and Strut attachment on Biplane
Ajustable strut attachment of sheet steel of Darmstadt Aviation Club 1921
with half of a turnbuckle welded to it
Wire- 'Turnbuckle Body
Best attachment
for Wire Bracing
Turnbuckle secured by Iron Wire a
7his is known as "Safetying"
Eye for Steel
' Bracing Wire Fitting
Special Bolts and Nuts sometimes employed

in connection with Wing and Strut fittings.
This methodsuitedfor ^^~Special
Light Stresses not .as good ^*«^ Bolt
as shown above for carrying heavy loads
Fig. 51.—Details Showing Method of Attaching Bracing Wires and

Struts and Typical Metal Fittings.
Soarers with zero angle of wing setting have often been flown
successively. For example, the angle of wing setting of the
"Vampyr" was zero at the fuselage. Likewise, wings with a nega
tive or positive angle of setting at the fuselage and a negative
angle of setting at their tips, whereby some degree of automatic
stability is attained, have been found usable.
Angle of Incidence of Wing.—The setting of a wing depends
on its profile, therefore arbitrary lines for the best angle of
setting cannot be laid down. It should not, however, be more
than four degrees at the fuselage and should diminish toward
die wing tips. In no case should the angle of wing setting be
greater at the tips than at tjie fuselage. For wings with flexible
trailing edges, the angle of setting can be greater than on perfectly
rigid wings. It should also be noted that the angles of glide of
two otherwise similar gliders, one of which has wings with
flexible trailing edges and the other has perfectly rigid wings,
differ greatly from each other. The angle of glide improves with
increasing flexibility of the rib ends, since the air can then flow
off without forming vortices. This is the case, however, only so
long as the flexibility does not give rise to a fluttering of the
trailing edge.
The Fuselage.—The choice of the fuselage always depends
on financial or structural considerations, for of course the head
resistance of an aircraft, in which the pilot is exposed to the air
current, reduces the flight speed, which is important for aircraft
intended to utilize dynamic soaring effects. This factor drops out
for mere gliders which are intended only for sailing in winds
deflected upward by mountain slopes. Only the trellis or skeleton
type is advisable for training gliders, because it is cheaper to
make and easier to repair.
Struts directly in front of the pilot's head should be avoided.
On biplanes the wings and tail are best united by four longerons,
two for each wing. These may be mutually braced by transverse
struts. If it is desired, however, to build a real fuselage, it is not
advisable to leave it uncovered. The small additional cost of
the covering is fully offset by the improvement in its flight
FUSELAGE CONSTRUCTION 191
characteristics due to the lessened resistance or parasitic drag.
The fuselage can be made in three different types: with open
wood frame; welded steel or riveted duralumin tubes; or wood
frame covered with plywood, which distributes the stresses, thus
dispensing with the brace wires and more or less with the struts.
Fuselage without bulkheads
Fuselage of Bonner scarer

"Sohlagel and Eisen ft . __
Fig. 52.—Typical Sailplane Fuselages. The Upper View Shows a
Wood Fuselage Frame Without Bulkheads To Be Covered with Cloth;
the Lower Illustration Shows a Plywood Covered Fuselage with Bulk
heads Tied Together with Light Longerons.
The simplest type to construct is the one shown at the top of Fig.
52, which is made of square section throughout and has no spe
cially designed bulkheads. Fuselages of this type are almost
always covered with fabric.
If it is to be covered with plywood, the framework can be
made of smaller timbers. In the cockpit, diagonal struts and
I
wires must be avoided under all circumstances, since it must be
roomy enough not to interfere with the greatest movements of
the steering controls. It is better to put up with a little greater
air resistance than to handicap the pilot by enclosing him in
cramped quarters, thus taking away his view and fatiguing him
prematurely by an uncomfortable posture.
Experience has shown that it is advisable to place the pilot's
seat so high that his head will be exposed to the unobstructed
air current, which greatly facilitates the utilization of favoring
winds. Of course, the seat and headrest (if there is one) should
be padded. Moreover, it is desirable for all struts and spars in
the cockpit to be wound with linen, which not only strengthens
the wood but, most important of all in case of accident, also
affords protection against splintering and consequent injuries
to the pilot. This danger can be still further diminished by using
ash for the front portion of the longerons and spruce or pine
for the rear portion, the spliced junctions coming behind the
cockpit. Ash is strong and tough and has but little tendency to
split.
The gluing together of hard and soft wood, however, must be
done with great care, since otherwise the glued joints will not
hold. It is expedient to spread thick glue on the ash first and
wait a few minutes for it to penetrate the pores before spreading
FUSELAGE CONSTRUCTION 193
glue on the pine. The glued splice should then be put under
the customary pressure by hand clamps and wood blocks. It is
not advisable to continue the ash longerons the whole distance,
since this would unnecessarily increase the weight of the fuselage.
Moreover, ash is difficult to work. The longerons and struts
should diminish in cross section toward the stern, to correspond
to the smaller stresses. In the event of a nose dive, it is desirable
to have as little weight as possible behind the pilot.
If the landing gear is not provided with shock absorbers, it is
desirable to pad the pilot's seat well or provide it with springs,
in order to soften the landing shock for both pilot and fuselage.
The fuselage ends in either a horizontal or vertical wedge, which
is correspondingly used for the attachment of the elevator or
rudder. The vertical wedge is more common on gliders because
of the better keel effect, while the horizontal wedge is better
for soarers, in order to facilitate deviations from straight flights
such as making figure eights to keep in the same ascending air
currents.
Steel tubing or other metal had been but little used in the con
struction of amateur built gliders and soarers in Germany because
this required expert workmen provided with specially equipped
workshops. This type, though heavier, is stronger and more
durable. The securing of the wings to a metal fuselage is simpler
and easier. As glider construction is now a department of estab
lished airplane factories one can expect a considerable increase
in the uses of metal.
The construction of a plywood fuselage requires some experi
ence in monocoque fuselage or boat building, for it can be accom
plished only with the aid of a special form. The bulkheads must
ABC OF GLIDING AND SATLFLYING
Spreaders , -Ply wood Gussets

Diagonal
Braces
Stiffening the Junctions

with Triangular Blocks P/ywood
Web Reinforang Strips ' Web
Vertical Member
Plywood
Plywood Brace uusset
Cross Members Bulkhead of

"MU Schoop"
Saw Scarf
^-or Slot ">
Fuselage Details of 1921 Stuttgart

Monoplane. Plywood Angles and Plywood Bulkhead
Grooved Members. of Oval Fuselage
Bulkhead of Soarer"Edith"
Longerons "%
Strengthen
Longerons ing Strips
Cut-out for Keel
Fig. 53.—Some Structural Details of German Sailplane Fuselages.

Note Method of Reenforcing Light Plywood Bulkheads by Reenforc-
ing Strips of Wood Attached to the Face, also Method of Strengthening
Fuselage with Plywood Angles Fitting Saw Slots Cut in Longerons
and Spreaders in Which They Are Secured with Glue.
MAKING AN OVAL FUSELAGE, 195
first be made in exact conformity with the working designs, which
is done in various ways according to the shape and the requisite
strength of the fuselage. The front bulkheads, especially those
which are designed to receive the wing fittings, are made of heavy
plywood, while the rear, less-stressed bulkheads are made of thin
strips with plywood reinforcement. One advantage is the elimi
nation of the diagonal struts, since the bulkheads afford sufficient
rigidity. The inside of such a fuselage is therefore more roomy,
thus facilitating the installation of the seat and steering controls.
Making an Oval Fuselage.—An oval fuselage requires more
bulkheads than an angular fuselage for the preservation of its
shape. This requirement is met by inserting one or two light
auxiliary bulkheads between every two main bulkheads. The
number of longerons likewise depends on the shape of the fuse
lage. In general, four main longerons are employed, with smaller
intermediate longerons as required. Round bulkheads, however,
require only three longerons. (See lower illustration, Fig. 52,
for construction of plywood covered fuselage.)
The actual construction of the fuselage is begun after the com
pletion of all the bulkheads. A board, whose dimensions corre
spond to the length and breadth of the fuselage, is firmly secured
by screw clamps to two paperhanger's "horses." For a round fuse
lage, a keel corresponding to its bottom line is secured to the
board and the bulkheads are attached to the keel by means of
screw clamps. For an angular fuselage, cleats corresponding to
the number and location of the bulkheads are fastened to the
board. The longerons are then fitted into notches in the bulk
heads and glued, corner blocks being glued into the angles between
the longerons and bulkheads. Then all inner parts, like the seat
and steering controls, are installed and, lastly, the plywood cover
ing is added. This is easily done with angular bulkheads.
Glue is applied to the longerons and bulkheads and the plywood
nailed on in as large sheets as possible and so that the joints
always come on a bulkhead. For round or arched fuselages, the
difficulty increases with the curvature, wherefore the plywood
plates must be applied slowly, beginning with the narrow side.
Both lateral and longitudinal bending must not be attempted with
the same plate as this would produce buckling and unevenness.
After the upper and lateral portions have been covered, the fuse
lage is detached from the keel or cleats and its bottom is also
covered with plywood.
Sailplane Landing Gears.—Often too little attention has been
given to the correct construction of the landing gear. We re
peatedly see gliders, otherwise well built and with good flying
ability, which experience difficulty in taking off or are damaged
in the attempt, due to faulty landing gear. The landing gear
must be regarded as an organic part of the glider and not as an
auxiliary attachment. The landing gear is also the "starting
gear" and it is only in the latter sense that we are considering
it this time. Runners are now commonly used on gliders and
preferably one central runner instead of the former double-runner
system. The few early attempts to use landing gears with wheels
met with little success, but some of the more modern gliders are
using small wheels such as designed for airplane tail support. The
correctly built central runner is doubtless the best solution of the
starting problems, since it weighs but little, is easily constructed
and offers the least head resistance. The greater friction of the
central skid or runner in taking off is of no practical importance.
GLIDER LANDING GEARS 197
For example, the "Espenlaub V," which has a very simple central
runner, required only two men to launch it in a wind of 4-6 m.
(13-20 ft.) per second.
There is no danger that a glider with a central runner will tip
over on the wing at a low take-off or landing speed, such danger
Fuselage^ This Type has Least'

"^ Air Resistance
Vertical Wedge
a-Hinge Fuselage Tail
b- Connecting Strut
i-Hinged Intermediate Rod or Link
Tai/Skid-
Spring Runner on 1921 Stug- î
gart Monoplanes f
---^Plywood Laminations
Tip of Plywood Runner Acts as a

Laminated Spring
Properly Curved Single Runner or Skid
Horizontal Wedge
laif
Springs or . Welded Steel Tube

*-Bulkhead Shock Cord'
Assembly
b-Longeron
c- Board TailSkid -Shoe B
d- Runner or Skid SAILPLANE LANDING GEAR DETAILS
Fig. 54.—Sketches Outlining Sailplane Landing Gear Details Showing

Approved Curved Runners or Skids. A Shows Tail Skid Landing
Gear for Fuselage Terminating in a Vertical Wedge. B shows the More
Complicated Structure Used for Fuselages Terminating in a Hori
zontal Wedge.
existing only when the glider is standing still. Even then the
glider tips so slowly that there is little danger of doing any
damage. Hence protecting devices on the wing tips are seldom
used, though it would appear that their use would be an advan
tage. The single-runner type has the advantage over the double-
198 ABC OF GLIDING AND SAILFLYTNG
runner type, in that, aside from the smaller air resistance, the
landing gear (and hence the whole glider) is less endangered in
landing with a side wind, because it is much easier to head into
the wind. Nevertheless double runners were often used on
early German school machines and on the primitive Wright
brothers' glider in order to render the take-off easier for the pupil.
Straight rigid runners (the so-called u Sled Gear' 1 ) are still some
times used. The reason for this is not plain because flexible, or
at least bent, runners can be easily made and greatly facilitate
the take-off. The present most common and simplest type of
landing gear is the single central runner with projecting and
consequently flexible rear end. (See Fig. 54.) With a correct
placing and curvature this runner may be considered ideal, espe
cially when the landing shock is partially absorbed by an up
holstered or spring seat. The previously mentioned "Espenlaub
V" has such a central runner, which is so long as to render a
special tail skid unnecessary. In a normal landing, this type of
gear distributes the shock evenly between the different joints.
The runner itself should be wide enough to prevent its sinking
into the ground. A width of 6-8 cm. (2.4-3.2 in.) is generally
sufficient, although this depends on the weight of the glider and
the nature of the ground. The take-off from a sand dune natu
rally requires a wider runner than from a grassy field.
Construction of Skids or Runners.—The runners are gen
erally made of ash or elm. Large runners are bent, after being
allowed to soak several days in cold water or a few hours in hot
water. Forcible bending and gluing, without first softening the
wood, are liable to result in the loosening of the runner in the
event of a hard landing. It is attached to the bottom of the
FUSELAGE SKIDS OR RUNNERS 199
fuselage with the aid of a vertical board about 2 cm. (0.8 in.)
thick and generally made of light plywood. The lower edge of
this board is given the desired shape of the runner. The board
is then fitted and glued in notches provided for the purpose in
the bottom of the bulkheads. It is braced laterally by small
blocks and plywood gussets. The runner is then glued and
screwed on. Of course the vertical board cannot be used on
gliders without any real fuselage. In this case a curved central
runner can be attached only with the aid of a "blind" runner.
The runner may be made in thin strips glued singly to the
bottom of the vertical board and then secured by screws. By this
method the projecting ends can be left of different lengths, as
in a laminated leaf spring, in order to make the runner more
flexible and springy. (See Fig. 54.) In order to prevent the
runner from catching in ruts when landing with a side wind, the
bottom strip of the runner is rounded and its edges trimmed.
Wheel Landing Gears.—As already mentioned, wheel landing
gears have failed of general adoption, because they are more
complicated and expensive and because the facilitation of the
take-off is more than offset by the increase in the air resistance
or "drag" and in the length of the landing run. However, single,
centrally placed air wheel landing gears have been used with good
results and with no marked increase in drag. (See Fig. 37.)
An intermediate method between the wheel and the runner
landing gears was adopted by the aviation section of the Hannover
Technical High School. The gliders "Vampyr," "Greif," and
"H6" had rotatable leather balls similar to footballs. They
conformed, to the shape of the fuselage and each one had a valve
provided with a rubber tube. (This was the forerunner of the
present Musselman air wheel.) This almost ideal solution com
bines minimum air resistance with minimum ground friction and
good shock absorption. One disadvantage, however, needs to be
remedied. If the aviator is compelled to land against a steep
declivity, there is danger that the glider will roll backward and
be more or less damaged. This happened once at Andreasberg,
when Schwarz was compelled to land against a steep hillside,
and again in the Rhon Mountains when Martens on the "Strolch"
had to land in the same way. In such cases the elevator and the
tail end of the fuselage were badly damaged. This danger might
be avoided by means of a wheel brake, or a skid or sprag operated
by the pilot or by installing the wheels or balls in such a way
that they cannot turn backward. The latter would not be advis
able because it would greatly reduce the maneuverability of the
glider on the ground when being placed in position for launching.
Shape of Skid or Runner Important.—It is better to con
struct the landing gear in such a way as to afford the maximum
maneuverability on the ground. Such is the case when the runner
is perpendicular to the line of gravity in every position of the
aircraft, which necessitates a curved shape of the runner (Fig.
54). In order to ameliorate any unintentional pitching, which
would require constant manipulation of the elevator, the runner
is given a parabolic shape. Moreover, a circular shape would
cause the runner to press into the ground more and thus increase
the friction. It is still better to use spring runners which adapt
themselves automatically to the surface of the ground. If the
runner is used for the static structure of the fuselage, springiness
can be obtained only through the medium of a so-called "blind"
USE OF TAIL SKID 201
runner. This blind runner is used for the static structure and
the real runner is so attached to the static runner by means of
springs or rubber cords or rings that they can yield and thus
allow the runner to fit the ground. In the construction it is only
necessary to see that the resting point of the real runner at the
various angles of attack does not coincide with its point of attach
ment to the blind runner.
Use of Tail Skid.—It has already been mentioned that no
tail skid is required with sufficiently long runners. With short
runners or with ball or wheel landing gears, however, a tail skid
may be used to support the tail and protect the tail surfaces.
Fig. 546 shows a tail skid commonly used both on airplanes
and on gliders, having a fuselage which ends in a horizontal
wedge. The method shown at Fig. Â can be used when the
fuselage ends in a vertical wedge. The air resistance is less by
this method. The rubber cables must, of course, be rendered
easily accessible through a trapdoor. It is desirable for the skid
to be capable of yielding somewhat laterally. The life of the
skid is thus increased and the stresses on the stern of the fuselage,
when turning, are diminished. The height of the skid must be
such as to allow a sufficiently horizontal motion of the fuselage
to permit increasing the angle of attack in taking off. When
possible, it is better to dispense with the tail skid altogether.
The Steering Organs.—While we are striving for minimum
sinking speed and angle of glide, we must also endeavor to
increase the maneuverability in order to bring the aircraft
promptly into the most favorable position for any given air
current. Like engine-driven airplanes, gliders require three con
trol organs, namely, for lateral and longitudinal stability and
for directional steering. The organ for maintaining longitudinal
stability also serves for vertical steering. The control surfaces
are made considerably larger on gliders and sailplanes than on
engine-driven airplanes, in order to compensate for their con
siderably lower speed. The commonest error on gliders con
sists in making the control surfaces too small and therefore
ineffective. On "hang" gliders the lateral and longitudinal stabil
ity and the angle of attack are controlled by shifting the weight
of the pilot. Only a vertical fin, or possibly a rudder, is provided,
in order to head the glider into the wind or give it limited direc
tional control. For preserving lateral stability, preference is
given ailerons hinged to the outer portions of the wings.
The ailerons are so connected that the upward deflection of
either one is accompanied by a downward deflection of the
other.
The Wing method of control was employed by Harth, Messer-
schmitt and others, but failed to come into general use. The
reason for this is apparent when one considers the difficult con
struction of the wings for this purpose, and the effort required
to change the angle of attack and in the fact that gliders like
the "Strolch," "Konsul," "Espenlaub IV," "Hannover H6"
("Pehkan") and others with ordinary ailerons give better results
in practice even though such ailerons cause more vortices in
theory and therefore should offer greater air resistance than
flexible trailing edge warping or wing rocking with its more
harmonious transitions of airflow. For static soaring flight, the
very slight increase in the air resistance due to the ailerons is of
no practical importance, and the controlling effect of suitably
dimensioned ailerons is fully sufficient.
CONTROLS FOR LONGITUDINAL STABILITY 203
Of course, the aileron shape makes a difference, since square
ailerons have to be deflected more than oblong ones and produce
a greater retarding or breaking effect. Hence the preference is
given to very narrow ailerons extending throughout a large por
tion of the wing span and often tapering to a point toward the
fuselage, in order to avoid any break in the trailing edge. (See
Chapter Four.) The manner of hinging the ailerons to the
wings is also important. The formation of an intervening slot
must be avoided in so far as possible or the slot must at least
be covered by a strip of plywood. Covering the slot in this
manner has prevented the formation of harmful vortices.
Elevator Controls Longitudinal Stability.—Longitudinal
stability is usually obtained by an "elevator," which is rotatable
about a horizontal axis at the stern of the fuselage. There is often
a horizontal ''stabilizer" in front of the elevator, but in recent
years this has frequently been omitted, especially on the best
soarers, in order to make the aircraft longitudinally more sensi
tive and consequently better adapted for the fullest possible
utilization of gusts. Since a sailplane fuselage very often ends in
a horizontal wedge, the elevator is easily installed. The longi
tudinal section of such a balanced elevator is always streamlined.
It is built like a wing with I-girders or box girders and ribs.
Its center of rotation lies at or slightly in front of one-third the
distance from the leading edge. Its axis is usually a steel or
duralumin tube, though its attachment to the wood ribs is difficult.
When there is a horizontal stabilizer, the elevator is hinged
directly to it, the same as the rudder is hinged to a vertical fin
as commonly done on airplane fuselages. On tailless gliders, the
altitude and longitudinal control reside in the separately maneuver-
able ailerons or in wing warping. Since the wing tips are ex
tended backward on such aircraft (which are seldom seen to-day)
the leverage thus obtained is generally sufficient for steering and
stabilization. The placing of the elevator in front of the wing
as done by the Wright brothers and Curtiss on their early crea
tions has been tried only on Klemperer's "Ente" or duck type
glider.
Vertical Rudder.—Lateral changes in direction are likewise
produced by a vertical rudder at the stern of the fuselage (with
the above-mentioned exceptions), which is sometimes preceded by
a vertical stabilizing fin. The longitudinal section of the rudder
likewise preferably has a streamline shape. The shapes of the
elevator and rudder must be such that they cannot interfere with
each other, even at their maximum deflection. If the vertical or
lateral steering is controlled by the wings or by ailerons, no rudder
nor elevator is needed at the stern, but in this case horizontal
and vertical stabilizing fins are almost always provided.
Warping Wing Control.—Wing warping originated with the
endeavor to take immediate advantage of fluctuations in the
wind, without using the indirect way through the elevator. For
this purpose, Harth and Messerschmitt warped the whole wing
and changed its curvature and thus obtained excellent results
above the gentle slope of the Heidelstein in the Rhon Mountains.
Not only did Harth gain altitude by thus increasing the angle of
attack and changing the flight direction, but often succeeded in
taking off without the aid of the starting cable by utilizing a
favoring gust. The technical and constructional difficulties and
the low structural strength of warping wing-controlled gliders
then led to the substitution of ailerons.
STICK CONTROL BEST 205
On the Darmstadt monoplane sailplane "Geheimrat," which
has been described and illustrated elsewhere in this volume (see
Chapter Four), the whole wing is rotatable. This is intended
only for utilizing the gusts and not for lateral control, as this
is exercised by ordinary ailerons. For the longitudinal control
there is a stern elevator, which can be operated by means of a
small lever. The elevator was adjusted according to the wind
conditions and was not operated during the flight. This method
enabled the widest adaptation to the most variable wind velocities.
Although no elevator is necessary for a wing-controlled glider,
the installation of one on soaring planes has been found ad
vantageous. If a wing-controlled glider should, for any reason,
be thrown into a nose dive, it would generally be impossible to
flatten out again, on account of the strong forces acting on the
wings. The greater leverage of a stern elevator would, however,
be more effective, and in fact absolutely necessary in such an
emergency.
In designing wing-controlled gliders, it is important to use
an airfoil profile with relatively small travel of the center of
pressure. The correct leverage of the control stick is also im
portant, as otherwise the pilot's strength might not suffice to hold
the wings. It is also expedient to provide a maximum deflection
limit to prevent overdeflection, which usually causes a fall. All
these are disadvantages which militate against the use of variable
angle of attack wings.
Stick Control Best.—The operation of the various controls
should correspond to the natural impulse of the pilot, for which
reason it is advisable not to depart from the customary stick con
trol, The ailerons or wing warping should be controlled by lateral
206 ABC OF GLIDING AND SAILFLYTNG
motions of the stick; the elevator by pulling and pushing the stick;
and the rudder by the use of the feet just as in airplanes. Wheel
control may be better for giant airplanes, but it is not suitable for
Lever Connecting Link Lever ^^Connectina L/nfi

-Hinge ^*f\ ^V___ Aileron
ControlHorn
''Support Âileron ^Torque Tube

Front 5par -ffear Spar .--Hinge
~~-,
A Spar Lever ^-Connecting
Aileron Hinge' Âileron Link *
Torgue
Control Stick
Tube
of "Schwarzer Aileron Control
Teufel" -^ Pods
Control^ Rocker Shaft
Stick I Support
Rocker Elevator
Shaft' Control Tube
Elevator Elevator Horn

Actuating -Elevator
Wires
?•- Lateral
Control Cables Normal Control System for
Ailerons and Elevator by
Dural or Steel Tubes
Fig. 55.—Details at Top Show Various Methods of Actuating Ailerons

of Sailplanes. The View at Lower Left Shows Control Stick Sup
ported by a Ball Joint. The Assembly at Lower Right Shows Method
of Aileron and Elevator Actuation by Push and Pull Tubes.
a glider or soarer, where the pilot must depend largely on the

"feel" of the controls. Whenever possible, only one control stick
should be used, since, although a second stick can be operated
successfully, its presence complicates the piloting and the control
STICK CONTROL BEST 207
therefore becomes different from that of an airplane, greatly re
ducing fhe value of the glider as a primary flight instruction
medium.
In order to function in two directions, the control stick must
have a double acting or ball joint. On the Aachen monoplane,
"Schwarzer Teufel" the tubular duralumin stick runs through a
hollow steel ball with which it is rigidly combined. (See Fig.
55.) The steel ball is held in a spherical collar of aluminum
alloy, so that the stick is movable in all directions. This is a
simple and light control stick.
The steering levers and surfaces are connected either by cables
which pass over pulleys of the largest possible diameter, or by
duralumin or steel tubes in combination with push rods. The
latter method is continually becoming more general. It offers
greater advantages in assembling and disassembling, and the fric
tion is generally less. The rudder is always connected with the
pedals or rudder bar by cables as will be described more in detail
in a following chapter.
Controls Pylon — —— —£
Ailerons
Rudder —————————- All of 3/32n Cable
Elevators—-—-—-—-—' k
———36--—-^-Turnb uckles I
Spar
~" Bracket
£1 ____________x
i___
Fill in~space
and roundoff
Guys
Rudder
^Plane \*32 PianoWire Bar
Clamps L aunch
Metal - *I2 Carbon Steel Taper offto I Hook
Wood - '//6" Plywood Stiffener
Block
Fuselage
Seat-should be cut out of3/e" 3-P/y Birch supported
Sifka Spruce - Best Selected. by two 5/$ Spruce Brackets on Lower Lonaeron
Ply wood-Best 3//6 "- '//t*
Skid-Ash 7//6"x3'/4" Space from skid up to Upper Longeron maybe covered,
with plywood /'faes/rea.
F/ftinas should be made accurafe/y as shown and of "T" means Turn buckle in Rigaing and confro/s.
Materials noted. Carbon Steel shou/d be annealed Make Launching Hook of */0 Carbon Steel- bendif
before bending and Tempered afterward. over nose of Lower L ongeron andbolt through.
Fig. 56.—Working Drawing of the Fuselage of a Typical Training Type Glider Showing the Various Materials
Used and Giving Dimensions of Principal Parts. Note Fairing of Fuselage Struts and Braces and How Con
trol Cables are Guided by Pulleys Attached to Fuselage Members.
CHAPTER TEN
MATERIALS USED IN GLIDER CONSTRUCTION

Description of a Typical Training Glider—Cost of Materials—Specifica
tions for Materials—Building Materials and Woods—Metal Parts—
Steels Used in Aircraft Construction—Strength-Weight Factors of
Aircraft Materials—Cloth and Dope—Glue—Protecting Fittings—
Properties and Uses of the Most Common Woods—Strength Co
efficients of Different Kinds of Wood—Wire Cables—Wire Ropes—
Weight of Steel Tubes—Weight of Duralumin Tubes—Strength of
Turnbuckles—Weight of Sheet Iron and Steel.
Description of a Typical Training Glider.—A typical pri

mary training glider is of the high wing, single longeron, one
place, open type, the wing panels being externally braced only
with flying and landing wires. All wood employed is Sitka
spruce, except for the skid which is ash and some structural
braces, which are oak. The PT-2, of Gliders, Inc., for example,
has a length over all of 17 feet 5 inches, whereas the PT-i was
16 feet 6 inches in length. The wing span is 34 feet. Except
for a slight cutting away at the leading edge of the wing tips
the wings have a uniform chord of 5 feet, giving them an area,
including ailerons, of 170 square feet. The total aileron area is
23 square feet.
A modified Gottingen section is often used for airfoils. The
wings are nearly always in two panels, joined to the base of the
triangular, flat, and covered "cabane" or "pylon" by means of
slide fittings and two ^-inch S.A.E. aeronautic bolts on each
panel. All metal fittings on the glider are of cold rolled steel
209
of varied thickness. Internally, each wing panel is made up of
17 double ribs, covered with plywood cap strips, all gussets in
the wing structure being of birch. Birch plywood is glued on
and tacked for safety. Drag wires are of 0.049 piano wire,
tightened with turnbuckles. All wing spars are spruce, the front
spars y§ inch thick, 5 inches deep, and 17 feet long. Those in
the rear are of the same dimensions, except that they are only
3.7 inches in depth. The wings are covered with fine muslin.
Size 0.095 inch piano wire is used for landing and flying wires.
With the idea of inevitable minor crashes on the part of
student pilots, some glider designers have made the fuselage
in two separate assemblies. The "nose piece" carries the pilot's
seat and control system. From the rear of the seat aft is the
main fuselage, an assembly attached to the nose piece by means
of four oak or ash side braces bolted together and permitting re
moval for easy repair. All vertical and diagonal members of the
fuselage structure are glued and. screwed together, with ^-inch
or % (; -inch plywood gussets bracing all joints. The longeron
may be of i /l2 by 2 /
l 2 -inch spruce or 2 inches by i /l2 inches for
main members and i / l 2 inches by i /
l 2 inches for auxiliary sup
ports. In constructing the fuselage with a single longeron, de
signers of the primary gliders say that they were guided by the
results of a series of tests which led to the conclusion that the
single longeron was less susceptible to breakage in landing than
the triangular fuselage.
Conventional push and pull controls, similar to those of the
ordinary power-driven airplane are usually installed. The pilot's
seat is usually of J/2-inch plywood and the rudder bar has an
ash center, covered with plywood or maybe made of tubing.
COST OF MATERIALS FOR GLIDERS 211
All structural members of the tail surface assemblies are glued
together, and include full ribs at stress points. In area, the tail
surfaces comprise approximately 13 per cent of the wing area.
Because of the natural vertical surfaces on the fuselage some
primary gliders have no vertical fin. The triangular shaped
stabilizer is bolted to the fuselage, in some cases, with two %-inch
bolts passing through a clamp attached to the upper longeron,
and braced with piano wire or with streamline tubing struts.
Cost of Materials.—While the prices for the various materials
vary from time to time, the following may be of value as a guide.
These are prices prevailing in several supply houses during the
summer of 1930. Spruce Rib Stock, y2 inch by % incn f°r caP
strips or % 6 inch square for truss type ribs, two cents per lineal
foot. Casein glue powder, 40 cents per pound. Birch or Ma
hogany Plywood sheets, 2 feet by 5 feet and 2 feet by 7 feet in
^ G -inch, % 2 ~inch and ^-inch thickness, 32 cents per square
foot. Aluminum sheets, 18 inches by 72 inches, 26-gauge, $2.30
per sheet. Turnbuckles, 35 cents each. Micarta pulleys 2-inch
diameter, 36 cents each. No. 14 hard wire, 2 cents per foot.
No. 12 hard wire, 2j4 cents per foot. Control wire, ^-inch
diameter, 7^2 cents per foot. Control wire, % 2 "incn diameter,
8 cents per foot. Thirty-six inches wide fabric, 40 cents per
yard. Commercial Cotton, 35 cents per yard. Glider fabric, 52
inches wide, 55 cents per yard. Rib nails, y2 inch long, 20 gauge,
50 cents per pound. Ferrules for No. 12 and No. 14 gauge wire,
2 cents each. Thimbles for cable, 2 cents each. Glider safety
belt, $3.00. Steel tube, ^/g-inch to i-inch O.D. 2O-gauge, 17
cents per foot; J^-inch to ^-inch O.D. 2O-gauge, 14 cents per
foot. Pinked tape, 2^ inches wide, 3 cents per yard. Reenforc-
ing tape, 2 cents per yard. Rib Sewing Cord, $1.50 per pound.
Hand sewing flax cord, $1.00 per pound. Straight needles, 12
inches long, 10 cents each; 16 inches long, 20 cents each. Curved
needles, 5 inches long, 10 cents each. Spar Varnish, $3.00 per
gallon. Silver pigment, $1.25 per pound. Nitrate dope, $1-75
per gallon. Nitrate dope, in 5-gallon cans, $1.60 per gallon; in
2O-gallon drums, $1.50 per gallon. 100 feet shock cord, J^-inch
diameter, suitable for glider launching, $8.00. % 6 -inch clevis
shackles, 10 cents each. Clevis pins, % G -inch, 4 cents each. Ribs
and all material for building a wood wing frame including spars
and compression bracing can be purchased for $40 to $50. A
built-up fuselage, single longeron type, without seats, controls or
fittings, $30 to $35. Uncovered tail group, less fittings, $12.
Complete bill of materials from $90 up. Knock Down Glider,
$200 to $250.
Specifications for Materials.—The following specifications are
for the material used in the construction of training gliders:
Spruce throughout shall be Government specification Sitka
spruce, straight grain, sized to correct dimensions. Lower mem
ber of runner shall be steam bent, care being taken not to "burn"
the wood in steaming.
Ash for runner shoe and clamps shall be of sound, straight
grain, quarter sawed kiln dried stock.
Dope.—Apply, with at least two hours between coats, two or
more good coats of any approved aircraft dope. Finish writh a
coat of spar varnish or colored enamel.
Tail Surfaces (rudder, stabilizer and elevator) are to be made
of similar material, in similar manner, aligned, covered and
SPECIFICATIONS FOR MATERIALS 213
doped same as wing frames, using cord stitching or tacks.
Fuselage.—Make all wood members as shown in plan layout
according to dimensions, fit all joints accurately and glue together
with necessary blocking and stifTeners. Cover runner, tail fin
surfaces and pylon, also "gusset" plates at joints with plywood,
as noted, and glue together. Apply and bolt on all fittings.
Glue to be best grade Government specification casein water
proof glue. (Casein glue is always used cold.)
Fittings are to be made accurately as shown on plans and of
materials noted. Carbon steel over .05 carbon to be annealed or
heated before bending and tempered afterward.
Bolts to be carbon or high tensile strength steel, threaded
S.A.E. or U.S.F. 32 thread for % 6 -inch bolts. After tightening
nut into place, cut bolt flush with nut and "rivet" (to prevent
loosening) with four center punch indentations in thread circle.
Wire to be "piano wire" looped through fitting, "safety"
secured and with loose end doubled back.
Control cables to be seven strand flexible wire cord looped
through fitting with ' "thimble" insert. Bind loop with copper wire
bindings, sweated with solder, double back loose end and bind.
Pins for hinges and doubled links are to be carbon steel of
proper length and secured with aircraft safety pin or cotter pins.
Turnbuckles to be standard type of correct size to develop full
strength of wire or cable and after tightening, secure from turn
ing with copper or iron wire safety coils.
Building Materials.— Woods.—Wood was formerly the prin
cipal building material for gliders, although it is now possible
to make just as light metal structures. This was due to the
difficulty of working the metal and to the fact that gliders were
2i 4 A B C OF GLIDING AND SAILFLYING
formerly made mostly by clubs and private individuals, who
seldom had the special tools and machinery required for metal
construction. Moreover, wood is more easily repaired than metal.
It would be desirable, however, for metal (particularly duralumin,
which is used so much in the construction of engine-driven air
planes) to be more used in glider construction, especially for the
fuselage. The metal tubes have more uniform strength than
wood, which is known to be subject to great fluctuations, depend
ing on its specific gravity and moisture content.
In using wood, therefore, the calculations must be based on
the lowest of the given strength values. Of course, only per
fectly air-dried wood can be used. It must be absolutely free
from knots and must be cut parallel to the grain. Even air-dried
wood is subject, however, to "working," i.e., if the humidity of
the air increases, the wood absorbs moisture and expands; in the
opposite case, the wood dries and shrinks. Those changes occur
chiefly at right angles to the grain, the wood "working" but very
little in the direction of the grain. Since we know these prop
erties of wood, we must adopt suitable precautions to prevent it
from working. In the first place, we must, wherever possible,
use plywood, which can be bought from the manufacturers in
thicknesses from i mm. (0.04 in.) up. Moreover, the finished
frame should be painted or varnished and all external parts care
fully shellacked. The strength and physical characteristics of
ordinary woods differ greatly and their uses differ correspond
ingly. Full information is given in Table I.
Metal Parts.—Duralumin and steel tubes are used for con
trol rods; S.A.E. 1025 sheet metal for fittings; wire "ropes" for
operating the rudders and cables for bracing the wings. Du-
METAL PARTS FOR GLIDERS 215
ralumin is an alloy of aluminum, copper, manganese and mag
nesium, the aluminum constituting about 90 per cent. Its specific
gravity is about 2.8, and its breaking strength about 3500-4500
kg./cm. 2 (50000-64000 Ib./sq. in). For airplane and glider
construction, it is as good as, if not superior to steel tubing on
account of its much lower density. Detailed information on the
weights of steel tubes and dural tubes are given in accompanying
tables. Duralumin parts, due to their low-melting point (650° C.
= 1202° F ), can be welded with oxyacetylene or hydrogen torch
and with great care though mechanical joints such as rivets or
bolts are favored by most users of Dural in preference to welding.
The term (cable) denotes a number of small wires twisted
into a bundle, while the term (rope) denotes a cable made by
twisting together several strands of several wires each. The
latter is more flexible than the former and is always used when
it has to pass over pulleys. However, since it stretches more than
the former, the former is almost always used for the direct trans
mission of forces. For soarer and glider construction, diameters
of 2 to 5 mm. (0.08 to 0.02 in.) suffice for either kind of cables.
It is hardly necessary to mention that both kinds must be made
of steel since iron wires stretch too much and are not strong
enough, nor elastic enough to bend around small pulleys. The
strengths of both kinds of cables are given in Tables III and IV.
Rusty wires generally have somewhat less than half the strength
of bright ones.
Steels Used in Aircraft Construction.—Three principal types
of steels are used in aircraft to-day. The earliest efforts to adopt
steel were made with the ordinary commercial grade, commonly
referred to as cold rolled steel or cold drawn steel, having a carbon
content of approximately o. 10 to 0.20 per cent. This material
is easily worked, either hot or cold, and can be cold drawn to a
tensile strength in the neighborhood of 60,000 to 70,000 Ib. per
sq. in., with a fairly good elongation. However, in brazing,
welding or hot forming this steel, the strength increment intro
duced by cold working is removed, leaving the material in the
fully annealed condition, where its strength may be as low as
40,000 Ib. per sq. in. This was inadequate for even the earliest
military types of motored craft. Specifications were therefore
revised by the Army and Navy to call for steel having a carbon
content of 0.20 to 0.30 per cent, known as steel No. 1025. This
steel, after the heat of welding, etc., retains a tensile strength of
not less than 55,000 Ib. per sq. in. Its working and welding
qualities are practically as good as those of the low carbon steel.
As this material is plentiful and of moderate cost, it is suitable
for metal fittings of gliders in even the lighter gauges such as
No. 16 and No. 18.
Either of the foregoing steels is a "heavy" metal of construc
tion because of its low strength-weight factor. Commercial steel
is still used by a few aircraft builders, perhaps through a mistaken
idea of economy. Steel No. 1025 is employed where the deter
mining factor is modulus of elasticity and not strength. Its
greater mechanical accuracy, uniformity and reliability make it
preferable to the commercial grade, aside from its physical
properties.
Chrome-molybdenum steel No. 4i3oX is well on the way to
displace both and is to-day virtually the standard material of
construction for powered aircraft in this country. The danger
STEEL USED IN AIRCRAFT CONSTRUCTION 217
of mixing No. 1025 steel with No. 4i3oX steel in stores or dur
ing fabrication has led many airplane manufacturers to abandon
the former altogether, using only No. 4i3oX steel throughout.
Chrome-molybdenum steel was carefully studied by the Army
Air Service and was found to possess remarkable properties. It
can be cold drawn to the very thin walls required in aircraft con
struction, can readily be bent or formed to desired shapes hot or
cold, has excellent welding characteristics and retains a relatively
high strength after being subjected to the heat of welding. Fur
thermore, it responds exceptionally well to heat treatment, devel
oping physical properties better than ordinarily expected of an
alloy steel of similar or comparable carbon content. Wherever
heat treating facilities are available and steel tubing is used for
glider fuselages, the use of chrome-molybdenum tube will result
in a material weight saving.
Strength-Weight Factors of Aircraft Materials.—Some typi
cal strength-weight factors are given in the accompanying table.
It will be seen that alloy steel when heat treated to a tensile strength
of 150,000 Ib. per sq. in. is equal in lightness as a material of
construction to duralumin. This does not take into consideration
savings in weight possible by welding steel as compared with
riveting duralumin joints. Steels which are heat treated to a
higher strength than 150,000 are "lighter" than duralumin. Good
chrome-molybdenum steel may be readily heat treated to a strength
of 200,000 Ib. per sq. in. with a yield point of 170,000 or over
and an excellent ductility and toughness. When correctly treated
it is not brittle and has a high resistance to fatigue.
2i8 A B C OF GLIDING AND SAILFLYING
TYPICAL STRENGTH-WEIGHT FACTORS * OF

AIRCRAFT MATERIALS
Wrought Metals (Tension)
S. W. F.
Music wire—o.oi-inch in diameter.................. 400,000/7.85 = 51.0
Alloy steel, heat treated, high ...................... 200,000/7.85 = 25.0
Alloy steel—heat treated, medium .................. 150,000/7.85 = 19.0
Duralumin ....... ................................ 55,000/2.85 = 19.0
Magnesium alloy .................................. 34,000/1.75 = 19.0
Alloy steel—normalized ........................... 95,000/7.85= 12.1
Mild steel—normalized ............................ 55,000/7.85 = 7.0
Low carbon steel—commercial ..................... 40,000/7.85 = 5.1
Aluminum—annealed ............ ................. I2,ooo/ 2.7 = 4.4
Wood (compression)
Balsam ........................................... 2,200/0.12 = 18.0

Douglas fir .................. ................... 6,000/0.54 = i i.o
Spruce ........................................... 4,300/0.43 = 10.0
Oak, white ..... ................................. 5,900/0.74 = 8.0
* Obtained by dividing ultimate strength in thousands of pounds per square
inch, by specific gravity. (Table by Horace C. Knerr.)
STRENGTH OF MATERIALS RECOMMENDED FOR GLIDERS

The strength of the materials recommended for metal parts of
gliders and sailplanes are given below. Heat treated alloy steel
has the highest strength-weight ratio, being followed by heat
treated Dural, which has a strength-weight ratio about 20 per
cent less than heat treated alloy steel.
COLD ROLLED MEDIUM CARBON STEEL (SAE 1025)

55,000..............Tensile strength
36,000.............. Yield point
90,000..............Bearing strength (except hinges)
60,000..............Bearing strength for hinges and where
subjected to stress reversals
55,000.............. Compression strength
35,000.............. Shearing strength
NOTE.—All strength values given in Ibs. per sq. in.
HEAT TREATED METALS 219
HEAT TREATED DURALUMIN (i?ST)
Sheet Bar Tubing
55,000 {55.000 (*£" diam and below) n
°°' 1 50,000 (above W diam.) °°'
( 30,000 (Z/A" diam. and below) . ,,
3°>000 1 25,000 (above ft" diam.) ^°°° ^lcld P°mt
75,000 75,ooo 75,ooo bearing str.
27,000 (above He" thick) -^-^ ^ u
2o;ooo (below %e» thick) 3O'°°0 ^'^ shearm^ str-
CHROME MOLYBDENUM STEEL TUBING (AS RECEIVED)

95,000..............Tensile strength
60,000.............. Yield point
80,000.............. Tension near welds
50,000.............. Shear near welds
60,000.............. Shear unwelded
125,000..............Bearing, near welds
140,000..............Bearing, unwelded
HEAT TREATED ALLOY STEELS

(Chrome Molybdenum, chrome vanadium, 3^2% Nickel S.A.E. 2330)
Ultimate Yield Bearing Shearing
Tension Point Strength Strength
100,000 80,000 140,000 65,000
125,000 105,000 175,000 80,000
150,000 125,000 190,000 100,000
180,000 140,000 200,000 115,000
The bearing strength to be reduced to 125,000 near welds.
Cloth and Dope.—Light, closely woven linen or cotton cloth

is used for covering the wings and sometimes the fuselage, linen
being preferred by some because of its longer fibers, its higher
strength and greater durability. The fabric used should be strong
and light and fine-meshed. In any case the fabric must contain
no starch sizing nor chemical fillers as finish, since this would
prevent the penetration of the "dope." The dopes now commonly
used are the cellulose-nitrate and cellulose-acetate which can be
bought ready for application, either clear or pigmented, from
several reliable manufacturers and supply houses. The nitrate
dopes are cheaper but acetate dopes are better for first coats
because they penetrate the fabric better. In the liquid state this
substance is highly inflammable and must be handled accordingly.
On doping, the fabric becomes taut, small wrinkles vanish and its
surface becomes smooth and perfectly water-tight. The dope
can be easily applied with a brush. In about an hour the doped
surface is perfectly dry and taut. Its strength is increased about
20 per cent by the customary three coats used on gliders though
two coats of dope and one of spar varnish are believed adequate
by some glider builders.
Glue.—Cold glue is used exclusively, since this is less affected
by water. It is a mixture of casein and chalk, often with the
addition of special substances like ammonia, resin, etc., and is
sold in the powder form in sealed receptacles. This powder is
mixed with an equal quantity of water, taking care to avoid the
formation of lumps, and allowed to stand 15-20 minutes before
using. Special attention is given to the consistency of the mix
ture, since thin glue does not possess the requisite strength. Only
the quantity required for immediate use should be mixed as it
begins to lose its strength after a few hours. Any that is more
than a day old should not be used. The powder must be kept in
closed boxes to protect it from moisture.
Protecting Fittings.—The fittings, etc., can be protected from
rust by plating with copper or nickel, though the most durable
covering is zinc or cadmium which is also proof against salt air.
A good oil paint is likewise effective. The metal is cleaned and
covered with a thin quick-drying linseed-oil paint containing some
PROPERTIES OF COMMON WOODS 221
TABLE I
PROPERTIES AND USES OF THE MOST COMMON WOODS
Spec. Gravity
Kind Color Properties and Uses
Dry Green
Birch 0-75 0-95 White Tough, difficult to split, not very hard,
to durable in dry form. Used as ply
Yellow wood to cover fuselage and leading
edge of wing, also as webs for spars
and struts.
Ash 0.90 1.05 Gray Hard and tough, difficult to split,
to strong, flexible, elastic, durable. Ex
Grayish cellent for runners, edge strips, front
White fuselage spars or any parts to be
bent or strongly stressed.
Pine 0.65 0.85 Yellowish Soft, easily split, pitchy, quite durable.
White Used for spar and strut flanges,
to bulkheads, fuselage and auxiliary
Reddish spars, struts, etc.
Spruce 0.50 0.80 Yellowish Soft, easily spilt, pitchy, durable.
White Shrinks but little. Suitable for fuse
to lage spars, hollow and grooved wing
Reddish spars. Difficult to obtain free from
knots.
Fir 0.60 0.85 Whitish Soft, tough, not very pitchy, durable
when dry, shrinks little, splits easily,
somewhat harder than spruce. Same
uses as pine and spruce.
Elm 0.70 0.95 Yellowish Hard, very tough and strong, elastic,
to durable, difficult to split. Shrinks
Brownish but little. For uses, see Ash.
Maple 0.70 o.oo White Hard and strong, tough, difficult to
split, durable when dry. Used as
plywood for all purposes.
good coloring material. When thoroughly dry, a coat of varnish

is added. Thick coats of paint cause blistering. Brace wires
can likewise be covered with anti-rust varnish. Control cables
and pulleys are best lubricated with acid-free mineral oils like
graphite impregnated vaseline, which must be frequently renewed.
TABLE II
STRENGTH COEFFICIENTS OF DIFFERENT KINDS OF WOOD
Tensile Strength
Compressive
Kind strength
Across With with grain
grain grain
kg./cm. 2 kg./cm. 2 kg./cm. 2

Ib./sq. in. Ib./sq. in. Ib./sq. in.
Ash ............. 20-50 850-1100 350-450

285-711 12090-15646 4978-6401
Spruce .......... 20-40 500-800 250-400
285-569 7112-11379 3556-5689
Pine ............ 20-40 500-850 400-450
285-569 7112-12090 5689-6401
Fir ............. 20-40 500-900 300-400
285-569 7112-12801 4267-5689
Elm ............ 30-50 600-900 300-400
4271-711 8534-12801 4267-5689
Shearing Strength
Kind Bending
strength Across With
grain grain
kg./cm.2 kg./cm.2 kg./cm.2

Ib./sq. in. Ib./sq. in. Ib./sq. in.
Ash ............. 400-000 200 30

5689-12801 2845 427
Spruce .......... 400-500 250 50
5689-7112 3556 7ii
Pine, ............ IOOO-IIOO 300 60
14224-15646 4267 853
Fir ............. 500-800 250 50
7112-11379 3556 7ii
Elm ........... 450-1000 300 6n
6401-14224 4267 853
MATERIALS OF CONSTRUCTION 223
TABLE III
WIRE CABLES
Diameter of Cable Diameter of Wire Breaking Strength
mm. in. mm. in. kg. Ib.
2.8 O.I 1 02 0.40 0.0157 1160 2558

3-1 0.1220 0.45 0.0177 1470 3241
3-5 0.1378 0.50 0.0197 1816 4004
3.9 0.1535 0.55 0.0217 2190 4829
4.2 0.1654 0.60 0.0236 2615 5766
4-5 0.1772 0.65 0.0256 3070 6770
5-0 0.1969 0.70 0.0276 356o 7850
The individual structural parts and fittings naturally depend

on the design and must be specially made. Bolts, shackles,
thimbles, turnbuckles, screw eyes, can be bought ready-made.
The illustrations require no explanation. The strength of the
turnbuckles is given in Table VII.
TABLE IV
WIRE ROPES
Diameter No. of No. of Diameter of Breaking

of rope wires strands each wire strength
mm. in. r mm. in. kg. Ib.
1.8 0.0709 42 6 0.20 0.00787 330 728

2-3 0.0906 42 6 0.25 0.00984 5io 1125
2.4 0.0945 72 6 O.20 0.00787 565 1247
2.7 0.1063 42 6 0.30 0.01181 740 1632
3-0 0.1181 72 6 0.25 0.00984 885 I95i
3-2 0.1260 42 6 0.35 0.01377 IOIO 2273
3*6 0.1417 42 6 0.40 0.01574 1300 2867
TABLE V
WEIGHTS OF STEEL TUBES
Thickness of Walls
Outside 0.5 mm. i.oo mm. 1.5 mm. 2.0 mm.

diameter 0.02 in. 0.04 in. 0.06 in. 0.08 in.
mm. kg./m. kg./m. kg./m. kg./m.

in. Ib./ft. Ib./ft. Ib./ft. Ib./ft.
10 0.116 0.221 0.312 0.391

0-39 0.078 0.149 0.210 0.263
20 0.239 0.466 0.679 0.882
0.79 0.161 0.313 0.456 0.593
30 0.361 O.7II 1.048 1.372
1.18 0.243 0.478 0.704 0.922
35 0.423 0.833 1.231 1.616
1.38 0.284 0.560 0.827 i. 086
TABLE VI
WEIGHTS OF DURALUMIN TUBES
Thickness of Walls
Outside i.o mm. 1.5 mm. 2.0 mm. 2.5 mm.. 3.0 mm.
diameter 0.04 in. 0.06 in. 0.08 in. 0.98 in. 1.18 in.
mm. kg./m. kg./m. kg./m. kg./m. kg./m.

in. Ib./ft. Ib./ft. Ib./ft. Ib./ft. Ib./ft.
10 0.085 0.133 0.185 0.241 0.301

0.39 0.057 0.089 0.124 0.162 O.202
20 0. 162 0.248 0.340 0-434 0.533
0.79 0.109 0.167 0.228 0.292 0.358
30 0.240 0.365 0.494 0.627 0.786
1.18 0.161 0.245 0.332 0.421 0.528
40 0.316 0.480 0.682 0.820 0.997
1.58 O.2I2 0.323 0.458 0-551 0.670
STRENGTH OF TURNBUCKLES 225
TABLE VII
STRENGTH OF TURNBUCKLES
d 42 L H E F
Diameter Diameter Total Length Inside Outside
of screw of length of of diameter diameter Maximum
thread nut turnbuckle thread of eye of eye load
mm. mm. mm. mm. mm. mm. kg.

in. in. in. in. in. in. Ib.
6-35 10.20 114.1 50.8 475 12.45* 3200

0.25 0.40 4-49 2.0O 0.19 0.49 7055
6.35 10.20 114.1 50.8 475 12.45* 2400
0.25 0.40 4-49 2.OO 0.19 0.49 5291
4-76 7-50 101.5 44-5 3-21 9-53 1475
0.19 0.30 4.00 175 0.13 0.38 3252
476 6.78 82.5 31.8 3.21 9-47 IOOO
0.19 0.27 3-25 1.25 0.13 0-37 2205
476 746 101.5 44-5 3-20 9.42 1475
0.19 0.29 4.00 175 0.13 0.37 3252
4>76 6.85 82.5 31.8 3.21 9-53 1250
0.19 0.27 3-25 1.25 0.13 0.38 2756
3-97 5.84 66.7 28.6 2.28 7.83* IOOO
0.16 0.23 2.63 i.i3 0.09 0.31 2205
5.84 66.7 28.6 2.28 7.83* 975
3-97
0.16 0.23 2.63 I-I3 0.09 0.31 2150
3.18 5.96 50.8 2O.6 1.83 6-33 570
0.13 0.23 2.00 0.81 0.07 0.25 1257
3-i8 4.90 50.8 22.2 1.83 6.05 875
0.13 0.19 2.OO 0.87 0.07 0.24 1929
-2.38 37i 44-5 I9.I 1.63 473* 425
0.09 0.15 1.75 075 0.06 0.19 937
2.38 371 44-5 I9-I 1.63 473* 400
0.09 0.15 1-75 075 0.06 0.19 882
* Special steel.
TABLE VIII
WEIGHT OF SHEET IRON AND STEEL
Thickness "Wrought Iron Soft Steel Hard Steel
mm. in. kff./m.2 Ib./sq. ft. kg-./m.- Ib./sq. ft. kg-./m.- Ib./sq. ft.
o.S 0.01969 3-00 0.7988 3-93 0.8049 3-93 0.8049

I.O 0.03937 7.80 1.5976 7.85 1.6078 7-85 1.6078
i-5 0.05906 11.70 2.3964 11.87 2.4312 11.77 2.4107
2.O 0.07874 15.60 3.1952 15-70 •3.2156 15.70 3.2156
The full-page construction drawing at Fig. 56 shows the various

parts of the fuselage of a typical training type glider and indi
cates the location of the various main and auxiliary structural ele
ments, the material of which the parts are made and outlines the
location of the various pulleys and guides for the control cables.
Liquid Marine Glues.—Liquid marine glues are divided into
the drying and the non-drying types. The drying glue does not
harden but dries on the surface, the body of the glue which is
protected from the air retaining its resiliency indefinitely. The
non-drying glue loses some of its stickiness when exposed to the
air but never becomes dry. Non-drying glue has no adhesive
strength, and when it is placed between two pieces of wood they
are easily pulled apart, the glue adhering to both pieces and form
ing in long strings. This type of glue is used in places where
planks will weave and work together and where there is a great
amount of expansion and contraction, and is especially valuable
when used between double-planking and on battens. Marine glue
of the drying type is used for a waterstop where a good adhesive is
required in addition to resiliency, and must withstand expansion
and contraction caused by weather conditions.
CHAPTER ELEVEN
DETAILS OF TRAINING GLIDER CONSTRUCTION

Typical Airfoil Curve and Ribs—Assembling the Wings—Covering the
Wings—Securing Fabric Covering—Doping the Wings—Forms of
Bracing and Control Wires—Training Glider Wire and Cable Arrange
ment—Aligning and Rigging a Glider.
Typical Airfoil Curve and Ribs.—The curve of a typical air

foil for a training glider with dimensions from the datum line
at various stations given at the top of Fig. 57 will enable any
one to lay out a full size pattern or jig to which the ribs may be
made to conform. Three types of ribs are used. Rib A is a
compression rib and is strengthened by plywood reinforcements
at the nose and adjacent the rear spar so a box section as shown
is produced. To make the ribs correctly to conform to the
proper wing curve, it will be helpful to make the layout full size
on a piece of %-inch thick whitewood or plywood and finish the
board accurately after the outline is made to the shape desired.
The outline of the rib construction jig should be about 1/3 2 mcn
larger all around than the airfoil template. The jig is made on
a bench top or any straight board that is sufficiently wide and has
% 6 -inch thick wood blocks cut to the shape of all the open
spaces in the rib including the spaces for the spars and so fastened
to the base piece by brads or wood screws that when the rib cap
strips and vertical and diagonal bracing pieces are laid in the
spaces between and outside of the blocks, the complete rib assembly
227
Airfoil
Plywood
*^,_Space for
Rear Spar
Space for ., ,,„,

Front Spar //^Plywood IA,_ L Rib-"A" Section C-C
Web
Fabnc gluedon with "Dope "
-iJ'k— "——>k——"—>k— -——^---^<—
Use /"x '/4 " Spruce stock for Ribs.

Kip to Correct Widths. 'I*"x s/e" pj^<>p«-^j«r•• R-R
D D
for KRibs- 3//e"x'/4"fbr"ft"and"CRibs.
All Gussets and Webs 'lie"Plywood.
^n Aileron Horn
- 3/l6",, , , ,
Make two of spruce
395/d"-
Rib"C" B Aileron
Fig. 57-—Details of Airfoil Curve at Top. Cross Section and Construc

tion of Various Types of Ribs for Typical Training Glider Wing of the
Two-Spar Form with Front Spar Near Entering Edge Below.
TRAINING GLIDER CONSTRUCTION 229
is produced by the matching pieces and a permanent assembly
is secured by gluing and bradding the gusset plates of Kc-inch
birch plywood as indicated for rib A and fastening the reenforce-
ments of % 6 -inch square spruce to the plywood web for ribs B
and C, and further strengthening the assembly with plywood
gussets glued to the joints.
The rib designated as "B" in Fig. 57 is a former rib and
two or three are used to each compression rib shown at "A."
These are of different construction. The central web is of ply
wood and is reenforced by cap strips and diagonal bracing of
spruce glued and bradded in place as indicated. Spaces are left
for the spars at the nose and near the trailing edge as shown.
Some glider constructors leave out the plywood web and build
up the rib of j^-inch by J^-inch cap strips and bracing, using
only the plywood gussets or bracing pieces. While the rib is not
as strong as that with the plywood web it is adequate and con
siderably cheaper to build. Former ribs are spaced on about
12-inch centers and each bay is composed of two or three former
or B ribs between each pair of compression members or A ribs.
The rib shown at Fig. 57C is the type needed at that portion
of the wings where the ailerons are attached. The rib cap strips
terminate at the rear spar instead of at the trailing edge molding
as is the case with ribs "A" and "B" and the aileron frame is
built up with a short spar and with short ribs composed of upper
and lower cap strips with vertical and diagonal strut bracing and
with plywood pieces to strengthen the assembly. Some con
structors use the plywood web only at the end of the wing frame
and open frame ribs at other points. Aileron horns may be made
of spruce y^ inch thick or may be cut from sheet metal i/j 6 inch
thick, such as Dural or mild steel, reenforced with wood to pre
vent buckling. The aileron frames are connected to the rear spar
of the wing by hinge joints of various types, the simplest being
an eyebolt in one piece and a coacting yoke to fit it in the other,
two or more being used, depending on the length of the aileron.
Assembling the Wings.—When the wing ribs are completed
and the spars planed and properly shaped, the work of assembling
the wing can go ahead. Lay out spars and drill for all fitting
bolts Slide ribs into position, bolt all fittings into place and glue
ribs to spars using shims wherever necessary to insure a solid
fit. Be sure to use reinforcement blocks and plywood gussets
wherever indicated at the juncture points of ribs and spars. Insert
trailing edge strip and glue into place if of wood. At this point
assemble all internal wing bay bracing wires, tighten wires and
align wing true to % inch. Install aileron cables through pulleys
and see that everything is ready before putting on fabric. Take
care in making ailerons. Make ribs with same care as in wing
and assemble complete, cutting out aileron horn from hard wood
or fitting regular aircraft aileron horn that may be available as
standard fittings. Spars of solid section are usually of spruce
y2 inch or fyfa inch thick and about 5 inches deep for the front and
3 /l2 inches deep for the rear spar.
It is important to keep the wing ribs from shifting their posi
tion. Spacing strips glued and bradded to the flange of the spar
will hold the rib cap strips firmly in position. Compression ribs
must fit the spars accurately. The wood frame should be well
shellacked and the rib cap strips covered with narrow tape tacked
COVERING THE WINGS 231
in place before the cloth covering is applied. All metal fittings,
unless made of Dural or stainless steel should be covered with
enamel. Dural or aluminum fittings and tubes, when used in wing
construction are coated with Linoil.
Covering the Wings.—Wings, ailerons, and other control
surfaces can now be covered. Many builders use grade "A"
mercerized cotton, drawn tight and cemented at all edges to
framework and to ribs on rear half of lower surface, with air
craft dope. A special cotton fabric, of somewhat lighter weight
than used in powered airplanes is obtainable and is amply strong
for gliders. The nose of the wing should be covered with ply
wood bent to shape, glued in place and bradded with small cigar
box nails to filler strips on top and bottom of spar between ribs.
Bend forward edge of fabric. Slit fabric at proper points for
guy wires and control cables, and reenforce with fabric patches,
and with thin leather patches stitched in place to act as a guide
for the control cables if internal pulleys are used. These are
not needed for the guy wires. The leather patch has a slot, similar
to a buttonhole, for the control cable to pass through if the guide
sheaves are inside the wing frame.
There are two methods of covering a wing frame. The fabric
may be sewed together to form a sheet of the proper width and
of sufficient length to go completely around the wing. It may be
cut in two pieces, one corresponding to the material needed to
cover the top of the wing, the other, the bottom of the wing
and these are sewed together to form a bag open at the fuselage
end and shaped at the top with the cut-out for the aileron. The
covering is cut to paper patterns when this method is employed.
The wing frame is slipped into the bag just as a hand is pushed
into a mitten and the open end is sewn up. The other method
is to fold the sheet around the wing frame, sewing it in place
after it has been located with tacks.
Securing Fabric Covering.—The covering, in the form of a
wide sheet, having been previously stitched and all seams care
fully examined and the linen or mercerized cotton being quite
dry, it will be drawn on to the plane starting behind leading edge;
half, of course, will be on the upper side and half on the lower.
The fabric will be carefully and evenly pulled taut, and tacked
down temporarily, all seams being straightened by pulling the
fabric at each end. After this, all surplus fabric will be cut off
and the two ends of the fabric sewn up, taking care to turn in
the edges of the fabric, the joint being along the center of the
trailing edge, and, where the aileron gap occurs, along the top
edge of the rear spar. Having sewn up all the edges neatly,
the next operation is "stringing" the wing to keep the fabric tight
to the ribs. This is done with a light, special flax string which
is passed through the fabric from the top to the bottom round
each rib about every four inches and knotted at each turn, taking
care to knot up fairly tight.
The method generally used in covering airplane wings when
tacks are used is to tack through strips of narrow fabric tape
which acts as a spacing member to prevent the tack heads from
breaking the linen, the tacks being spaced about 2 inches apart
in addition to the stitching around the ribs. A certain amount of
the "dope" penetrating the linen will stick it to the ribs. Wings
that have been tested to destruction demonstrate that this method
of fastening is extremely strong, and the writer has seen air
plane wings that have been damaged in wrecks in which the main
DOPING THE WINGS 233
spar has fractured and yet the fabric was still held securely to the
ribs. One point to be avoided is making holes, with the stringing
needle, where it is not intended a string should pass through, the
only hole permissible being the one where the string passes
through. When the stitching is employed, the cord and knots
on top and bottom of ribs are covered with narrow strips of
"pinked" fabric about two inches wide which is securely "doped"
into place in order to provide a smooth covering and to lessen the
skin friction. In order to give a smooth finish to the wing after
doping it is sometimes smoothed down with sandpaper and a coat
of spar varnish applied. When this much is done, weigh each
wing, to make sure that they are reasonably equal in poundage.
If not, check up to find the cause of the weight difference. If
the wings are duplicated, they should weigh the same. A varia
tion of several ounces is permissible.
Doping the Wings.—It is best, if possible, to dope planes in
a room of moderate temperature, and one where this temperature
may be maintained, and that may be kept reasonably dust tight.
The wing is laid on bearers running longitudinally under the
spars, and these can be supported on horses. The dope can be
put into galvanized paint cans for convenience and brushes about
4 inches wide should be used. Common, or cheap brushes should
not be used as the hairs are likely to come out and spoil the work.
Amateurs should not dope wings on rainy or damp days. Wait
till fair weather.
To start doping take a fair amount of dope on the brush,
and work it from the leading edge to the trailing edge, and
then from left to right. Spread it evenly, taking care not to start
too big a patch at once. In "this manner cover the whole plane,
after which a suitable time interval must elapse before proceed
ing with the next coat, the interval depending on temperature and
humidity and the solvents and thinners used in the dope.
There are two types of dope in use at present. These are
known as cellulose nitrate and cellulose acetate dopes. The latter
is produced from cotton treated with acetic anhydride and acetic
acid, while the other is made in a manner similar to the produc
tion of guncotton through the use of cotton treated with nitric
and sulphuric acids. The acetyl or the nitrate group is taken up
by the cellulose to make a new compound which is soluble in
certain solvents. The treated cotton is then dissolved in solvents
such as methyl, amyl, or ethyl alcohol, acetone, etc., subsequently
adding other non-solvent thinners such as benzol, alcohol or
benzine. Different kinds of softeners and fire-resisting salts are
then added to the dopes. These are usually high-boiling, slow-
evaporating liquids. Diacetone alcohol is a representative of
this class. Triphenyl phosphate is used for its fireproofing value.
A small quantity of urea is sometimes used to prevent the acidity
which may be caused over periods of storage. Fire resisting dope
is of value on motored gliders but is not necessary on the usual
glider or sailplane as the fire risk is practically nil if no motor
is installed.
The present practice in doping powered airplane wings is to
apply first two coats of acetate dope because of the higher fire-
resisting value and because of the fact that the acetyl radical
present is ordinarily not injurious to fabric. There is then
applied three coats of cellulose nitrate dope. A very taut surface
is obtained. Colored enamel is then applied. With this practice
no difficulty has been experienced with scaling or cracking of the
DOPING THE WINGS 235
wing enamel. On the other hand, when a number of straight
coats of acetate dope are used very serious scaling and cracking
of the subsequently applied enamel may take place. The cellu
lose nitrate dope, moreover, is very much cheaper than the ace
tate dope, is readily available, has greater covering properties and
gives greater tautness to the fabric. For gliders, two coats of
nitrate dope and a light coat of spar varnish will be sufficient.
While it is advisable to hand brush the first coat of dope to
insure good penetration of the fabric, subsequent coats may be
air brushed or sprayed on if a spray outfit is available.
As the drying proceeds the substance contracts and brings the
threads more closely together. While from four to five coats of
"dope" are applied to the surface of the linen of airplane wings
the increase in weight due to the use of the "dope" is only about
one and one-half ounces per square yard. The increase of weight
when two coats are used on glider wings will be about half this
value. The "doping" is said to increase the strength of the
fabric by about 20 per cent (higher values are sometimes claimed)
as well as tightening it. Tautness is aerodynamically essential
and doping reduces the sag though with the materials now in use,
any surfaces deteriorating to a slackness sufficient to affect the
aerodynamical properties of the machine seriously would have
been condemned on their appearance. Another point which has
been somewhat neglected is the great extent to which the strength
of the wing structure is influenced by the tension of the doped
fabric upon it. In general, slackness of the dope will weaken
the wing structure, but on the other hand too great tautness will
lead to deformation or even fracture, especially of the light wing
structures used on gliders and sailplanes which are not and need
Non - flexible Cable with Plain
Lap Splice,Soldered Solid Aviator Wire with End Fittings
JDnrnfWSviN
Navy Splice -.Before "Soldering -

Round Swaged Wire and Terminals
Navy Splice -After Soldering
1st Step - Siip Wire Coil over

* Cable
Roebling Splice
2nd Step - Form Loop with Round
Nose Pliers or Tool
Navy Splice Flexible Cable 3rd Step - Slip Wire Coil over
End of Loop
Section _
4th Step - Bend over End of
Hard Wire
Solid Streamline Wire o>
Universal Clevis End How to Use Solid. Aviator Wire
Fig. 58. —Various Types of Bracing Wires and Cables Used in Aircraft Bracing and Control, Showing Splices
and Connections Used in U. S. Army Practice. Note Method of Using Solid Aviation Wire Shown at Lower
Right-hand Corner.
BRACING AND CONTROL WIRES 237
not be braced internally as strongly as the corresponding surfaces
of power propelled airplanes are.
Forms of Bracing and Control Wires.—The stays and
brace wires now in general use in aeronautical construction may
be divided into five classes: solid streamline wire, non-flexible
cable, flexible cable, round swaged wire, and solid aviator or
piano wire. The material used for interplane bracing and also
for the landing gear and empennage stays in powered airplanes
may be either streamline wire, or non-flexible cable consisting
of a number of strands of individual wires. For controls, and
particularly those which pass over comparatively small pulleys,
flexible cable usually is employed. This is quite similar in appear
ance to the non-flexible, except that its main strands, instead of
being wires, consist of a number of much smaller wires. Internal
braces or stays in the fuselage and wings are made of either
round swaged wire or solid aviator wire, some designers and
builders favoring one type and some the other.
One of the most serious difficulties encountered in using any
style of stay or brace is the proper looping and splicing of the
ends so that the terminal attachments will be as strong as the
wire itself. Various types of terminals are used in securing
the ends of the brace wires to the parts of the fuselage, wings,
etc. For instance, streamline and swaged wires are provided
with right- and lefthand threads at the ends, which screw into
clevises or internally threaded sleeves having yokes at the outer
ends that are secured to plates or eyes fastened to the fuselage or
other part to be braced. Adjustment is secured by turning the
wire itself, inasmuch as the clevis usually is attached to its mount
ing by a cross pin which prevents it from rotating. When the
238 A B C OF GLIDING AND SATLFLYING
proper adjustment has been reached, locknuts on the threaded ends
of the wires are screwed down tight against the clevises. The
type of terminal used with streamline wire is shown at 6 and
that for swaged rod at 9 in Fig. 58.
For either flexible or non-flexible cables, terminals usually are
made by bending the cable around thimbles and then securing
the free ends to the main part of the strand either by plain
soldering or by splicing, as shown in Fig. 58. The splicing
operation consists of separating the strands at the end of the
cable and also those of the body just below the point of the
thimble, and the interweaving the two sets of strands, so that
when pulled tight, they will form a compact joint as strong as
the cable itself. The splices may be soldered, although this is
not always considered necessary with some types of splice. They
also are usually served, or bound with fine wire or similar material
wound over the full length of the splice. A cable with thimbles
spliced into it at both ends is adjusted for length by means of
a turnbuckle between one end and its attachment.
Solid aviator wire is secured at each end by forming a loop
of the wire itself, slipping a flattened sleeve or ferrule over the
main wire and the loop end, and then bending back the end
alongside of the ferrule. The various steps in forming such a
terminal are shown in order at Fig. 58. Adjustment for length
in this case also is obtained by using a turnbuckle at one end.
The chief advantage of streamline wire is that it reduces the
parasite resistance. For this reason it is much used on war
planes, especially by the British and to some considerable extent
in the United States. It is only required, of course, for exposed
WIRE AND CABLE ARRANGEMENTS 239
places, such as interplane, landing gear and empennage braces
of airplanes.
In all soldering operations in connection with airplane cables
it is very importnat to use a .non-oxidizing flux. No flux con
taining any oxidizing acid should ever be employed as a cleaning
agent preparatory to soldering cable splices, especially on cables
where its removal would be difficult or where it might get in
between the strands and attack the metal. Soldering fluxes
specified at the present time, and which are satisfactory on tinned
wire, are stearic acid, stearic acid and rosin, or rosin dissolved
in a suitable solvent. Where an acid flux has been used, its
corrosive effect often may be neutralized by the application of
an alkaline solution, such as soda water. However, with stranded
cable, where the acid may be driven into the intersections between
the fine wires by the application of heat, it is questionable whether
any system of washing will eliminate or neutralize the acid.
Corrosion may therefore occur in the interior wires, while the
exterior appears to be in good condition.
Training Glider Wire and Cable Arrangements.—When
an open fuselage type glider is set up, there will be considerable
wiring to do. Some of this is structural in that it acts as bracing,
the remainder of the wires have to do with the control system.
The reader has been told that bracing is usually hard drawn high
tensile strength piano wire and that control cables are usually
% 2 "incn or /^-inch flexible so that they can pass over pulleys
easily. The top view of a primary type glider at Fig. 59 shows
a conventional layout. Cables extend from the rudder bar back
to the rudder control horns. Other cables extend from the stick
Top View.
Elevator —\ -Elevator Horn
Brace Wire~~'
<^JS~—Hinges
Elevator Control Wires —^^
--"-Fuse/age
Rudder Con fro/ Wires* ,Jail and Fuselage Brace Wires
Aileron Horn Center Section Aileron Horn

\ -Hinges-^..
— 5'——>i Aileron
Confro/
Aileron Confrol Wires Y
. 59.—Plan View of Typical Training Type Glider Showing Bracing and Control Wires Commonly Used.
This Glider Is Smaller Than the Dickson Design But General Arrangement of Bracing Wires Is the Same.
WIRE AND CABLE ARRANGEMENTS 241
controlled lever to the ailerons and from the stick directly back
to the elevators. The diagram at the top of Fig. 60 shows one
arrangement of control wires in which the elevators are actuated
by levers at the end of a cross shaft and the stick is so jointed
that it can be swung from side to side to actuate the ailerons.
The scheme outlined may be used in either gliders, sailplanes or
motored airplanes.
The control cable arrangement shown at Fig. 61 is that gen
erally employed on single longeron fuselage types of gliders.
The rudder control is the same as in the plan previously described.
The control stick is pivoted to a support consisting of a fork
attached to a tube "A" and the tube carries an arm which is
rigidly fastened to it. The tube is slotted to permit the lower
end of the stick to be rocked back and forth and actuate the cable
passing through the tube, over the pulley at the front end and
from that point over the lower guiding pulleys to the point
where it joins the V extending from the control horns below
the elevator surface. The portion of the cable that passes through
the rocking tube "A" which has an oscillating or partial rotating
movement on its axis leads over the upper pair of guide pulleys
and back to the V of the cable extending from the upper control
horns of the elevators.
The aileron control is by the arm or rocking lever that is
fastened to the tube A. The arm is rocked by moving the stick
from side to side. The control cable from the right side of the
arm passes over the rear pulley and makes a right angle turn over
the lower wing pulley to the lower control horn of the left aileron.
The top control horns of the ailerons are joined by a "follow
through" cable so that when one aileron moves up, the other tilts
down. From the lower control horn of the right aileron the
cable passes over pulleys to the left arm attached to the rocking
tube. This hook-up is such that when the top of the lever is
pushed to the high side, the aileron on that side of the wing will
be tilted up to decrease the lift and that on the low wing will be
tilted down to increase the lift. This arrangement of control
wiring is used on the Dickson glider, described in some detail in
the following chapter with comprehensive working drawings.
The simplified diagram shown at the bottom of Fig. 61 out
lines a typical bracing wire arrangement. It will be apparent by
study of this plan that the wing must be braced to withstand both
lift and drag loads and that the fuselage must be braced to main
tain the proper alignment of wing and fuselage. The wing spars
must be exactly at right angles to the fuselage longerons. The fly
ing loads are carried by wires extending from fittings on the wing
spars down to a suitable anchorage on the keel. These wires
are opposed by wires extending from the top of the pylon to
attachment points on the top of the wing that are just above
the similar points on the lower part of the wing. The load
carrying wires are known as "flying" or lift wires and are stressed
while the glider is in the air. The opposing wires are known
as landing wires and are stressed when the glider is resting on
its skid or making a landing. Of course, the landing wires
oppose the pull of the flying wires.
We have seen that a glider wing is subjected to both lift and
drag forces when the glider is in flight. The resistance or drag
(which tends to move the wings backwards) may be taken by
external wires extending from the nose of the keel to the fittings
Rudder—
Elevator
D i a g ra m
showing Control Wires of
Glider are the same as in
a motored Airoplane.
Rudder Bar
Aileron-
Rudder
Bracing Wires of Glider •Brace Wire
Stabilizer- —-j
-Stabilizer
Lone/ing Wires brace Wire
Tail Brace
Wires
Flying and Landing

Wires prevent
Twisting of Aerofoil
Flying Wires-
Drag Wire—-:
--Aerofoil or Wing
Fig. 60.—Diagram at the Top Shows One Method of Connecting Up

the Control Surfaces and Their Actuating Means by Cables That May
Be Used Either on Gliders or on Motored Airplanes. The Lower Illus
tration Shows the Bracing Wires on Which the Structural Strength
and Alignment of Any Training Glider Depends, Control Cables Are
Not Shown in This View to Simplify It.
of the flying wires on the rear spar. Part of the stress is then
carried to the front spar by the compression ribs of the wing,
the pull of the drag wires is opposed by tail brace wires extending
from the rear wing spar flying wire fittings to the extreme rear
of the fuselage upper longeron and also to an intermediate point
on the top longeron. All brace wires should be provided with a
turnbuckle to insure that they will be properly tensioned. Some
times the fuselage may be a Pratt truss using vertical compression
members or spacers between the upper and lower longerons and
wire cross bracing, but more often it is a Warren truss with
diagonal and vertical brace members of wood or tubing between
the longerons.
It is sometimes necessary to brace the empennage. This is
usually done with wires corresponding to the lift and landing
wires of the wings; one pair extending from the rudder post to
opposite points on the stabilizer rear spar and opposing wires
from similar points under the stabilizer spar to the rear post of
the fuselage. If no stabilizer is fitted to the glider, a pair of
bracing wires extend from the cross piece to which the elevators
are hinged to a point on the top longeron of the fuselage. In
the diagram at the bottom of Fig. 60, no control wires are shown
to simplify details of the bracing wires.
Round wire and cable bracing has been used on training gliders
because their flying speed is so low that its resistance is negligible
and because such wiring is cheaper than the drawn or swaged
streamline section wire bracing so popular in powered airplane
construction. When gliders are turned out on a quantity basis,
streamline wiring which does away with turnbuckles or splices
should be popular. In some gliders, the flying and landing wires
ALIGNING AND RIGGING A GLIDER 245
are replaced by a pair of streamline section tubing lift struts,
these being capable of carrying either flying or landing loads.
Tubing is also used on some gliders to brace the empennage.
Aligning and Rigging a Glider.—The alignment and rigging
of a training glider is simple. The usual glider has no dihedral
and the angle of incidence is determined by the location of the
RIDGIDLY FASTENED TO TUBE A
TUBE A ROTATES ON
_ITS AXIS
VERTICAL/
Courtesy o^fcviation Mechanics "New York RUDDER
Fig. 61.—A Simple and Popular Hook-up of the Control Surfaces and
Actuating Elements Favored by Primary Training Glider Designers.
Vertical Rudder Is Removed from Its Correct Position Between Ele
vators to Prevent Confusion of Lines in Drawing.
spar fittings on the fuselage. Dihedral may be easily allowed

for if provided by the adjustment of the landing and flying wires.
To increase dihedral, flying or lift wires are lengthened and their
opposing or landing wires are shortened. The opposite procedure
will decrease or reduce dihedral. In order to make sure that the
airfoil or wing will not be twisted, the landing wires on each
side should be of the same length and the flying wires must also
correspond. If the wing tip is high on one side, the flying wires
will be longer than those on the other side and the landing wires
will be shorter than the corresponding set.
To insure that the wing spars are at right angles to the fuselage
longerons, the fuselage brace wires must be adjusted to the same
length and the drift wires must also be the same. In some
gliders, the drift loads are taken by bracing inside the wing and
there are no external drift or drag wires. With control lever in
neutral position, the control surfaces, i.e., ailerons and elevator
flaps must be in neutral position also The rudder should point
straight back or correspond to the longitudinal axis of the glider
fuselage when the control bar is at right angles with the keel
or longeron members.
CHAPTER TWELVE
BUILDING THE DICKSON TRAINING GLIDER
When Building a Glider is Justified—Fuselage for Training Glider—
Dickson Glider Wing Construction—Wing Ribs—Front Spar—Rear
Spar—Leading and Trailing Edges—Wing Fittings—Wing Tip Skid
Fittings—Wing Attachment—Aileron Horn Construction and Attach
ment—Rudder Construction—Elevator Details—Stabilizer Construc
tion—Stabilizer Anchorage—Stabilizer Bracing—Miscellaneous Metal
Fittings—Control Unit for Glider—Rudder Bar Construction—Launch
ing Hook—Control Column Details—Torque Tube and Bearings—
Control Column Movement—Cable Sheaves or Guide Pulleys—Control
Cable Fittings—Aileron Cable Guide Sheaves—Control System of
Glider—Bracing Wiring of Gilder.
When Building a Glider is Justified.—There are times when

a group of young men who possess some mechanical ability, such
as engineering or manual training school students, form a gliding
club and as they often have shop facilities such as wood working
machinery and tools available, they have a natural desire to build
their own glider or sailplane. A number of the very efficient
sailplanes of German design which are described in another
chapter were built by engineering school students from plans
made by their teachers.
The primary training type of glider may be built for a cash
expenditure of $100 to $150, but the bill of material for a sail
plane will cost from $200 to $250. Plans may be obtained from
various sources, some selling for as little as $1.50. In procuring
plans it is best to make sure that they are approved by the U. S.
247
Dept. of Commerce. The primary training glider is simple
and within the capabilities of amateur constructors who can
take the time to do the painstaking work required. Supply
houses will materially reduce the labor by furnishing complete
wings and ailerons, a built-up fuselage or tail group or a com
plete bill of material at very moderate prices. A large amount
of work will be saved if the wing ribs are procured ready for
assembling to the spars.
The primary training glider illustrated in the accompanying
working drawings was detailed in a series of drawings published
in Flight, the leading English aviation journal, and is kno\vn as
the Dickson Glider. Even the minor details of construction are
exceptionally well worked out and the design is amply strong
for the purpose. If the drawings are followed carefully, no
trouble will be experienced in building a primary training glider of
light yet strong construction and one that is based on a sound
knowledge of modern glider design.
As in building any type of aircraft, only the best materials
should be employed in primary training gliders. All joints in
wood or metal should be carefully made and reenforced as indi
cated in the working drawings. The various fittings should be
precisely made and all machine work such as drilling, accurately
performed. Duplicate fittings or parts should be made in jigs
or templates to insure interchangeability.
It is, of course, more difficult to work from reduced size draw
ings than it is from full size blue prints but the amateur mechanics
capable of constructing a glider will not find it difficult to transfer
the drawings to sheets of heavy drawing paper or even clean
wrapping paper to a scale that will permit of easily reading them.
FUSELAGE FOR TRAINING GLIDER 249
One acquaintance of the writer transferred a fuselage drawing
to a portion of the workshop floor, making it full scale, using a
heavy black outline. As the laying out was done with straight
edges and to accurate measurements, it was easy to work up the
various structural parts and the accuracy of the fitting and as
sembling work was checked by laying the finished fuselage against
the full size pattern.
Fuselage for Training1 Glider.—The detailed drawing at
Fig. 62 shows the simple fuselage construction of the Dickson
training glider. It consists of a keel member, of which the lower
longeron forms a part, an upper longeron separated from the
lower longeron by vertical struts and diagonal braces to form
a Warren truss and a pylon or landing wire central support at
the top of the longeron. The overall length is 15 feet 2^/2 inches,
the overall height is 7 feet 5 inches. The length of the keel
member is 8 feet 3 inches. The front end of the keel member
is made separately from the rear end and is 3 feet 6 inches long.
The lower runner is bent up from a piece of 2 inches by i / l2
inches ash or elm, the upper member of the nose piece is made
of i^ inches by ij^ inches solid spruce. Three spacers or
upright struts (Nos. 16, 17 and 18) i inch by iJ/£ inches sepa
rate the curved and straight chord members (Nos. 14 and 15)
and the entire assembly is strengthened by % 6 -inch plywood
glued and screwed with small gauge wood screws to each side.
The front end of the fuselage, or nose piece is attached to the
main structure by 1 /12 inches by 1 /12 inches spruce strips on each
side held by 2 B.A.* mild steel bolts and nuts and large diameter
washers under the nuts to keep them from sinking into the wood.
* British Aeronautic. S.A.E. Aeronautic may be used in the United
States.
Fuselage
For Training Glider
\^~ 3//6" P/y Biscu/fe on bof/? sides £T0i/P/ane

4__________ _ iappea over a/1 members: 4"
_____ * '
Eyebo/fs
____ . ______ ____. _____ ____ _ _ _ j___^ ____S_y_____ _ \ ___. _
i
T-,
*9
2"x/'/2"Spruce
fabric Covering- • - j-
Spruce strips
'fonboth sides, 2 BA
mildsteelbolts, nuts and
WP/y^Joirrtinskjd washers.
ft-]
K l"xNo.6 CM brass forfrand/ing
i__J_^7J5,^ woodscrews. ftepes
'o '/2"xNo4 INoodscrews IWPitch throughout
Fig. 62.—Dimensioned Drawing Showing the Structural Members of the Dickson Training Glider Fuselage. Note
the Two-piece Keel, Joined Together with Wood Straps at Vertical Strut No. i, and How Members at Rear of
Fuselage are Spindled out to Lighten Them.
TRAINING GLIDER FUSELAGE 251
The construction shown can be changed by substituting extruded
dural or mild steel straps made of standard angle or channel
section stock to secure the necessary side stiffness. Triangular-
shaped filler blocks i */2 inches thick of spruce are glued into the
corners and the % 6 -inch plywood gussets or "biscuits" are
fastened in the usual way to reenforce the joints.
The main portion of the fuselage is very simple in construc
tion. It consists, or rather starts with an upright post (No. i)
of 2 inches by i / l 2 inches spruce attached to a longeron of i /l2
inches by i /l 2 inches solid spruce at the top and a similar member
at the bottom. The next vertical upright (No. 2) is i /l 2 inches
by \y2 inches spindled section spruce and the space between the
front and second upright struts is braced by two diagonal mem
bers (Nos. 5 and 6) also of i /l 2 inches by iJ/2 inches solid
section spruce.
The lower part of the front upright is continued, down to
meet the curved runner piece, that member being separated from
the longeron (No. 10) directly above it by i inch by i^ inches
spruce spacer blocks (Nos. 19, 20 and 21), the whole assembly
being tied together by % 6 -inch thick plywood walls glued and
screwed to form a rigid box section. After the nose piece is
attached to the fuselage, a brass strip, about % G mch thick by 1 /1 2
inches wide is secured to the runner by y2 inch by No. 4 Brass
wood screws, well countersunk. This strip extends from the
prow to the point beyond the second vertical strut.
The second bay of the fuselage is formed by a third vertical
upright (No. 3) which is of i /l 2 inches by i inch spruce of solid
section and a diagonal brace member (No. 7) of i / l 2 inches by
i/
l 2 inches spindled section spruce. The third bay of the fuselage
is completed by the fourth vertical strut (No. 4) and a diagonal
brace (No. 8), both of i / l 2 inches by i inch spruce. The fourth
vertical strut forms the rudder support. The last bay may be
covered in by fabric, i/^-inch plywood or sheet aluminum of
light gauge, to form a vertical fin. The rudder post terminates
in an ash block having a i-inch radiused hole for the hold-back
rope. It is reenforced by a brass strip. (See Fig. 67 also.)
A careful inspection of the drawing at Fig. 62 will show that
the main fuselage is composed of an upper longeron No. 9
extending from the front to the rear posts and resting on the
tops of No. i, No. 2, No. 3 and No. 4 vertical struts, which
separate it from the lower longeron No. 11 and the longitudinal
brace or false longeron No. 10. Longeron No. n is attached
to the bottom of vertical post No. i but is not secured directly
to the bottom of post No. 2 as the end of longeron member
No. 10 tapers off at that point to form a support for longeron
No. ii. It is secured to the bottom of vertical posts No. 3 and
No. 4, however. Diagonal braces No. 5 and No. 6 are solid
spruce 1^2 inches by i /l2 inches, brace No. 7 is i /l 2 inches by
i/
l 2 inches spruce spindled out to lighten it and diagonal brace
No. 8 is of solid section i / l 2 inches by I inch spruce. All these
members are tied together by gusset plates of % 6 -inch plywood,
lapped over all members at least 4 inches and securely fastened
by glue and small brads or brass wood screws, the latter being
preferred.
The pylon or landing wire brace structure is a simple triangle
made of i / l 2 inches by i /
l 2 inches spruce having the apex 2 feet
2/l 2 inches above longeron No. 9. The frame members No. 12
and No. 13 are tied together by % 2 -inch plywood or by sheet
TRAINING GLIDER WING 253
aluminum to form another vertical fin as well as to strengthen
the inclined frame members. It is held in place by % 6 -inch
plywood "biscuits" cut to the shape indicated and forms an
integral part of the fuselage. All the gusset plates are of dif
ferent shape except those at the rear end of the fuselage which
are simple triangular members that are practically the same.
Two of each shape will be required, one for each side of the
fuselage at every joint where vertical, longitudinal and diagonal
brace members meet. Attention is directed to the location of the
wing anchorage eyebolts at the front end of the fuselage, the
tail plane anchorage eyebolt at the rear end and the eyebolts
serving as rudder hinges on vertical post No. 4. Detailed draw
ings accompany this chapter to show the construction at these
points to which the reader is referred.
Dickson Glider Wing Construction.—The wing structure
for the right-hand main plane is shown at Fig. 63. The left-
hand wing is exactly the same except that it is reversed, wing
end C being at the side that wing end D is at in the drawing.
The aileron is at the outer wing tip in each case. The wing
ribs have the Clark Y. H. Airfoil section with a 5-foot chord
and 17-foot span for each panel. The ribs are of the two spar
type and are of the Warren truss construction, built up of spruce
cap strips with vertical bracing posts at the spar openings and
diagonal bracing at intermediate points, the whole assembly being
held together by % G -inch plywood "biscuits" glued and bradded
on both sides as indicated. Each wing panel has 6 "A" ribs,
4 "B" ribs, 4 "C" ribs and I U D" rib. The ailerons have two
"E" ribs and 4 "F" ribs each.
Ribs.—The "A" ribs are built of % inch by % inch spruce
Seale :
Oye-3-1'
2' J' Leading Edge covered w/fh 3 Ply /te "
stiffened at fdges w,fh %*° Spruce Strip
k————.————————— —— ————— — _———————— 17' 0"—
J"->(<--/' 3" -><-/'J "- -I'' Front Spar Section
i> ffc'x %"'Spruce •Stiffenars at every Rib

Position also midway between Ribs-Glued
Q and nailed to 3/U " Birch S Ply Web - IS G.
Copper Nails clenched over with Grain.
Pocking Blocks at inner £ outer sup -
X pofts and also at outer end to be
screwed to Web so that spar is I" wide
over full depth. Width to suit Fittings.
Spruce Flanges s/8" deep from inner end to outer
Support. Then uniformly tapered in depth only
to S/B" deep at outer end- Flanges to be glued
and screwed together 3/+" x N-4 Csk. Head
Brass Woodscrews I 'A"staggered Pitch.
I "* 'A"Spruce Stiffeners • Top C. Bottom pinned under r Trailing Edge •

Rib Flanges. Glued £ screwed to Spars with %* N;4
/4."OD.x226 Aluminium &be fixed with 2\'/4.~*.22G.
Brass tVooo'screws — 4 Screws per Joint.
Aluminium Strip screwed on. Rear Spar Section
Main Plane
(Right Hand only shown) 3/J2" Birch Ply
——— _____ — ———— ——— _5- Q" —----- Sliffeners as Front Spar y+ 'x '/4-'
"*s-*"-j-<- -s'-^t-W-^-SV+'-^-G %"-->(<---7"-
Flanges as Front Spar
&\'/<t"\._______
!6"deep throughout
Aileron Spar Section

k-4/^ **k- -^^ *- *j<-- -7^-"- —>k-- <?# "- ->!<-- <f"—>f-—-6'/t "-^-4/2"-*^- -6'/i'—*<— — //%"-- -- %**%" Flanges (Spruce)
k----//"----s-45---- — -- — — 2' 7 u -------------- - U- — - /' ff"- — ------ '/*"*./+''Sprue* Stiffentrs
All tit* Ply Biscuifs on both sides pinned 6glued Construction •
A ft'*'/*' Spruce Mem bers 12 required Main Plane Rib D 'A-"* '/z "fSpruce Members As Front and Rear Spars /ft- *x N!4 Screw
Scale: „ [iese rrailin '" - Chamfer to suit Ribs,
B '/4-*x'/4' I ' • j 8 required 0' 3" 6" 9" 12" ^ /4-"* '4-* (Spruct Members \ 4- required
(Less Trailing Edge) 1 ' • ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' i ' I Trailing Edge only)
C '/+'x!fa" Spruce Members 8 required Section; Clark Yrl. p '/+'* 74." /Spruce Members \ 8 required
[ Trailing Edge only/
Fig. 63.—Detailed Drawings Showing Right-hand Main Plane Assembly of the Dickson Training Glider, the
Sections of the Wing Spars and the Construction and Airfoil Section of the Clark Y. H. Wing Rib.
TRAINING GLIDER WING RIBS AND SPARS 255
members, as are the "B" ribs except that they terminate at the
rear spar and are minus the trailing edge to allow for the aileron.
The "C" ribs are used as compression members and are the same
in construction as the "A" ribs except that the cap strips and
braces are J4 incn by J^ inch spruce. The "D" ribs are made
of y+ inch by / l 2 inch spruce, also, but have no trailing edge.
The "E," or aileron ribs, which are represented by that portion
of the "A" rib from the rear spar back are trailing edges only
and are reen forced with plywood braces at the top and bottom
as indicated. The "F" aileron ribs are just the same as the
trailing edge of the "A" rib or portion 3 and are made of
*4 -inch by J^-inch spruce members.
Front Spar.—The front spar No. I has ^-inch by %-inch
spruce stiffeners at every rib position, also between the ribs, which
are glued and nailed to % 2 "^ncn birch 3-ply webs. Copper
nails, 16 gauge are clinched over with the grain. Packing blocks
are used at inner and outer supports and also at the outer end
to be screwed to the web so that the spar is i inch wide over
full depth and of suitable width to suit fittings. (See Fig. 64.)
The spruce flanges of the front spar are ^ inch deep from
inner end to outer support, then uniformly tapered, in depth only,
to Y% inch deep at the outer end. The flanges are to be glued
and screwed together with the web interposed with J4 incn by
No. 4 countersunk head brass wood screws, i /1 ^ inches staggered
pitch.
Rear Spar.—The rear spar section has a % 2 'incn birch ply
web with stiffeners of J4 incn by J4 inch spruce the same as
the front spar with flanges y2 inch deep throughout applied as
in the front spar. The aileron spar section has single flanges of
jHrinch by ^-inch spruce with %-inch by *4-inch spruce stiff-
eners, the top and bottom of the flanges being tapered or chamfered
to suit the angularity of rib cap strips.
Leading and Trailing Edges.—The leading edge of the wing
is composed of a strip of ^-inch by J4~inch spruce which ties
all the ribs together and is then covered with ^ 6 -inch three-ply
stiffened with % 6 -inch square spruce strip. The plywood is
extended down to the trailing edge as shown at the outer end of
the wing at C and to the rear spar as shown at D, on both top
and bottom of the ribs. The trailing edge is composed of %-inch
O.D. 22 gauge aluminum tube fixed to the rib ends with 2-inch
by J4~mcn 22 gauge aluminum strips screwed or bradded to the
cap strips. The ailerons are i-foot 4^2-inch chord and 5-foot
8^2-inch span, a gap of /l2 inch being allowed for between the
inner end of the aileron and the "C" rib of the wing at that
point.
The wing frame is stiffened by i-inch by J^-inch spruce pieces
running diagonally instead of bracing wires. The stiffeners are
used at top and bottom and are pinned under the rib flanges with
brads and are glued and screwed to the spars with j^-inch long
No. 4 brass wood screws, four screws being used per joint.
The ribs are spaced on the spars on i-foot 3-inch centers except
at the tip of the wing, where the spacing is 9 inches.
As detailed instructions have been given in previous chapters
for rib and spar assembly and for making a jig and template
to make sure the ribs all have the proper contour it is not neces
sary to repeat these suggestions. All wood surfaces should be
WING FRAME CONSTRUCTION 257
varnished internally and painted at points where the fabric touches
with non-sticking paint or shellac.
On the main planes the ribs are to be taped together by a
"bridging" of ^-inch wide double tape. There should be two
lines of tapes running between and parallel to the spars, spaced
equally. The tapes are to be run on top and bottom or ribs,
crossing through the wing between each pair of ribs, so that
from behind or in front the tapes have a lazy-tongs aspect. The
fabric should now be sewn to ribs, the stitches being passed right
around the whole rib and through the fabric, blanket stitching
being used. Each stitch, 2 inches from its fellow, must be
knotted. Note that the fabric should not be tacked to the wood
work, but should be sewn together to form a sheath like a pillow
slip, in which the wing frame fits. Double lock stitching is best
for the lapped seams, as produced by awning makers' or up
holsterers' sewing machines.
Strips of fabric should be doped on all sewn joints and rib
stitching, and the whole surface should now be doped. A scheme
of doping can be obtained from any dope manufacturer, who
will also supply the right kind of dope for the job.
Care must be taken that all components are "rigged up"
square, and that there is no twist in the wings. The assistance
of an experienced aircraft rigger is of great value in this con
nection. The ailerons should be "rigged up" 2 degrees on both
sides.
All wooden components must be carefully varnished to prevent
damp damaging them, but no parts are varnished where dope
is to come in contact. Shellac is used at these points. All
metal fittings must also be painted. Care must be taken that
all wooden parts attached to one another are correctly glued before
screwing or pinning.
The readers' attention is called to an omission in the aileron
frame drawing. On the arrangement drawing of the aileron,
shown with the main plane, a spruce strip should be shown
running the full length of the aileron at a position 5^2 inches
from the trailing edge. This strip is to be J4 mcn wide and i inch
deep, inserted between the flanges of the ribs and pinned and
glued in position.
Wing Fittings.—A number of details of construction are
given at Fig. 64 for various attachment and bracing wire fittings.
The outer front spar support fittings are shown at the top of
the illustration and practically the same construction is used on
the rear spar so it is not necessary to duplicate the drawings.
Of course, the rear spar is only 3^ inches in depth, so strap
fittings having only two bolt holes instead of three can be placed
at the angles required to insure a true and direct pull of the
bracing wires. The upper strap is a piece of %-inch wide by
14 gauge S.A.E. 1025 mild steel cut so the distance between
the holes at the extreme end positions is i foot 5 inches and to
allow for the ^-inch radius at each end, the total length of
the strap should be 17% inches, for the front spar and about
14% inches for the rear spar. The strap is bolted to the spar,
by 3 No. 2 B.A. bolts with large mild steel washers between the
nuts and the spruce packing block. The projecting ear or lug
is bent back 3^/2 inches on the front spar and forward about
3}/2 inches on the rear spar for attachment of the landing wires.
The flying wire support on the lower portion of the spar is
Bend out S'/z"
on this line
Vz" Radius
II' 3" From inner end of Spar
2B. A. MS. Bo/ts
PMes<-
J86MS. Plate Wnide
~'/z"Radius Outer Frorit Spar
Detail M.S. Rivets-
Support Fittings
3/e"Radius' ^'/4 H0t
'/8"Dia Rivets right

7/o"O.D.x/76 across fit ting with
•r-M.S.Tube6"io/>g distance tube.-
Spruce Packing Block Front Spar
"Pia Bamboo ,
18 GMS. Plate ^ j. V J86.M.S.Ptate
I ~^
Front Spar ^-Fuse/age

Attachment of Wing Tip Skid Member
To Front Spar Attachment of
Front Spar
!\— '/4,"Dia. Pin Hole To Fuselage
-12 0. Duralumin Plate 'Rear Spar
Aileron Spar
•s-'/4" B.S.F M.S.SIotted
Nuts, Split Pins
'/''Spruce and covered and washers
'' with '//6
' "P/y
" on both sides
Wftadius'
" 3/s " Radius
Aileron Aileron Hinge
Control Lever (2 off PerAi/eron)
Fig. 64.—Detailed Drawings Showing Construction of Wing Bracing

and Attachment Fittings of the Dickson Training Glider and the
Method of Attaching Aileron Control Horn and Hinges.
composed of two 18 gauge, %-inch wide mild steel plates,
with outer and inner end holes 10 inches apart, center to center.
The straps will be ioj4 inches long to allow for the ^-inch
radius at each end. The flying wires are attached to a swivel
or hinge fitting made up of 18 gauge mild steel plate as shown
in the detail, this being held by the straps attached to the spar
by a J^-inch diameter bolt. The landing wire fittings are inclined
toward the pylon top, those on one main plane pointing toward
corresponding fittings on the other plane. The landing wire
fitting is inclined on a 9-degree angle, the flying wire fitting
is inclined 23^ degrees to the spar flange as in the detail.
Wing Tip Skid Fittings.—The wing tips may be provided
with skids if desired, these being arcs of ^4-inch diameter bamboo
or aluminum tubing. The front spar fitting is duplicated on
the rear spar, being the same except that its depth must correspond
to that of the spar. The fittings are made of 18 gauge mild
steel plate and are bolted to the wing spars through suitable
packing blocks. Three bolts are used on the front spar fitting
and two bolts on the rear spar fitting.
Wing Attachment to Fuselage Longeron.—The method
of attaching the root end of the wing spars to the top fuselage
longeron member is very simple and is the same for both front
and rear spars. As will be seen by referring to the fuselage
assembly drawing and the wing assembly the spar center lines
are 2 feet 7 inches apart, so the eyebolts are spaced that distance
apart in the fuselage longeron. The bolts pass through well
reenforced points of the fuselage. The bolt is a special type using
a nut of the same shape as the head, as shown in the lower left-
hand corner of Fig. 51 in Chapter Nine.
AILERON HORN CONSTRUCTION 261
Some authorities prefer anchorage members for wings that
do not pass through the longerons, but the shearing strength
of even a ^4-inch body bolt is ample to provide a large margin
of safety on a lightly loaded glider, where the wings are braced
with flying and landing wires. The fitting on the root end of
the spar is composed of a pair of 18 gauge mild steel plates
shaped as indicated, that bolt to the spar web through spruce
filler blocks. To prevent buckling of the outer ends of the plates,
they are held together by two j/g-inch diameter rivets passing
through distance tubes. The fitting on the rear spar will, of
course, correspond to the space between the flanges of that
member. Two front spar fittings and two rear spar fittings will
be needed per machine. The front spar fittings are the same
because they are symmetrical about the center line and can be
used as either R. H. or L. H. fittings. The same applies to
the rear spar fittings and to the strap fittings for the landing
and flying wires. Eyebolts of ^-inch body will provide a better
safety factor than the sizes indicated for spar support.
Aileron Horn Construction and Attachment.—The illus
trations at the bottom of Fig. 64 show how the aileron horn
is attached and the use of male and female eyebolts for control
member hinges. This type of hinge is used for the vertical
rudder and for the elevators as well as for the aileron. The
aileron control horn is also used in the vertical rudder and
elevators. It is cut out of a 12 gauge Dural plate and is secured
to a packing block of spruce by 3 No. 2 B.A. bolts as indicated.
The control horn is 9^4 inches long and has }4-inch pin holes at
the extremities separated by a space of 9 inches, center to center.
Six of these members are necessary, five being drilled as shown,
Leading Edge covered with /is" thick .3 Ply glued t screwed
This Rib to be packed with N'2 Woodscrews. ,'
up for Lever as per
3 Ply Biscuits Aileron control ,
'/is " Stiffening J Ply -
Glue S Screw (Similar Lever to be used)
glued & pinned to
Spar S Rib
i '/+"Square Spruce Leading Edge Ply
1 Strips - glued and \\
overlaps Stiffening
l"x fo" Ply at this Point - -
<lued & sctewed
\ Rib -> Strips screwed
S glued to inside of
Ribs S fitted flush
•-HE info Edges of Spar
Section A-A. (Both Sides)
Showing Stiffening of
Bottom Finishing Rib
(This also applies to Top Rib)
16"x "A" Spruce Strip
^~~-Drill for and fix glued S screwed to
Ribs-N!2 Woodscrews Trailing Edge
Eyebolts as used
cut away to 'A"O.D.*24G JL
on Aileron 3"
clear Stiffeners Alumc Tube ^
0" —->k———/' Q" ——>K-——/' 0" ——>K———/' 0" ———-H

/ Portions of Spar Cut
' away on Assembly to Leading Edge 3/a"x %" Spruce Srrip
x ^ allow Ribs 6 Stiffening -'/is" thick - 3 Ply glued and
^^-~~~" /"^Strips ofHt"rn7ck~~~
' / .pieces to finish flush ,'' pinned to both sides
/ / with Edges • -,•*•& Ply glued £ pinned to both sides
t !
+-A,-
wide x20G Alumr> Strip
3 " long - Secured with
4 W2 Woodscrews
2' 6"
Section of Spar at this 'A-'Square Spruce Strips
Rudder Details For
? Point &'»2 U Dickson Glider
Rudder Spar Typical Rudder Rib
Fig. 65.—Detailed Drawings Showing the Rudder Frame Assembly Construction for the Dickson Training Glider,
Also the Method of Making the Rudder Ribs.
RUDDER CONSTRUCTION 263
the other being drilled to correspond to the socket fitting shown
at Fig. 69 that is installed on the torque tube of the control unit.
Rudder Construction.—The balanced rudder of the Dickson
Glider is shown in detailed drawings at Fig. 65. The rudder
frame is simple in construction and has but one spar. This is
a piece of spruce ^ inch thick, 2 / l 2 inches wide and 5 feet long
with cutouts to allow for rib ends and stiffeners so the finish
will be flush with the edges. The spar is drilled for the hinge
eyebolts similar to those used on the aileron and shown at
Fig. 64. The first hole is drilled 3 inches from the bottom, the
top hole is on 2-feet or 24-inch centers from the bottom hole and
2 feet 7 inches from the top of the spar. Three full ribs are
used as shown in the sectional drawing detail and three short
ribs. The rib cap strips are of ^4-inch square spruce and are
spread apart by 3-ply glued and pinned to both sides as indi
cated. The leading edge of the balancing section is a ^-inch
by %-inch spruce strip and the leading edge is covered with
Yi Q -inch thick 3-ply glued to the ribs and glued and screwed to
the spar with No. 2 wood screws. The trailing edge is composed
of a ^4-inch O.D. 24 gauge aluminum tube attached to the ribs
by aluminum strips and wood screws. The fourth rib down
from the top is packed up with spruce fillers and a control lever
is fastened to the rib just as for the aileron as illustrated in
enlarged detail at Fig. 64.
Attention is directed to the method of stiffening the top and
bottom of the rudder with !/16 -inch plywood, glued and bradded
to spar and rib and having J^-inch square section spruce strips
glued and pinned and fitted flush into the edge of the spar in
cutouts made to receive them. The rudder frame is braced diag-
onally with i-inch wide by ^-mch thick spruce strips screwed
and glued to the inside of the ribs and fitted flush into the edges
of the spar on both sides. This makes a very light but strong
control member. The frame may be covered with plywood or
with fabric, just as the wing frame is.
Elevator Details.—The detailed drawing at Fig. 66 shows
the elevator construction. The same elevator does duty on right
and left of the glider tail because it is symmetrical in design and
need only be reversed in position to serve equally well on either
side. The method of construction of the frame is the same as
employed for the rudder previously described. Five ordinary
ribs are used in each elevator and two special end ribs with
plywood stiffening, as shown in rudder detail. The trailing edge
construction is similar to that of the rudder. The spar end,
however, is tapered for a distance of 6 inches from the end as
shown, the section reducing from ]/2 inch by 2^2 inches at the
main section to ]/2 inch square at the top. Cutouts are provided
in the spar to allow ribs and stiffening pieces to finish flush
with the edge. Diagonal bracing composed of i-inch by J^-inch
spruce strips is applied just as it is in the rudder. Two elevators
are needed for each machine. The span of one elevator is 5 feet
4 /l2 inches, the chord is i foot 8 inches. The control lever is
attached to a point io / l 2 inches from the angular end of the
aileron. The reason the aileron is cut at an angle is that space
must be provided for the travel of the vertical rudder.
Stabilizer Construction.—The stabilizer or tail plane of the
Dickson Glider is built up similar to the frame for the elevator
and rudder except that the main spar, which is at the rear, is long
enough to attach both elevators to it. The details of construction
t Drill with Tail Plane 5par Lever secured as 2%' 'I'k" Hinge 4. Drill with
f5yebo/f identical to Aileron rlinge____for Aileron____j*- ->) l fc- ^ Tail Plane Spar
*-//£ ->
For attachment
of'//6"fh/c/f.3Ply '' // Construction
b/scu/ts - See // // of this Rib as
V ' Rudder '/ per ordinary Rib
\
\
\
\ f / 3P/y s tiftenina -for
\ Stiffener 'as
\ for Rudder (' //end Ribs as tor Rudder
\
nAJ \-V —— -J>

\ • yTrailing fdge ft"0.0.x 246. Aluminum Tube
Vfer//<»75 ofSpar to , j
h/uedand screwed
edto
to
V /, ' ' HM* offfib
I (3No2Woodscrews) W Thick Spruce
' pieces to Finish /'/z"\
Flush with Edge. \
H For attachment
Outer Finishing Rib of trailing edge
Detail of Glue and Pin in Position to Ribs, See
Elevator
for /Rudder
X
Dickson Glider
____J Ordinary Elevator Rib
Fig. 66.—Detailed Drawings Showing the Elevator Frame Assembly Construction for the Dickson Training
Glider, Also the Method of Making Ordinary and Outer Finishing Ribs.
Training Glider,
Assembly of Tail on Fuselage
'/4"B.S.F M.S. bolt.
T\ 7^7/7 Plane Spar''

N
% "Remainder of Eyebolt
as for Hinge Eyebolt DuraI'Rivets
- 3/4"x/7G DuraI'Tube
with W*x 176 Liners
3"Long at Ends.
Ends to be ffattened as shown.
'—2 - 3/32"D/a. Dura/ Rivets

Centre Lines for
Strut Bolt
'I4"Nut
Fig. 67.—Assembly Drawing Showing How Tail is Assembled on the Fuselage of Dickson Training Glider.
STABILIZER ANCHORAGE 267
are modified because the tail plane is triangular in plan form
as shown in the schematic drawing of the control system given
at Fig. 71. The tip ends of the spar taper from points 6 inches
from the ends just as the elevator spar ends do and the total
length is 10 feet 10^2 inches. The leading edge of the stabilizer
or tail plane is finished off with aluminum tube just as the trailing
edges of the rudder or elevators are. The rib construction is
similar to that employed for the other control surfaces, except
that all ribs on each side of the main rib vary in length, becoming
shorter as the ends of the spar are reached. Sketches showing
the construction of the stabilizer and tail plane are given at
Fig. 72.
Stabilizer Anchorage.—The tail plane anchorage is extremely
simple. The rear or spar end is held by an eyebolt arrangement
similar to that employed as a rudder hinge as shown at Fig. 67.
This eyebolt is placed 2 inches from the rear spar and passes
through a filler or spacer block of spruce placed between the
wide cap strips of rib "A" (Fig. 72) which blocking acts as
a reinforcement. The front end of the stabilizer frame has an
adjustment strap extending down as shown which is perforated
with a number of J^-inch holes so that the stabilizer leading
edge may be raised or lowered as desired. The strap is in the
form of a U piece and is attached to the main rib by a *4-inch
bolt passing through the spruce filler block at the leading edge.
The center distance between the strap and eyebolt center lines
is 2 feet 2 inches.
Stabilizer Bracing.—When the tail plane is installed on the
fuselage, it is braced by two diagonal J^-inch by 17 gauge Dural
tubes, with 5^-inch by 17 gauge reenforcing members, 3 inches
long at the ends, held by two % 2-inch diameter, Dural rivets pass
ing through the tube and the reinforcement. The ends of the
brace tubes are flattened as shown at Fig. 67 and one end is bent
at an angle so it can be bolted to the lower longeron while the
upper end is bolted through the main spar of the tail plane or
stabilizer. By using tubes, no other diagonal bracing is required
as the tubes carry both landing and flying loads on the tail plane
spar.
Miscellaneous Metal Fittings.—The metal fittings required
in building a glider are simple and as stresses are low1 compared
to those in a motored airplane, ample strength is obtained by
using low carbon or mild machinery steel, which is much easier
to handle by amateur constructors and which does not require
heat treatment after bending as high tensile strength alloy steel
does. Bends should be gradual and not abrupt and if all bends
are made over a %-inch rod as a mandrel, the strength of the
material will not be impaired by bending.
Details of some of the wiring plates and fittings are given at
Fig. 68. That at A is a fitting for connecting the bracing wires
to the wiring plates and 24 are required per machine. All the
bracing wires should be of I5~cwt. cable (1500 pounds breaking
strength), with one I5~cwt. turnbuckle interposed in each wire,
at a convenient position. Sketch at B is the standard double
wiring plate and 3 right and 3 left hand are needed per machine.
One off each hand is required at the pylon top for the landing
wires, and one off each hand for the lift wires which is placed
under the seat attaching to the longeron member directly under
the pylon apex, and one off each hand for the rear face of the
MISCELLANEOUS METAL FITTINGS 269
rear spar at the outer supports to take the rear fuselage bracing
wires. The single wiring lug shown at C is required for the
bottom fittings at the rear of the fuselage to take the fuselage
bracing wires and two off each hand are required. All fittings
'"D/a. M.S. Rivets

f'Radius
Fit?DiaMS.Pm
with splitpin and washer
__l2G.M.S.Phte
!8G.M.S.PIate packing piece
i"O.D.x!6G. Copper Tube
j" Radius^ v, _ ,- i"Radius spun over: Endofcable fo
be splicedthrougrh this eye.
^f^'D/'a. bolt holes
//
._i B ^l
* >>Di«-Pi ^/,'t 11Radius
C
i"Radius
z'Radius^-
,'2 "Radius
Bendup forequiredang/e^^^
^"Radius -- !46MS.PIate
Bendup to requiredang/e
Fig. 68.—Wiring Fittings for the Dickson Training Glider. A—Fit

ting for Connecting Bracing Wires to the Wiring Plates, 24 Required
per Machine. B—Double Wiring Plate, 3 Right Hand and 3 Left
Hand Required Each Machine. C—Single Wiring Lug, 2 Right and 2
Left Needed Each Machine.
which have been bent must be heat treated after bending, if
made of alloy steel or high carbon steel and should be heated
to a low red heat to facilitate bending. A simple and satisfactory
heat treatment will consist of heating to a low or dull red heat
and quenching in oil if more definite instructions relative to the
composition of the alloy steel used is not available. Either mild
steel, chrome-nickel, or molydenum steel plate may be used for
fittings, the latter two requiring more careful handling and heat
to
BRASS BUSH 4fe*OD
V|
REAM >fc* 1 0 o
HAND CRIP CORD BINDING
SPINDLE TO BE >4'M S BO.T
3 • /O LEATHER BELT A COPPER RiVET

WITH QUICK RELEASE /, WASHER
BUCKLE
CONTOOL CABLES
TO 8 E S A SPEC" SHACKLES- ACS 690A. r. N°e> BRASS WOODSCREW
AW 2 . iTE ASHER
THIMBLES. ACS
CONTROL COLUMN 6.
TOBQUE TUBE I*. ?oo td
MS TUBE (SEE DETAIL; PULLEY
PINS OP 13 OFF PER MACHINE
BOLTS TO MATERIAL . ALUMINIUM.
S A SPEC •A MS BOLT WI 0
TANCE PIECES THROUGH PLV.
COMPLETE WITH LARGE OlA WASHERS
OUTSIDE f. YZ'. 17 o TUBE. DISTANC
PIECES TO POSITION PULLEYS
INSIDE : ALLOW. •/:&' SIDE PLAY
o
3-2BA BOLTS. NUTS
I*'. 17 G TUBE TO FORM
COLLARS. PIVETEO TO
TUBE
o
HH
OlA TO BE A o
GOOD FIT IN I—I
i'. 200 TUBE
FITTING FRONT
PEAR OF TORQUE
( SEE DETAIL.)
- -
i* OIA TO BE A RUNNING
FIT ON TORQUE TUBE
o
•so MS PLATE FAIRLCADS FOR RUDDER CABLES- V* THICK QEO FIBRE, * HOLES FOR
BOLTED TO SEAT MEMBER WITH 2-4BA MS BOLTS PER, DUOAL RIVETS
FAJRLEAO.
Off PER MACHINE
.i *fc'SPRUCE Ol'UED SOCKET FOR REAR END
TORQUE TUBE BEARING I. SCREWED TO SEAT FORMER
20 G ALUM" SEAT SCREWED OF TORQUE TUBE FOR o
TO TOP SEAT MEMBER AILERON CONTROL
(.&" THICK SPRUCE;
DRILL FOR CO
1/4." N» 6
STANDARD AILERON WOOD SCREWS
LEVER WITH SPECIAL
ATTACHMENT (.SEE DETAU.)
RUDDER BAR CONTROL UNIT FOR

BOLT
MATERIAL: MSB TRAINING GLIDER
" >N HOLES
120 MS PLATE
O MS PLATE, MER TUBE WO

V 2BA MS BOLTS *'MS BOLT TUBE FLATTENED* AT END o
' SPLIT TO TAKE 12 O PL,
'Courtesy of Flight-Ltnden CONTROL COLUMN
Fig. 69.—Control Unit for the Dickson Training Glider. Note Arrangement of Seat, Control Stick and
Cable Guide Pulleys, also Location of Rudder Bar and Towing Hook.
CONTROL UNIT FOR GLIDER 271
treatment than the amateur is apt to give them. If not properly
heat treated the strength properties of alloy steels are not enough
superior to a good medium carbon fitting steel (S.A.E. 1025) to
warrant the extra cost.
Control Unit for Glider.—The elements of the front end
of the Dickson training glider with special reference to the ar
rangement and construction of the seat and control system parts
are clearly detailed at Fig. 69. We will first consider the con
struction of the seat. This is made of a seat bottom member
approximately semicircular in form, i foot 6 inches wide and
9 inches deep made of 5/3-inch thick spruce or ^2-inch plywood,
to which a seat back made of 20 gauge aluminum is attached by
a series of screws. The seat is supported by braces of ^-inch
thick spruce bolted to the skid with J^-inch bolts and glued and
screwed to each other, two of these being diagonal bracing mem
bers extending down to the curved runner at each side.
Fairleads for the rudder cables, which are detailed in Fig. 70,
are attached to the seat bracing members as indicated. A 3-inch
by J^-inch leather safety belt with quick release buckle and of
sufficient length to encircle the girth of a fairly large person is
attached to the front fuselage vertical support post by a No. 6
by i-inch brass wood screw and washer. Supply houses carry
webbing safety belts which have been especially made for gliders
and which are available at lower cost than a leather belt would be.
Rudder Bar Construction.—The rudder bar is a i-inch by
20 gauge M.S. steel tube, having a reenforcing sleeve of i^-inch
by 17 gauge steel tube 6 inches long welded to the center. The
rudder bar is completed by 18 gauge M.S. heel straps welded
to
M
5* O to
00
O o, C
^ §* of
16C MS td
CL 3- p >4'PAOIUSEO MOLE
<T> "-5
W W £L n
3 sf ., TYPICAL o
o CONTROL WIRE FAIRLEAO
rt> CTQ TO BE. USED WHERE. NECESSARY
FOR SLIGHT BENDS IN CABLES.
K/MS BOLT. NUT 6 SPLIT PlN o
X*'MOLES IN PLATE: WOO«
/«' I O . IVn LONO M V
DISTANCE PIECES BETWEEN I—I
O PLATES: TO B£ A SUNNING
~ FIT IN PULLEYS - V> OO.
V« I D « '/<e' THICK. ALUM1? o
WASHERS I—I
o
6 C»« 6QASS WOOOSCBENNS
THOOUOM LAP IN PLATE IN TO
FUSELAGE MEMBER
ELEVATOR PULLEV BRACKET AND FAIRLEADS ON
o FUSELAGE AT REAR SPAR ATTACHMENT
a
o O>
c SPAO
in
CTQ i SQUARE SPPUCE -BLOCK CLUtO 6 SCBtwtO. i—i
TO FACE OF gpAft DRILL A' FOB PlILLEV
BOLT. FIT >4 M S. BOLT, NUT t, SPLIT PM r
TO TAKE ONE PULLEV ON TOP AND ONE AT
BOTTOM OF SPAP. - BLOCK.'TO PROJECT TMOOXJOH
FABRIC ON BOTH SIDES. FIT PULLEV GUA80S
rt> AS SHOWN or IBG MS. PLATE TOP AND
3 , .. , BOTTOM WITH M DIA MS WASHERS ON EACH r
JL' u ' 'it'i ,0 SlOE OF EACH PULLEV. - FIT DISTANCE PIECE
"-» •/> K. >iLlP >^ o.O. .(4'tO.*f LONG TO BE. A RUNNING
r* re FIT IN PULLEY. i—i
CL PULLEY ON FRONT SPAR
o-
rt> IN LINE WITH AILERON LEVER
•t »*1 N°6 C*« 60»SS
o
WOOOSC«EWS TuaOuGn
LAP IN PLATE INTO
FUSELAGE wtwaER
rc> FITTINGS FOR CONTROL WIRES.
n
tn 13* DICKSON GLIDER.
O i—»• AILERON PULLEV BRACKET
o ON FRONT OF FUSELAGE ___ COURTESY OF FLIGHT-LONDON
s for
Fig. 70—Details Showing Control Wire Fittings, Pulleys and Control Wire Fairlead
Dickson Training Glider.
CONTROL COLUMN DETAILS 273
can swing on the special supporting bolt (shown in enlarged
detail) which passes down through the nose of the fuselage,
passing through both curved and straight longeron members.
A hardwood packing block about y2 inch thick is placed under
the center of the rudder bar, and a flange on the rudder bar
bolt is screwed to the top of the packing block with i-inch long
wood screws which go into the longeron and through the pack
ing block.
Launching Hook.—The launching hook is made of two pieces
of 14 gauge M.S. plate cut to the shape indicated and bent to
fit the prow of the fuselage to which it is fastened by 3 No. 2 B.A.
bolts passing through the top member. The front portions of
the hook may be riveted together or may be welded at the edges
to form a solid piece of twice the thickness of the 14 gauge side
plates.
Control Column Details.—The control stick or column is
composed of a piece of i-inch by 20 gauge M.S. tube, i foot 4^/4.
inches (i6jk| inches) long, the upper end of the tube being
plugged with a hardwood piece that is a drive fit in the end of
the tube, and which is rounded over to form a ball end. The
hand grip, 4 inches long, is made of ^-inch diameter cord
binding. A very good finish for the hand grip is a rubber grip
as used on bicycle handle bars. A liner or reenforcing tube,
18 gauge, is forced into the end of the column and is held
in place by a %-inch O.D. (outside diameter) by J4~inch I.D.
(inside diameter) hollow rivet which is welded in place and
which acts as a bearing for the *4~mch bolt used as a support
about which the lever or column may be rocked back and forth
to control the elevators. The liner tube is flattened at the end
and is split to take the 12 gauge plate fitting shown in detail
of the control column, this rocking on a short J4~mch bolt and
being designed to receive standard shackles to which the elevator
control cables are attached.
The control column is supported by a special bracket shaped
as shown in the side view, made up of 16 gauge sheet, bent in
the form of a U around the torque tube. The distance between
the center of the bolts holding the U bracket to the torque tube
and the bolt on which the control column swings is 5 inches
and the U fitting is 3 inches wide at the bottom. There is ample
space between the upstanding ears of the U member for the
control column to swing back and forth in and also to clear the
shackled and thimbled control cable ends.
Torque Tube and Bearings.—The torque member or rocking
shaft is of i-inch O.D. by 20 gauge steel tubing and it is sup
ported by special torque tube bearing fittings made up of 18
gauge steel plate as indicated in enlarged detail. Two of these
are required, one for the front end of the torque tube, the other
for the rear end support. They are fastened to the top member
of the fuselage keel with No. 2 B.A. bolts and nuts. Short pieces
of i % -inch by 17 gauge tube, about fy inch long are riveted
in place with J/g-inch rivets to act as collars to prevent longi
tudinal movement of the torque tube in the bearings.
The U piece supporting the control column is bolted to the
front end of the torque tube and a special socket fitting, made
from the Dural bar or brass or steel, as shown in the enlarged
detail at Fig. 69, is bolted to the rear end. This is provided with
holes for 4^-inch Dural rivets by which the same kind and size
CONTROL COLUMN MOVEMENT 275
of control lever which is used on the rudder, elevators and
ailerons, is attached to the rear of the torque tube. The socket
is bored to be a tight fit on the control tube and is bolted to it by 2
No. 2 B.A. bolts, one passing through the tube end and socket
vertically, the other horizontally. When the socket is assembled
properly on the torque tube, the control lever should be hori
zontal when the control column is vertical, i.e., they should be at
right angles to each other.
Control Column Movement.—It will be seen that the control
column is capable of a back and forth motion, in which case it
rocks on the supporting bolt at the top of the U piece, or it
may be rocked from side to side, in which event it also rocks
the torque tube in its support bearings by virtue of the side
pressure on the U supporting fitting. The side to side motion
actuates the aileron control cables. These are attached to the
ends of the lever by standard shackles as indicated at Fig. 69
and 71.
Cable Sheaves or Guide Pulleys.—An enlarged detail is
given in the upper right-hand corner of Fig. 69 showing the
dimensions of the standard aluminum sheave or control cable
guide pulley, of which 13 are required on each glider. Three
of the pulleys are brass bushed with a ^-inch O.D. tube which
is reamed for a running fit on a y\ -inch O.D. bolt. In those
cases where pulley guards are used, the bearing bushing must
be a running fit on a %-inch diameter spindle or a spacer tube.
Ten pulleys are bushed with a ^-inch I.D. bushing. One of
the pulleys is carried at the prow of the keel by a special strap
fitting made of 18 gauge plate and fastened to the top of the
rudder bar bolt as indicated. This pulley is one of the three hav-
Aileron
,Rudder
Êlevator
To Lower Horn
R. Aileron Dot/b/e f/evotor
Con fro/ Guide
To L ower Horri Pulleys
L.At/eron \
-Fibre fair/ends
Aileron Control
(ju/cfe
Cables Duplicated at these
Points and Carried to
either S/afe. o-F Fuse fag e "-—ri'
Upper f/'tfincj. ~"~
Left Aileron
Cab/e over From
Pti//ej to Lower Singfe Guide
Morn /?. Aileron' Pu/feys For
Cables
Cross Lever fibre fcr/r/eads On Seat
Rocker LAYOUT OF CONTROL WIRES.

Shaft
DICKSON GLIDER
COURTESY OF "FLIGHT" LONDON
Fig. 71.—Complete Schematic Layout of the Control Wires of the Dickson Training
Glider. Note the Cable
Guide Pulley Arrangement on Front Vertical Strut to Permit Cross-over of the Cables
to Aileron Control Horns.
CONTROL CABLE FITTINGS 277
ing a %-inch I.D. bushing. It is around this pulley that the
elevator control cable is carried, coming from the front ear of
the plate to which it is shackled on the bottom of the control
column. The cable then passes around the guide pulleys carried
between the extensions from the plywood gusset plates reenforc
ing the joint between vertical post No. i, diagonal brace No. 5
and horizontal brace No. 10. (See Fig. 62.)
While the drawing indicates that slots should be cut through
the fuselage vertical and diagonal brace members i inch deep by
r> i Q inch wide to permit the cables to pass, it would undoubtedly
be better practice to drill holes through the pieces and provide
fairleads of short lengths of aluminum tubing of jM$-inch O.D.
which would pass through both vertical and diagonal pieces and
be well greased inside after assembly. If the tubing ends were
allowed to project through for about ^ inch on each side and
were flared out or bell-mouthed they would remain in place and
the strength of the vertical and diagonal bracing members would
not be materially weakened at one of the most important joints
of the fuselage assembly. Standard aluminum or Micarta
pulleys with oil or graphite impregnated bushings may be secured
from supply houses cheaper than they can be made by the
amateur.
Control Cable Fittings.—Some enlarged details for the con
trol cable fittings of the Dickson Glider are given at Fig. 70.
The red fiber fairlead, used where there is only a small bend
in the cables, as under the seat for the rudder control, are made
by sandwiching two pieces of ^-inch thick red fiber between
18 gauge plates and providing holes for No. 4 B.A. bolts. This
is clearly shown at A.
The aileron control wires, as shown in schematic drawing at
Fig. 71, pass over two pulleys carried over the pilot's head and
immediately below the wing spar attachment on the front face
of the No. i vertical fuselage member. (See Fig. 62.) This
is shown in an enlarged detail at Figure 706. The two sheaves
are carried inside a box frame made of 18 gauge steel plate, the
front and rear of which are separated by a spacer member made
of ^-inch O.D. by J^-inch I.D. by !% G -inch long steel tubing
on which the pulleys are a running fit, the bore being enlarged
to take a brass bushing having V.^-inch walls and a ^j-inch
I.D. The pulleys are separated by brass, aluminum or steel
washers, and the entire assembly is bolted in place with a J^-inch
diameter bolt of the proper length. Before the sheaves or pulleys
are inserted, the 18 gauge frame member is attached to the fuse
lage front member by ^4-inch long No. 6 brass wood screws
which pass through the lapped parts of plate into the fuselage
member.
Aileron Cable Guide Sheaves.—The aileron control cables
must also pass over guiding sheaves in the wing frames. The
sheaves are lined up with the aileron lever, so when the cable
is bent around them it will connect directly with the aileron lever.
A i-inch square spruce block is glued and screwed to the face
of the spar and is drilled for a X;-mch diameter bolt. The block
projects through the fabric on both upper and lower surfaces
of the wing. Pulley guards to keep the cable from falling out
of the groove are made of 18 gauge steel plate on both top
and bottom pulleys as shown in the detail "C," Fig. 70. The
sides of the pulley guards are separated by spacer members of
JH$-inch tubing on which the sheaves are a free or running fit.
AILERON CABLE GUIDE SHEAVES 279
This tube is ^-inch long and has a y\ -inch T.D. Enlarged bore
bushings are provided in the pulleys, and washers are inserted
between the pulley bearing boss sides and the guard sides to
provide good running clearance.
One cable guide sheave is placed at the top and one at the
bottom surface of the wing. The %-inch bolt is long enough
to include the spacer block and both pulley and guard assemblies.
The bolt is inserted from the top with nut and split pin lock
at the bottom. The distance pieces will keep the pulleys from
binding on the sides of the boss because of the spacer members
used to separate the guard members and the wood block even
if the nut is tightened up all the bolt can stand. All guide sheaves
must be a free running fit on the supporting bolts or spacer
tubes on which they rotate.
Reference to Fig. 71 will show a group or cluster of double
pulleys at the point of juncture of the diagonal braces No. 5
and No. 6 with the top longeron No. 9 of the front station of
the fuselage and immediately below the rear pylon support No.
13. These pulleys are to guide the elevator control wires and
the enlarged detail is shown at Fig. 7oD. These pulley guards
carry fairleads of red fiber on each inclined face as indicated.
The construction of the guards is the same as previously de
scribed, 18 gauge steel plate being used with spacers to prevent
binding the sheaves when the through bolt is tightened up and
the laps in the plates are fastened to the fuselage member with
24-inch long No. 6 wood screws. These screws must be inserted
before the pulleys are assembled into the guard frames.
Control System of Glider.—The diagram of the Dickson
Glider is shown in perspective at Fig. 71 and the various control
SKETCHES SHOWING STABILIZING PLANE
FOR TRAINING GLIDER
Nvtend 'filled 'WK'Sproff (Not to Scale)
washer^ / Details of Rib B-
RibC the same
$ T only shorter
,£V4 * -Bolt
f\J
%
<b X
• '/2^l V^\ Supporting Eyebolt 'l4"O.D.x24 Gauge .„ For Attachment ofLeading
l'/2"«^ U—————- ^'^"———————i
, Alum. Tube {Fasten Tubing as Edge to tne R/bs, See Rudder
,on Rudder Tra/'/Jnc? Edge dffachmen f _
Details of Rib A / / Adjustment
j . S
I'M Adjus fm ?n / Strap ' ~ -Leading Edge of Stabilizer •
Ibgauge M.S. Ww/ Corresponds to Trailing
Eage of other
^ Surfaces
See Rudder Details
Secure as for Attachment
in of 3Ply Biscuits
Drill to Correspond with Ele va tor Hinges * Corner Brace Blocks '/?" Filler Block
-- 6" —>| Rear View of Stabilizer Spar Drill to Correspond to Elevator Hinges - "__ -9.
Fig. 72.—Sketches Showing the Construction of the Stabilizer or Tail Plane Frame of a Typical Training Glider.
GLIDER CONTROL CABLES 281
cables are clearly indicated as well as points where they are
guided by pulleys or fairleads. The rudder bar is supported
by its center at the nose of the keel and cables extend from
each end, through fiber fairleads on the seat from which point
they are carried toward the top longeron of the fuselage. A
pair of fiber fairleads is attached to the compression member
or vertical strut immediately forward of the rudder post to guide
the cables to the control horns on the rudder.
We will next trace out the aileron control cables. The control
stick is hinged to a support which is secured to a rocking tube
on the skid top carrying a lever or cross arm at the rear of the
pilot's seat. A pair of guide pulleys or sheaves are carried on
the vertical strut No. i immediately back of the pilot and above
his head and in line with the cross arm or lever on the torque
tube placed directly beneath the sheaves. The control cable from
the left side of the cross lever passes over the front pulley and
to the lower guide pulley attached to the right wing spar which
permits a right angle turn of the cable to the lower control horn
of the aileron on the right wing. From the upper horn of the
right aileron the cable passes over a pulley on top of the wing spar
and directly over the wing to the top pulley of the left wing
spar and joins the top control horn of the left aileron with the
similar member of the right aileron. The cable joined to the
lower left aileron control horn passes over the lower guide sheave
and from thence to the guide pulley on the vertical strut No. i
and to the right side of the cross lever on the torque tube.
When the control stick is pushed toward the high wing, the
cable hook-up is such that the aileron on the high side is raised
so the air pressure strikes its top and that on the low side is
depressed so the air pressure strikes the under side and increases
the lift.
When the control stick is pushed over to the right side, the
lever on the right side of the rocker shaft goes down, that on the
left side of the rocker shaft goes up. As the lever end goes
down, it pulls on the cable passing over the rear pulley of the
vertical strut assembly and the lower control horn on the left
aileron follows the movement of. the cable and is rocked on its
hinges so the lower surface is at a greater angle of the attack to
the wind than the airfoil is, thus increasing the lift. The follow
through cable which joins the upper control horns of the ailerons
pulls the right aileron up so its upper surface has a greater angle
of attack than the airfoil and the high wing is tilted down.
The stick is supported in a bearing member that permits it to
be rocked sideways and moved back and forth at the top at the
same time as shown in Fig. 69. A cable is attached to the lower
end of the stick in such a way that it passes over a guide pulley
at the glider keel nose from which point it runs over a guide
pulley attached to the keel or skid gussets back of the pilot's seat.
As there are two elevators, each having an independent control
cable these cables pass over double guide pulleys on the top lon
geron and are attached to the control cable actuated by the stick
at a point between the lower single cable guide pulleys and the
upper double guide pulleys.
The hook-up is such that when the stick is pushed forward, the
elevator surfaces are tilted so the air currents hit the lower face
and thus lift the tail and depress the nose. Pulling the stick back
moves the elevators in a reverse direction and the air currents
strike the top surfaces, which depresses the tail and elevates the
BRACING WIRES OF GLIDER 283
nose. When the nose points up, the glider climbs if there is an
upward current of air or if it has sufficient airspeed; when it
points down the glider returns to the ground or glides on a down
ward path.
Bracing Wires of Glider.—The assembling and rigging of
the Dickson training glider will not be difficult after the various
parts are completed and made ready for installation. The fuselage
should be completed first and all metal fittings, control unit, seat,
wing anchorage and tail plane anchorage eyebolts and control
member hinge bolts installed. The double wiring plates, shown
at Fig. 68B should be attached to the pylon top and to the main
keel so the flying and landing wires may be attached. The
bracing wire arrangement typical of training gliders shown in the
lower illustration at Fig. 60 is used on the Dickson Glider and
the instructions given in the preceding chapter for wire work,
wing covering and construction and glider alignment can be fol
lowed in completing the glider. When one considers the numer
ous views of training gliders given in preceding chapters, the
reader able to build the various parts will have no difficulty in
assembling and rigging them to form an airworthy glider.
THE END
INDEX
Aligning a Training Glider, 245
Alloy Steels, Strength of, 219
Acetate Dope, 234 Aluminum Guide Sheaves, 275
Acid Fluxes, Neutralizing, 239 Anchorage of Stabilizer, Dickson, 267
Adjusting Bracing Wires, 246 Angle of Glide, 40
Adjustment by Turnbuckle, 238 Incidence of Wing, 190
of Stabilizer, 267 Applying Dope to Wings, 233
Aileron Actuating Methods, 206 Archdeacon Water Glider, n
Control, Dickson Glider, 281 Archytas, Work of, I
for Lateral Control, 202 Area of Bird's Wings, 56
Horns, 229 Ash or Elm for Runners, 199
Horn, Dickson, 261 Properties and Uses, 221
Movement, Dickson Glider, 281 Aspect Ratio of Soaring Planes, 65
Ribs, 229 Assembling Wing Parts, 230
Shape, 203 of Dickson Glider Wing, 254
Aircraft Bracing and Control Wires, Glider Tail, 266
236 Wing Ribs in Jig, 227
for Glider Launching, 175 Atmosphere, Structure of, 23
Materials, Strength Weight Factors, Attachment of Bracing Wires, 189
217 Dickson Aileron Horns, 261
Air Current Diagrams, 34 Struts, 189
Finding with Smoke, 157 Attraction of Gravity, 37
Nature of, 22 Automatic Glider Release, 176
Turbulent, 72
Used by Birds, 45 B
Filled Balls for Landing Gear, 199
Flow Diagrams, 29 Balance, Gust Effect on, 71
Airfoil Curves, Sailplane, 178 Balanced Balloon to find Air Currents,
Profile, Clark Y.H., 253 155
Dimensions of, 228 Rudder, Dickson, 263
Section Wing Lift of, 32 Balancing Balloon, 156
Air Has Weight, 25 Ball Jointed Stick Control, 207
in Motion, Force of, 22 Balloon, Use of, to Determine Air
Airplanes for Glider Towing, 174 Currents, 155
Air Pockets and Bumps, 33 Bearings for Torque Tube, 275
Pressure Variation with Speed, 31 Beaufort Scale of Wind Force, 26
Resistance, 27 Bending Strength of Wood, 222
Turbulence, 35 Besnier Machine, 2
Wheel Landing Gears, 199 Biplane Glider, Dresden, 75
Airworthiness Regulations, Light Air vs. Monoplane Gliders, 68
craft, 108 Birch, Properties and Uses, 221
Rules for Gliders, 106 Birds and Plane Form Compared, 63
Alexander Glider, 125 Center of Gravity Location in, 50
Specifications, 129 Flapping and Soaring, 43
Views of, 126 Flies Instinctively, 61
285
286
Flight, Difficult to Imitate, 58 Cadet II Training Glider, 130
Influence on Gliding, 51 Cantilever Wings, 68
Studies of, 41 Spar Fitting, 188
Varies, 43 Carbon Content, S.A.E. 1025 Steel, 216
Have Efficient Form, 48 Casein Glue, 220
How They Control Flight, 53 Catapulted Gliders, 161
Lessons Taught By, 59 Cause of Air Currents, 22
Wings and Muscles, 46 Bumps, 33
Area of, 56 Winds, 26
Loading, 55 Cayley, Sir George, 3
Profiles, 51 Center of Gravity in Birds, 50
Blue Prints, Glider, 119 Chanute Gliders, 4
Body Section of Birds, 48 Characteristics of 4130 X Steel, 217
Streamline, 27 Wing Profile Forms, 180
Bonncr Soarer Fuselage, 191 Chrome Molybdenum Steel, 216
Bowlus Combination Sailplane, 144 Tubing, Strength of, 219
Constructional Details, 132 Clark Y.H. Airfoil, 253
Sailplane, 132 Classes of Pilots' Licenses, 20
Specifications, 135 Sailplanes, 66
Box Beam Spars, 182 Classification of Glider Records, 104
Spar Web Splice, 188 Cloth, for Gliders, 219
Braced Wings, 68 Clouds, Effect on Air Currents, 34
Bracing for Empennage, 244 Club Organization, 98
Lift and Drag, 242 Cold Rolled Medium Carbon Steel, 218
Rib, Lattice, 186 Combination P.T. and S.T. Sailplane,
Tubes for Stabilizer, 268 143
Wires, Adjusting, 246 Comparing Birds and Sailplanes, 59
and Cables, 236 Composition of Dopes, 234
Arrangement, 240 Compressive Strength of Wood, 222
Attachment, 189 Condor Wing Spread, 56
Diagram of, 243 Constitution and By-laws, Glider Club,
Dickson Glider, 283 100
Terminals, 237 Construction of Dickson Fuselage, 252
Bracket for Stick Support, 274 Glider Wing, 253
Bridging for Ribs, Tape, 257 Rudder, 263
Building a Glider, Considerations Be Dresden Glider, 76
fore, 174 Front Spar, Dickson, 255
Training Glider, 247 Glider Release, 177
Bulkhead for Oval Fuselage, 194 I Girder Spars, 184
of Sailplane "Edith," 194 Launching Hook, 163
Bumpiness Less at Night, 36 Rear Spar, Dickson, 255
Bumps and Air Pockets, 33 Sailplane Fuselages, 194
By-laws, Glider Club, 100 Ribs, 185
Skids or Runners, 198
Stabilizer, Dickson, 264
"Vampyr," 82
Wing Ribs, 227
Cable Fairleads, 271 Spars, 183
Fittings, Dickson, 277 Control by Altering Wings, 66
Guide Sheave Support, 278 Cadet II Sailplane, 1306
Splices, 236 Displacing Body Weight, 66
Strength of Wire, 223 Rudders, 66
Wire, 215 Tubes, 207
INDEX 287
Cable Arrangement, 241 Showing Glider Launching, 160
Column Details, Dickson, 273 Piloting, 166
Movement, 275 Dickson Control Unit Assembly, 270
Support, 274 Fuselage Construction, 249
of Sailplanes, 69 Glider Bracing Wires, 283
Surfaces, Design Loads for, no Control Wire Layout, 276
Hook-up, Typical, 245 Metal Fittings, 260
on Airplanes, 64 Wing Construction, 253
Systems Required, in Metal Fittings, 268
Unit Assembly, Dickson, 270 P.T. Glider, Building, 248
Wires and Cables, 236 Rudder Frame, 262
Diagram of, 243 Stabilizer Anchorage, 267
Layout, Dickson Glider, 276 Frame, 264
Sheaves, 272 Dimensioned Drawing, Dickson Ele
Tracing, 282 vator, 265
Convection Currents, 35 Rudder, 262
Cost of Building a Glider, 247 Stabilizer, 280
Materials for Glider Construction, Plan, Dickson Glider, 251
211 Dimensions of Glider Parts, 210
Covering for Wings, Regulations for, Directors, Glider Club, 99
112 Disadvantage of Wheel Landing Gear,
Wing Frames, 231 . 200
Crawford Powered Glider, 142 Distances Covered by Soaring, 159
Currents, Convection, 35 Divided Wing Rib, 188
Curved Runner Landing Gear, 197 Dope, Cellulose-Acetate, 234
-Nitrate, 234
D Composition of, 234
for Wing Covering, 220
Daedalus, Myth of, i Number of Coats Required, 235
Darmstadt Glider "Konsul," 78 Used, 235
Sailplane, 62 Doping the Wings, 233
"Edith," 77 Double Pulleys, Support of, 279
"Geheimrat," 91 Runner Landing Gear, 198
Da Vinci Flying Machine, 3 Wiring Plates, 269
Definition of Glide Ratio, 73 Drag Bracing, Wood for Wings, 186
Gliding, 148 Wires, 242
Sailflying, 148 Dresden Biplane Glider, 75
Description of Materials Used in Gli Monoplane Glider, 93
ders, 209 Drying Type Marine Glue, 226
Design Loads for Controls, no Dual Control Glider, 136
Fuselages, 112 Duraluminum (i7ST), Strength of,
Wings, 109 219
Landing Gears, in Tubes, Weights of, 224
Trend, Glider, 115 Dynamic Sailflying, 149
Details of Aluminum Pulleys, 275
Detroit Gull Glider, 120
Specifications, 122
Development of Gliding, Influence of Early Flights, I
Birds on, 51 Elementary Gliding, 158
Diagrams of Air Flow, 29 Elevator Control, Dickson Glider, 282
Bracing Wires, 243 Controls Longitudinal Stability, 203
Control Wires, 243 Details, Dickson, 264
Lawrence Water Glider, 140 Frame Ribs, 265
288 INDEX
Elm, Properties and Uses, 221 Design Loads for, 112
Empennage Bracing, 244 for Training Glider, Dickson, 249
and Controls, Detroit Gull, 121 Members, Dickson, 252
Entering Edge Former Ribs, 186 Metal Tube, i3oA, 191
Equipment and Instruments, Glider, of Bonner Soarer, 191
Bowlus Sailplane, 132
Evans, Edward S., Work of, 103 Detroit Gull, 121
Glider Specifications, 125 "Vampyr," 83
Open Wood Frame, 191
Plywood Covered, 191
Tails, 193
Fabric Covering, How Secured, 232 Types of, 191
Factors Limiting Sailflying, 151 with Bulkheads, 191
Fairleads and Pulley Guards, 279 without Bulkheads, 191
Fiber Fairleads, 279
Figure Eights, Flying, 154
Finding Height of Balloon, 156
Rising Air Currents, 155 Gas Generator, Hydrogen, 156
Finishing Rib, Elevator Frame, 265 Generator of Gas for Balloon, 156
Fir, Properties and Uses, 221 Girder I Spar Construction, 184
Fittings for Braced Wing Spar, 188 Glide Ratio, Definition of, 73
Cantilever Wing Spar, 188 Glider Action, 38
Wing Tip Skids, Dickson, 260 and Sailplane Diagrams, 67
Miscellaneous Metal, 268 Archdeacon, n
Protecting, 220 Blue Prints, 119
Flapping Birds, 43 Boats, Peel, 139
Flexible Runners Desirable, 198 Building, When Justified, 176, 248
Flights, Early, I Cadet II Training, 131
Gliding and Soaring, 146 Chanute, 4
Mythical, I Club, Constitution and By-laws, 100
of Birds, Instinctive, 61 Directors, 99
Herring, 6 How to Form, 98
Wright Brothers, 7 Officers, 99
Sustained Sailplane, 71 Technical Committee, 99
Tests, Light Aircraft, 113 Controlled by Wing Movement, 205
Fluxes for Soldering Cables, 239 Design, Trend of, 115
Neutralizing Acid, 239 Detroit Gull, 120
Flying Creatures, Living, 53 Development, Early, I
Figure Eights, 154 Drawings, Early, 5
Fish, 55 Dresden Monoplane, 93
Machine, Da Vinci, 3 Dual Control, 136
Wires, 242 Hannover "Vampyr," 80
Swivel Fittings for, 259 How Supported in Air, 39
Forces, Lift and Drag, 30 Instruments, 63
of Air in Motion, 22 Launching, Shock Cord Method, 161
Resisting Flight, 37 Tow Car Speed, 173
Former Rib Construction, 229 Marquis de Bacqueville, 2
Entering Edge, 186 Materials Used in, 209
Frame of Elevator, Dickson, 264 Montgomery, 6
Front Spar Construction, Dickson, 255 Multiplane, 4
Fuselage Bays, Dickson, 251 Must Be Approved, 19
Choice of, 191 Percy Pierce, 8
Construction, Oval Section, 195 Parts, Dimensions of, 210
INDEX 289
Pilcher, 4 Hook for Launching Dickson Glider>

Piloting Diagrams, 166 273
Pilots' License, Tests for, 165 Launching, 163
Pilots, Pioneer, 3 Hook-up of Control Surface, 245
Pilot, Protection of, 127 Horizontal Stabilizer, 203
Records, Classification of, 104 Wedge Tail, 193
Release, Automatic, 176 Hydrogen Gas, How to Generate, 156
Powered, 141
Should Be Licensed, 106 I
Sporting Licenses, 104
Student Sits in Open, 164 Icarus, Myth of, I
Support Principles, 40 Ideal Location for Soaring, 153
Suspension Type, 8 Incidence Angle of Wing, 190
Tail Assembly, 266 Instruments for Gliders, 63, 119
Towing by Airplane, 174 Instructions for Launching Gliders,
Training, 14 162
Unorthodox, 118 Soaring, 168
Water, 137 Internal Wing Bracing, 187
Wings, Angle of Incidence of, 190
Gliding and Soaring Flights, 146
and Soaring Terrain, 152
Angle, 40 Jig for Wing Rib Assembly, 227
as a Sport, 13 Junker's Wing Connections, 188
Definition of, 148
Endorsed by Experts, 17 K
Not Dangerous, 16
Glue, Casein, 220
Glued Spruce Spar, 182 Keel Assembly, Dickson Glider, 251
Gottingen Profiles, 178 Kite Action, 38
Gravity, Attraction of, 37 Klemperer on Gliding, 17
Center of, in Bird's, 50
Ground Contour, Influence on Bumps,
33
Guide Sheaves, Aluminum, 275 Landing Gears, Design Loads for, in
Guides for Control Wires, 272 Double Runner, 198
Gull in Flight, 53 of Detroit Gull, 121
Gusts, Effects of, 71 of "Vampyr," 83
Gymnich Glider, 14 Sailplane, 196
Wheeled, 199
H Wires, 242
La Pruvo Sailplane, 60
Hannover Glider "Vampyr," 80 Lateral Balance, Effect of Gusts, 71
H 6 "Pelikan" Sailplane, 86 Control By Ailerons, 202
Sailplane "Greif," 84 Lattice Work Spars, 181
Han Sin Kite, 2 Launching a Glider, 158
Harth and Messerschmitt, 12 by Catapult, 161
Heat Treated Alloy Steels, Strength Gliders From Aircraft, 175
Values, 219 Hook Construction, 163
Duraluminum (17 ST), 219 Dickson Glider, 273
Height of Wind Zone, 158 Methods Illustrated, 170
Hesselbach, Peter, 13 Point for Beginners, 167
Hills, Best form for Air Currents, 72 Lawrence Biplane Water Glider, 139
Hollow Struts, 188 Layout of Dickson Control Wires, 276
290 INDEX
Leading Edge, Dickson Wing Frame, Movement of Control Column, 275
256 Moving Air Exerts Pressure, 37
Plywood Covering, 188 Multiplane Glider, 4
Rudder Frame, 263 Muscles and Wings of Birds, 46
LeBris, Captain, 3 Power of Birds, 47
Glider, 53 Mythical Flights, i
Leonard Dual Control Glider, 136
Leonardo da Vinci, Work of, 2 N
Licensing Gliders, 106
Lift and Drag Bracing, 242 Nails, Use of in Wing Assembly, 187
Drag Forces, 30 National Glider Association, 99, 103
Drag Ratio Limit, 167 Nature of Air Currents, 22
Light Aircraft, Airworthiness Regula Neutralizing Acid Fluxes, 239
tions, 108 Nitrate Dope, 234
Flight Tests, 113 No. 4i3oX Steel, 216
Lilienthal, Otto and Gustave, 4 Nomenclature of Wing Beams, 182
Lindbergh on Gliding, 17 Non-drying Marine Glue, 226
Liquid Marine Glues, 226 Northrop Glider Plan, 116
Loading of Birds' Wings, 55 Nose Ribs, 185
Longerons and Struts, 193
Wing Attachment, 260 O
Longitudinal Control by Elevator, 203
Lugs, Double Wiring, 269 Officers, Glider Club, 99
Single Wiring, 269 One Spar Ribs, 179
Open Wood Frame Fuselage, 191
M Organization of Gliding Club, 98
Oval Fuselage, Bulkhead for, 194
Magnan Soaring Plane, 45 Construction, 195
Magnan's Studies of Bird Flight, 41
Main Plane, Dickson Glider, 254
Maple, Properties and Uses, 221
Marine Glues, Liquid Marine, 226 Peel Glider Boat, 139
Marquis de Bacqueville Glider, 2 Penney, J. C., Jr., 19
Materials, Cost of, 211 Phosphorus, Used to Produce' Smoke,
Specifications for, 212 157
Used in Glider Construction, 209 Pilcher, Percy S., 4
Medium Carbon Steel, Cold Rolled, Pilots' Licenses, Three Classes of, 20
218 Pioneer Glider, 3
Meerwin, Karl Frederick, 25 Training, Glider and Sailplane, 164
Members, Number Per Glider, 101 Pine, Properties and Uses, 221
Messerschmitt "Si3" Sailplane, 97 Pioneer Glider Pilots, 3
Metal Fittings, 189, 269 Placing of Pilot's Seat, 193
Dickson Glider, 260 Single Spar in Wing Frame, 182
Miscellaneous, 268 Plan of Dickson Glider Fuselage, 250
Parts of Gliders, 215 Lawrence Water Glider, 140
Tube Fuselage, 191 Northrop Glider, 116
Method of Balancing Balloon, 156 Plane Forms, 65
Monocoque Fuselage Construction, Plates for Wire Anchorage, 269
193 Plywood Angles to Reinforce Fuse
Monoplane Construction Favored, 68 lage, 194
Glider, Dresden, 93 Bulkhead, Reinforced, 194
Montgomery Glider, 6 Gussets, Dickson, 253
Motored Pilots, Status of, 106 in Fuselages, 194
INDEX 291
Leading Edge, 256 Ropes, Strength of Wire, 223
Leading Edge Covering, 188 Wire, 215
Web Spars, 182 Rotatable Wing Control, 205
Power Gliders, Crawford, 142 Routed Spruce Spar, 182
Powered Gliders, 141 Rudder Bar Construction, 271
Pressure of Moving Air, 37 Control, Dickson Glider, 281
Primary Instructions, Towed Glider, Frame, Dickson Glider, 260
169 Leading Edge, 263
Training Glider, Alexander, 125 Rib Capstrips, 263
Glider Construction, 210 Vertical, 204
Glider, Detroit Gull, 122 Runner Curvature Important, 198
Evans, 124 Spring Type, 199
Northrop, 116
System, 165
Principles of Glider Support, 40
Profiles of Bird's Wing, 51 S.A.E. 1025 Steel, 216
Properties and Uses of Woods, 221 Safety seat attachment, 271
Protecting Metal Fittings, 220 Wiring Turnbuckles, 189
Protection of Glider Pilot, 127 Sailflying, Definition of, 148
Pterodactyl, 56 Factors Limiting, 151
Pulleys for Control Wires, 272 Static and Dynamic, 149
Pulley Guards and Fairleads, 279 Technique, 151
Pylon Construction, Dickson Glider, Wind Currents for, 150
252 Sailplanes and Birds Compared, 59
Bowlus, 132
Q Classes of, 66
Combination P.T. and S.T., 143
Quick Release in Towed Flights, 171 Control of, 69
Darmstadt, 62
R "Edith," 77
"Geheimrat," 90
Ratio of Glide, 73 "Kpnsul," 78
Rear Spar Construction, Dickson, 255 "Der Dessauer," 89
Reinforced Longerons, Plywood An Designs, La Pruvo, 60
gles, 194 Dresden Monoplane, 94
Release for Gliders, Automatic, 176 Flights, Sustained, 71
Requirements of Towed Glider Flights, Fuselage Details, 194
107 Hannover "Greif," 84
Resistance of Air, 27 H6 "Pelikan," 86
Ribs, Dickson Glider, 254 "Vampyr," 80
for Elevator Frame, 265 Landing Gears, 196
Vertical Rudder, 263 Messerschmitt "Si3," 97
How to Make, 227 Pilot Training, 164
Interval, 185 Rib Construction, 185
Rigid or Flexible, 185 Steering Organs, 202
Single Spar With Plywood Web, Supporting Surface, 28
186 Typical, 74
Two Spar, 186 Weights and Dimensions, 74
Warren Truss, 186 Wing Curves, 178
Weakest Point in, 187 Plans, 179
Webs, 185 Spars, 182
Rigging Training Gliders, 245 Zaunkoenig, 62
Rising Air Currents, How to find, 155 Scale of Wind Force, Beaufort, 26
292 INDEX
Seat Back, Glider, 271 for Materials, 212
of Dickson Glider, 271 of "Pelikan," 88
Placing Pilot's, 193 Peel Glider Boat, 139
Support, Dickson Glider, 271 Speed, Influence on Air Pressure, 31
Securing Solid Aviator Wire, 238 of Tow Car in Glider Launching,
Serving Splices in Cable, 238 173
Shape of Ailerons, 203 Spliced Cables, Types of, 236
Bird's Body, 49 Splicing Box Spar Web, 188
Shearing Strength of Wood, 222 Sporting Licenses, Glider, 104
Sheaves for Control Wires, 272 Spreading Dope, 233
Sheet Iron and Steel, Weight of, 226 Spring Type Runner, 199
Shock Cord Launching Diagrams, 160 Spruce, Properties and Uses, 221
Single Wiring Lug, 269 Stabilizer Adjustment, Dickson, 267
Skid Attachment to Fuselage, 197 Bracing Tubes, 268
or Runner Construction, 198 Construction, Dickson, 264
Slope Currents, 150 Horizontal, 203
Wind Diagrams, 70 Stabilizing Plane Frame, Dickson,
for Gliding, 40 280
Smoke Clouds to Indicate Air Cur Static Sailflying, 149
rents, 157 Steel Chrome Molybdenum, 216
Produced by Phosphorus, 157 Cold Rolled, 216
Soaring Birds, 43 No. 4i3oX, 216
Flight, Dinort, 13 S.A.E. 1025, 216
Shulz, 13 Tubes, Weights of, 224
Wright, 9 Used in Aircraft Construction, 215
Instruction, 168 Steering Organs, Sailplane, 202
Long Distances, 159 Stick Control Best, 206
Plane Wing Sections, 117 Control, Dickson, 273
Types of Ships for, 148 Movement, Dickson, 282
Soldering Cables, 239 Movement for Glider Control, 275
Solid Aviator Wire, How Used, 236 Stiffeners for Dickson Wing Frame,
Section Spruce Spars, 230 256
Spacer Members in Sheave Assembly, Stiffening Blocks, Use of, 194
279 Stitching Wing Covering Fabric, 232
Spacing of Wing Ribs, 185 Straps for Bracing Wires, Dickson,
Strips Between Ribs, 230 258
Spars, Box. Beam, 181 Stabilizer Adjustment, 267
Fitting for Braced Wing, 188 Stratosphere, Definition of, 24
for Glider and Sailplane Wings, 182 Streamline Body, 27
Front and Rear, Dickson, 255 Wire, 238
Plywood I Beam, 181 Strength Increase Due to Dope, 235
Routed and Glued Spruce, 181 of Chrome Molybdenum Tubing,
Sections, Dickson Glider, 254 219
Solid Section Spruce, 230 Materials for Gliders, 218
Support Fittings, Dickson, 258 Turnbuckles, 225
Triangular, 188 Wire Cables, 223
Specifications, Alexander Glider, 129
Bowlus Sailplane, 135 Ropes, 223
Cadet TI Training Glider, 130 Woods, 222
"Der Dessauer," 90 Value, Chrome Molybdenum Tub
Detroit Gull, 123 ing, 219
Dresden Monoplane, 95 H.T. Alloy Steels, 219
Evans Glider, 125 Dural. (I7ST), 219
INDEX
S.A.E. 1025, 218 Trend of Glider Design, 115
-Weight Factors, 217 Triangular Spar Cross Section, 188
Stringing the Wing Fabric, 232 Troposphere, Definition of, 24
Structure of Atmosphere, 23 Tubes for Aileron and Elevator Con
Strut Attachments, 189 trol, 206
Dimensions, Dickson Fuselage, 251 Weight of Duraluminum, 224
Hollow, 188 Tubing for Control Stick, 273
Student Position, P.T. Gliders, 164 Rudder Bar, 271
Study of Soaring Birds, 43 Trailing Edge, 256
Successful Gliding, Factors Limiting, Turbulence in Air, 35
154 Turbulent Air Currents, 72
Supports for Guide Sheaves, 278 Turnbuckles, Safety Wiring, 189
of Control Stick, 274 Strength of, 225
Supporting Glider in Air, 39 Typical Control Hook-up, 245
Suspension Gliders, 66 P.T. Glider Fuselage, 208
Swaged Wire and Terminals, 236
Swivel or Hinge Fittings for Flying U
Wires, 259
System of Primary Training, 165 Up Currents of Air, 72
Uses of Common Woods, 221
V
Table of Strength Weight Factors,
218 Velocity of Wind, 32
Tail Assembly, Dickson Glider, 266 Vertical Rudder, 204
Skid for Horizontal Wedge, 197 Rudder, Dickson, 263
Vertical Wedge, 197 Essential, 118
Use of, 201, 202 Wedge Tail, 193
Tape Bridging for Ribs, 257
Technical Committee, Glider Club, 99
Tensile Strength of Wood, 222 W
Terminals, Cables, 237
Terrain for Gliding and Soaring, 152 Warping Wing Control, 205
Territory for Gliding and Sailflying, Wright, 9
153 Water Gliders, 137
Tests for A and B License, 165 Archdeacpn, n
C License, 165 Lawrence Biplane, 139
Torque Tube and Bearings, 274 Weakest Point in Ribs, 187
Tow Car Speed, 173 Webs of Ribs, 185
Towed Flights, Quick Release, 171 Weights and Dimensions of Sailplanes,
Glider Flight Requirements, 107 74
Primary Instructions With, 169 Increase Due to Dope, 235
Towing Gliders, Notes on, 173 of Air, 25
Tracing Dickson Control Wires, 282 Duraluminum Tubes, 224
Trailing Edge, Dickson Wing Frame, Sheet Iron and Steel, 226
256 Steel Tubes, 224
Training Beginners, 167 Wheel Gears, Disadvantage of, 200
Glider Bracing Wires, 239 Wide Advancing Edge, Principle of,
Construction, 227 60
Launching, 40 Winds, Cause of, 26
Parts, 14 Currents for Sailflying, 150
Rigging, 245 Diagram of Slope, 70
Pilots, 164 Force, Beaufort Scale, 26
294 INDEX
Pressure Table, 31 Types of for P.T. Glider Wing,
Utilization By Soaring Birds, 44 227
Zone, 158 Span of Gliders, 117
Wing Area of Birds, 56 Spars, Construction of, 183
Assembling, 230 Spread of Condor, 56
Attachment to Longeron, Dickson, Tip Skid Fittings, Dickson, 260
260 Warping, 9
Beam Nomenclature, 182 Wires and Cables, Bracing and Con
Braced, 68 trol, 236
Bracing, Internal, 187 Cable and Rope, 215
Cantilever, 68 Strength of, 223
Connections, Junker's Wing, 188 Connecting Fitting, Dickson, 268
Construction, Bowlus, 133 Dickson Glider Bracing, 283
Cadet II, i3oA Drag, 242
Sailplane, 181 Flying, 242
Controlled Gliders, 205 Landing, 242
Covering Fabric, Stitching, 232 of Glider, Bracing, 239
Material, Regulations for, 112 Ropes, Strength of, 223
Curves, Sailplane, 178 Wiring Plates, Dickson, 269
Template, 227 Wood, Factors Determining Strength
Design Loads for, 109 of, 214
Drag Bracing, Wood, 186 Frame Fuselage, Plywood Covered,
Fittings, Dickson Glider, 258 191
Frame Construction, Dickson, 254 Properties of, 221
Covering, 231 Spring Runner, 197
Placing of Single Spar, 182 Strength of, 222
Loading of Birds, 55 S.W. Factors, 218
Method of Sailplane Control, 202 Used in Gliders, 214
Plans, Sailplane, 179 Wing Drag Bracing, 186
Profiles, Birds', 51 Working of, 214
Characteristics, 180 Wright Brothers, Work of, 7
Rib Construction Jig, 227 Wrought Metals, S.W. Factors, 218
Divided, 188
Loads for, 109
Nose, 185
One Spar Designs, 179
Spacing, 185 Zaunkoenig Sailplane, 62
Two Spar, 186 Zone of Wind, 158

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HENLEY'S

ILLUSTRATED WITH NUMEROUS SPECIALLY MADE DRAWINGS. WRITTEN IN

ALL RIGHTS IN ALL FOREIGN

PRINTED IN THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA

MR. EDWARD S. EVANS, Honorary President

Force of Air in Motion—Structure of the Atmosphere—The Stratosphere—

Launching and Flying the Catapulted Glider—Method of Training Sailplane

Sailplane Wing Curves—Characteristics of Various Profile Forms—Sailplane

Description of a Typical Training Glider—Cost of Materials—Specifications

Typical Airfoil Curve and Ribs—Assembling the Wings—Covering the Wings

HISTORY OF EARLY GLIDER DEVELOPMENT

Some Early Flights.—About the year 1300 before Christ,

A forerunner of the modern airplane

Otto Lilienthal- Father of Gliding

A modern experimenter. Dr. Pe/fzner,

Fig. 2.—Two Types of Gliders or "Suspension" Type Motorless Air­

Gliders may be /aunched

Why a 0/ider C/ub needs a

Fig- 3-—An Improved Form of Wright Brothers' Biplane Glider Shown

CAUSES AND NATURE OF AIR CURRENTS-

Force of Air in Motion.—Air in motion may exert consider­

F-Foresf B-P/onn F-Foresf

Fig. 6.—Diagrams Showing How Variations in the Nature of the

is an authority on the structure of the air, gives some interesting

Mean Wind Equiva­

Calm .......... Calm ; smoke rises vertically. .... .00 .00 o

Flow of Airstreom around Air Stream deflected by

Fig. 7.—Diagrams Showing Air Flow Around Various Bodies and

Direction of Relative Wind

Fig. 8.—Diagram Showing Meaning of Lift and Drag and Forces

WIND PRESSURE AT VARIOUS VELOCITIES

Feet Velocity feet Miles Pressure per

The figures given above have been determined by considering

Wind blowing across Hilltop causes

In Sunshine . ' . In Sunshine

Fig. 9.—How Air Currents Are Produced by Clouds and Elevations

Kite Tail for

Starting Pope Just Leaving Hook

Fig. 10.—The Attraction of Gravity Compared to the Pull on a Kite

A STUDY OF SOARING BIRDS—INFLUENCE OF

Dr. Magnan's Study of Birds.—Dr. Magnan, Doctor of

Dr. Mag nan's

Fig. ii.—Front and Rear Views of Monoplane Soarer Designed by

The Heron iso

Fig. 13.—Drawings by Doctor Magnan Showing the Center of Gravity

Center of Gravity Location in Birds.—Dr. Magnan has also

R.A.F. No.5 Aerofoil Section

Wing Section of Dusky Horned Ow

R.A.F. No. 3 Aerofoil Section

Wing Section of Herring Gull

Fig. 14.—How Birds' Wing Sections Compare with Early Airfoil

Soaring bird,with wing tips flexed to secure

Hexed Wing Tip

extended for Balance

Fig. 15.—Study of Bird Flight Gave Man the Clue to Mechanical

German Taube Design Soaring Bird

Fig. 2.—Two Types of Gliders or "Suspension" Type Motorless Air

Force of Air in Motion.—Air in motion may exert consider

Mean Wind Equiva

Grouping Sailplanes Into Classes.—First of all it is neces

Club Organization.—The big majority of the glider enthu

The board of directors of the club shall consist of seven mem

Glider must not be taken out without permission of the presi

Members will take their instructions from the leader or in

It is built to meet the airworthiness requirements of the De