Jaypee Business School

A constituent of Jaypee Institute of Information Technology

(Deemed University)
A-10, Sector 62, Noida (UP) India 201 307
www.jbs.ac.in

Social Internship Report

(NEHRU YUVA & GRAMIN SEVA SANSTHAN)

Submitted as a partial fulfillment for the award of the Two year Full Time Program in
Master of Business Administration

Name:SHWTA GARG
MBA 2009-11
Enrollment No.:09609158

Supervisor from NGO

Name:RICHA GUPTA
Contact details:9719691523
Mailing Address:[email protected]

Academic Supervisor:
Name:MR DEBDEEP DE

Start Date for Internship:23rd feb,2011

End Date for Internship: 23rd march,2011
 Candidate Declaration/Certificate of Supervisor

I hereby declare that the work which is being presented in this report is an authentic
record of my own work carried out under the supervision of Miss Richa Gupta , manager,Nehru
Yuva & Gramin Seva Sansthan,New Friends Colony ,Chibramau,Bevar road ,Mainpuri
The matter embodied in this report has not been submitted by me for the award of
any other degree.

Dated: 25th march Name of Student: SHWETA GARG

This is to certify that the above statements made by the candidate are correct to the
best of my knowledge.

Supervisor’s name:MISS RICHA GUPTA

Designation: MANAGER
NGO:NEHRU YUVA & GRAMIN SEVA SANSTHAN
25th march,2011

…………./HRD/REC/2010-11

Sub: Short Term Project Certificate

TO WHOM SOEVER IT MAY CONCERN

This is to certify that Miss Shweta Garg, a student of MBA Course (2009-11) batch
from
Jaypee Business School, Noida has successfully completed her Short term project with
us
as per following details:

Duration: 23rd feb,2011 to 23rd march,2011

Name of the Guide: MISS RICHA GUPTA

Shweta has submitted the project report to us and her project is found to be useful in the relevant
business. During her Project period we find her sincere, hard working and a good team player
having good behavior and moral character. We wish her all the success in future endeavors.

MR SK SINGH
PRESIDENT
 Acknowledgement

I express my profound gratitude to MISS RICHA GUPTA , Regional Manager,

NEHRU YUVA & GRAMIN SEVA SANSTHAN who assigned me as a Trainee . I want to
give my sincere thanks to her kind advice and guidance that had made my project successful.

Many of the sound advices have been well taken by me and it is largely due to his patience that I
was able to achieve my goals successfully.
I am also grateful to MR DEBDEEP DE ,Project facilitator, Jaypee Business School, Noida,
Mr SK SINGH , PRESIDENT , NEHRU YUVA & GRAMIN SEVA SANSTHAN., and all
the faculties of JBS who supported a lot and gave me the permission of Training in NEHRU
YUVA & GRAMIN SEVA SANSTHAN

Also I would like to give regards to my Parents, seniors, friends who have
in some way helped me in completing this project.

SHWETA GARG
E.NO-09609158
 Content

TOPIC PAGE NO

1)Executive summary 1

2)Introduction 2

3)Objective 2

4)Social problems:
i ) Poverty 2-3
ii) Social tensions 3-4
iii) Gender discrimination 5
iv) Some Other Social Problems : Corruption, Illiteracy and Urbanization. 5-6

5)Social Development – Its Place in Development Policy 7-9

6)Enabling Environment for Social Development. . 9-10

7)Challenges of Social Development

i) Poverty Alleviation 11-15
ii)gender equality 16-20
iii) Literacy & Education 21-35
8)Various programs 36

9)Role of public and private entrepreneur 37-38

10)Role of ngo 39-40

11)Introduction &activities of the ngo 41-43

12)Functional constrains of the ngo 44

13)Swot analysis of the ngo 45-46

14)Conclusion 47

15)Key learnings 48

16)Refrences 49-50
 Executive summary

“ Only the individuals can think and create new values for society – nay, even set up new
moral standards to which the life of community conforms. Without creative,
independently thinking and judging personalities, the upward development of society is
as unthinkable as the development of individual personality without the nourishing soil of
community”
-- Albert Einstein
These words of Albert Einstein beautifully express the importance of socially creative
individuals in the process of social development. Unfortunately, societies in many parts
of world often discourage and even turn hostile to these creative and independently
thinking individuals if they start working for changes in the existing social set-up.
Despite the opposition and hostility from certain elements in society, change agents have
existed in India as elsewhere in all ages. The gap between one’s values and dreams on
one side and social realities on other side leads to creative tensions, and drives
individuals to work for social changes. While some of these change agents have impacted
society through their personal examples, advocacy and practical grass root activities for
social progress; others took to political, legal or religious and spiritual routes for uplifting
the society; and some even adopted violent means to fight against tyrannical social values
and practices. In the context of social change agents during the 20
th century, Mahatma Gandhi deserves a special mention. He was able to inspire and lead a large
number of people to work for social harmony and development.
Although the social values and constructive social programs of Mahatma Gandhi and his
followers have created significant impact on the contemporary social life in India, an
assessment of his speeches and writings shows that many of his dreams and hopes were
unrealistic. Gandhi dreamt of a free India where the quality of social life of its people will
be one of the best in the world in a short span of time. While elaborating his constructive
programs in 1941 (i.e. about 6years before India’s independence), he declared, “ The
contrast between the palaces of New Delhi and the miserable hovels of the poor laboring
class nearby can not last one day in free India in which the poor will enjoy the same
power as the richest in the land.” We know the reality of what happened after India got
freedom in 1947. People around the world have seen the visual images of level of
poverty, misery, homelessness, hunger, inequity and exploitation of weaker sections in
free India through media reports. Today about 300 million Indians are not able to meet
even their basic subsistence needs. The alarming rate of environmental degradation is
another cause of serious concern. A report published by UNDP places India at 127th rank
in terms of Human Development Index (HDI) in a list of 177 countries. Since the social
realities in India are often daunting, we need more of poetic vision and entrepreneurial
energy in our development endeavors. 2
With this background, the report indicates the potential role of social entrepreneurship
and social businesses in addressing India’s problems. It also identifies some areas where
improvements are urgently needed
 (1)

Introduction

India is one of the developing nations of the modern world. It has become an independent
country, a republic, more than a half century ago. During this period the country has been
engaged in efforts to attain development and growth in various areas such as building
infrastructure, production of food grains, science and technology and spread of education.
The life expectancy has increased and many diseases have been controlled. However,
there are many areas in which Indian society is experiencing a variety of problems. Some
of these problems have their roots in our colonial past while others are related to demographic
changes, socio-political conditions and cultural processes. This lesson tries to
acquaint you with some of the problems and the psychological factors involved in them.
You will learn about some of the possible ways in which psychological interventions can
help in dealing with the problems.

Objectives

1) Explain social problems such as poverty, gender discrimination and social tension;
2) State the causes of these problems;
3) Suggest some interventions for dealing with these problems.

Poverty
A large section of the Indian society is suffering from poverty. Poverty is a phenomenonSocial
Problem :
which is objective as well a subjective. Objectively poverty implies a dehumanizing condition
in which people are unable to look after the basic needs. Subjectively poverty stands for
perceived deprivation. As such it is relative and any body can feel poor by comparing
himself as herself with a rich person. Poor people lack the necessary resources and capacity
to satisfy basic needs like food, shelter, health and education. They live under difficult
conditions which are not conducive for development of their human potential. As you have
learned earlier in the lesson 10 and 11 that for healthy human development a child needs
environmental support for survival and development. Poverty interferes with development
in many ways. For instance lack of or inadequate nutrition arrests mental development
during early childhood. The unavailability of stimulating environment and absence of effective
role models decreases the motivation level. A large section of poor children do not go to
school. Even if they go they become drop outs and fail to complete education.
In this context it may be pointed out that poverty is also related to the social structure. A
number of low caste, scheduled tribe and backward communities have been put to
discrimination for many centuries. They are socially disadvantaged and are deprived from
the experiences necessary for development on account of their membership of specific
groups. In this sense they are doubly deprived.

(2)
Studies have shown that the children from the background of poverty and social
disadvantage lag behind their counterparts from the enriched background. Their cognitive
development and performance is found to be at a lower level. Studies of perception,
memory an intelligence have demonstrated it several times. The studies have also shown
that the performance between the advantaged and disadvantaged children increases with
advancing age. It has also been found that the poverty condition is demotivating and makes
a person more vulnerable. Low level of achievement motivation and greater need for
dependence in these people make them less effective in coping with the problems of every
day life. As a result the poor become marginalized and can not contribute to the mainstream
of the society.
The question why some people are poor has been answered in many ways. The search for
causes of poverty has lead to many answers. It has been located in the individual, in the
social structure, or the culture of the people. For instance many people blame the victim
and consider the poor as responsible for the characteristics or dispositions of the people.
A detailed analysis of the problem of poverty shows that poverty is caused by multiple
factors. The social and economic structure in India promotes inequality, and social
disadvantages. The life in the poverty condition reinforces certain behaviour pattern, values
and coping styles which, reduce the chances of upward social mobility.

Social Tensions
The Indian society consists of people from different religious, linguistic and ethnic
backgrounds. Since long there has been cultural give and take between the people from202 ::
Psychology
India and other countries. Since 1947 when India gained political independence the country
has been engaged in the gigantic task of nation building. Efforts have been made to put
nation on the path of socio-economic development. The transformation of nation as a self
sufficient and cohesive political entity has proved to be a difficult challenge. The colonial
past, socio-economic disparities in the society and raised aspirations have culminated in a
complex situation. Traditionally the Indian society was hierarchically arranged and the
different communities and caste groups showed a pattern of social distance in which low
caste, tribals and minority groups were discriminated against and looked down upon.
Many of the communities were considered as untouchables.
The Indian constitution prohibits against such discrimination and has abolished untouchability.
However, it is still practiced in certain ways. All these condition have created a situation in
which various kinds of social tensions have become very frequent events are as follws :

1. If we look at the historical trends we notice that the partition of India led to
considerable degree of violence and the harmonious relations between Hindus
and Muslims were disturbed. As a result suspicion and mistrust has developed
between Muslims and Hindus. This has led to a number of clashes and conflicts
which have been violent and have generated hatred.
2. Various parts of the country are experiencing separatist movements. You must
have read about political movements in North East part of India (Assam, Nagaland,
 (3)
Tripura) where demands for separate political identities have been raised fromtime to time. The
Kashmir region is experiencing the negative impact of crossborder terrorism and people are
suffering. The Nuxalite movement in certain parts (Andhra Pradesh, Bihar, Madhya Pradesh) is
also creating political instability and problems of governance.
3. Caste-related prejudice and discrimination has also been on rise in certain parts of the country.
In the course of socialization people acquire negative attitudes and stereotypes.
Many times these are not founded in our real life experiences. Instead, they are based on false
information, personal impressions and hearsay. However, they are very powerful and shape our
behaviour in important ways. Thus if we have prejudice against some one it may lead to
aggression, hostility and harm doing towards the target groups. In recent years inter group
conflicts related to caste have moved from the social to the political arena of life. Infact caste
based alliances, groups and organization are growing fast. They utilize caste-related identity
for political gains. Today caste-affiliations are not so important in social or religious matters as
they are in political matters. In this context the rise of low caste groups who often call them
selves Dalits is becoming a prominent feature of modern India. The presence of this group has
changed the complexion of Indian political scene.
On the whole the Indian society is currently experiencing social tensions of various kinds. They
are related to the pattern of social change. In particular the rise of middle class migration of
people from villages to cities, increase in the degree of economic inequality, spread of education
and media are playing key role. The tensions in the lives of people at individual, family and
community level is clearly visible.
Most of the conflicts and tensions revolve around the issue of identity. Assertion of separate
identity and promoting the same with different tactics is becoming a central problem. People
use identities in an emotionally charged way to create a group structure for promoting certain
goals. Thus associations, committees and organizations are created to serve these purposes. The
creation of identity involves strategies which enhance similarity within the group and difference
between the groups. In this way a diversion of “in group” or “own group and “out group” or
other group is created. This kind of differentiation is present in almost all societies. This also
implies that the differences across groups cannot be totally eliminated. Some psychological
intervention for enhancing group behaviour
Since groups are inevitable and constitute an important part of our social reality what we
need is to recognize the essence and value of pluralism. All groups are important and play
distinct role. We need to appreciate this diversity in our social life in a positive manner. The
approach should be to evolve a strategy in which diverse groups and communities are
able to live distinct patterns of life the way they want. The various groups or communities
should compliment each other and help in achieving their goals. Super ordinate goals may
be created that may be shared by all the groups. To this end the following steps may prove
very helpful.
1. Increasing dialogue amongst the diverse groups existing in the society.
2. Building an atmosphere of mutual trust and harmony.
3. Equity and equality of opportunity for different groups needs to be ensured.
4. Greater opportunities for mutual care, respect and complementarity need to be
created.
 (4)

Gender Discrimination
Women and men are equally important for the growth and development of individual and
social lives. The women play the important role as mother and the same makes it unique.
However, careful analysis of Indian society indicates that the situation is not good for
women folk. The sex ratio of male and female in the India population has been changing
and becoming unfavourable towards women. In the Indian society women are considered
major contributors to family and society. We have gods and goddesses both and one of
the incarnation of lord Shiva is Ardhanareeshwar, which is made of half male and half
female in its constitution. Unfortunately this equality and prominence tells an incomplete
fact. The women are also subjected to discrimination in learning, dowry deaths and
exploitations of various kinds which are very common. In fact the women are becoming
targets of atrocities of many types. The same is manifested in discrimination against them
from very early period. The incident of infanticide, early marriage, emphasis on domestic
activities and lessor emphasis on education and career have made women’s lives full of
problems. They are discriminated against from early childhood. The Indian dependence
on others (e.g. parents, husbands) becomes fate of the majority of the women folk. The
pattern of discrimination against women varies across rural, urban and tribal areas. They
are assigned diverse responsibilities and treated as relatively weaker and less competent.
This image is still prevailing in various sections of the society. It is reflected in the
discriminatory practices in the family such as distribution of work, food and social activities.
The girl child is usually burdened with responsibilities that are beyond her capacity. Such
exploitations function as obstacles in the process of development and growth of the girl
child.
When a girl child matures and becomes an adult she is often found to be physically weak
and mentally constrained. They are neither able to realize their potentials nor able to
contribute to the mainstream of society. Their contributions are often limited to family and
that too are ignored.
However, some Indian women have been able to overcome the barriers in their path and
became successful in many walks of life. In this connection one can mention the names of
Pandita Rama Bai, Sarojini Naidu, Indira Gandhi who emerged as leaders at national
level. The provsion for education, legal provisions about the age of marriage and reservation
for women in various walks of life has contributed to change in their situation. Today the
presence of women in various occupations and public offices is much more prominent than
what it used to be during earlier periods. However, the Indian society has still to go a long
way as for as gender equality is concerned.

Some Other Social Problems : Corruption, Illiteracy and Urbanization.

As a developing country India is facing a number of problems which need careful analysisSocial
Problem :
and demands steps for their solution. These problems are many in number. The salient
ones include corruption, illiteracy and urbanization. Let us briefly discuss these problems.
 (5)
Corruption refers to those transactions which involve undue benefits to some people who
don’t deserve or are not entitled for them. Such transactions make some people recipients
of financial benefits, physical and social resources that make these people capable of
exhorting power over others and controlling the rewards and punishments for others. This
is often reflected in the formation of a nexus between politicians and criminals. Use of
money to bribe and drawing benefits that are not feasible under the law of the land. Misuse
and misappropriation of resources for personal benefits is creating a gulf between “haves”
and “have not”. The use of black money and scams of various types that have been
discovered in recent years clearly tell that corruption is adversely influencing the growth
and development of Indian society.

Illiteracy is another major problem before the society. It’s a sad state of affairs that a
country which had higher level of literacy (than British) at a time when British came two
centuries ago is now facing the challenge of a huge number of people who are illiterate and
cannot read or write. The lack of these skills renders them deprived of the opportunities
for upward social mobility. Such people have to depend on others for various things and
are exploited in various ways. For example the poor rural people are asked to put their
thumb impression of various legal documents and are subjected to exploitations and legal
hassles. Keeping these negative consequences in view the government is trying to
universalize primary education. The lack of reading and writing skills makes a person
incapable of availing the various opportunities to help themselves. Each and every educated
person, therefore, is expected to contribute to the literacy mission and making it a success.

Urbanization is another problem that deserves serious attention. There is increasingly greater
migration from villages to cities. This situation is generating pressures on cities which were
meant for a definite size of population. The limited civic facilities, civilian organizations and
structures are facing difficulties in meeting the demands of the people. The mega cities like
Mumbai, Kolkata Chennai and Delhi have crossed the limits for which they are capable
of. This situation creates a number of problems such as unauthorized and illegal activities,
emergence of slums, problem of waste disposal creation of foles, crime and health related
problems. The social organization, economy and environmental planning in many cities are
becoming unmanageable. Also, urbanization is linked with certain kinds of attitude like
consumerism and individualism. Consumerism emphasizes on exploitation of resources for
personal consumption without any concern for society and environment. This attitude is
responsible for the ecological imbalance that is widely experienced in today’s world. Similarly
the individualistic attitude favours the view that the individual is the ultimate reality and all
processes need to be explained at individual level. The individual is free and responsible to
his or her self only.
The social problems described above deal with different domains of life. You can see that206 ::
Psychology
the solutions for these problems require inputs from different disciplines. The role of psychology
is prominent as it deals with behaviour. Modification of attitudes, feelings and
 (6)
pattern of behaviour are significant. Psychologists can contribute by providing strategies
for achieving these goals

Role of Government in Social Development

.At the beginning of the drive for reforms in developing countries, there was a deliberate effort
to exaggerate the adverse implications of government's role in development and to suggest the
withdrawal of the government from the development process. This swing of the pendulum has
more or less been arrested and a more balanced view is taken of the role of the government.
That the government has to play a crucial role in the development process is no longer an issue.
The issue basically is the extent, nature and direction of government interventions. The areas in
which the government’s role is regarded as most conducive to development are provisioning of
social services and social and physical infrastructure building. There is an emerging consensus
that the government can play its role best in partnership with other agents of development,
particularly the private sector, the NGOs and civil society organisations. There is also a great
deal of emphasis today on good governance, free from corruption and embodying transparent
and participatory processes.
In his Asia and Pacific Lecture, Prof.Amartya Sen underlines that a deliberate combination of
State action and the use of the market economy was one of the special features of the East and
South East Asian development process. The WDR (1999-2000) makes the same point when it
states that the governments in the East and South East Asian countries intervened in trade to
regulate exports and to regulate financial markets. They directed investments in particular areas,
encouraged savings and lower interest rates and increased profitability.
In his lecture, Prof. Sen states that the overall achievement of the market are deeply contingent
on political and social arrangements. The market mechanism has achieved great successes under
conditions in which opportunities offered by it have been reasonably shared. Provision of basic
education and health and widely shared command over elementary resources like land have been
conducive to ensuring the success of the development process. But these demands call for
appropriate public policies and "carefully and determined public action going well beyond the
simple fostering of markets".
The role of institutions in a dispensation where the State occupies pride of place has come to be
recognised as a crucial factor in the development process. The W.D.R. (1999-2000) states, "a
strong network of effective organisations and enabling institutions is central to holistic
development". Countries with stable governments, predictable method of changing laws,
secure property rights and a strong judiciary saw higher investment and growth than those
lacking these institutions. Even the outcome of privatisation is heavily dependent on
government’s structure, macroeconomic and structural factors, competitiveness of markets,
social sustainability, regulatory regimes and corporate and commercial law.

. Today "people" are regarded as the means and the end of development. Even with the best will
in the world, a government is unlikely to meet collective needs efficiently if it does not know
what these needs are. It can know this only if it comes closer to the people. This means bringing
popular voices into policy making; and opening up ways for individual users, the private sector
organisations and other groups in the civil society. It can also mean greater decentralisation of
government power and resources.
 (7)
Increasing opportunities for participation of the people can enhance State's
capabilities in the following ways:
a. When citizens can express their opinions and press their demands publicly within the
framework of the law, States acquire some of the credibility that they need to govern well.
Broad-based discussions of policy goals can also reduce the risks implicit in a powerful minority
monopolising the direction of government. The States that achieve credibility in this fashion
have more flexibility in policy implementation and have an easier time engaging
citizens in the pursuit of collective goals.
b. Where markets are absent, as in the case of most public goods, popular voice can reduce
information problem and lower transaction costs. The emergence of private and NGO
alternatives for the provisioning of public goods and services can help meet gaps in the supply
of such goods and services. NGOs can both be partners and competitors in the delivery of
public services. When backed by the citizens’ voice, they can exert useful pressure on
government to improve the delivery and quality of public services.
c. In the management of common property resources, the provision of basic infrastructure and
the delivery of essential services, there is considerable scope for involving the public directly.
A recent study of villages in Tanzania found that households in villages with a higher degree of
participation in village level social organisations have a higher average income per capita than
those household in villages with low levels of social capital. In certain cases as in the West
Bank, Gaza strip and Cambodia, NGOs are numerically important enough to be able to
substitute for weak public sector capacity and to mobilise funds from a range of private sources
Yet not all NGOs are involved in the delivery of services and many others are research and
civic education groups, advocacy organisations and professional and business associations.
NGOs tend to be one step removed from ordinary citizens. By contrast, grassroots organisations,
community
based groups and people’s organisations engage the citizens directly.
REF: The World Bank. 2000. Entering the 21st Century: World Development
Report 1999/2000. New York : Oxford University Press, Inc.

Governments can facilitate popular participation by safeguarding the rights of the people to
organise, gain access to information, engage in contracts and own and manage assets.

. Economic Reforms & Social Development

In the initial period of the discussion on reforms, policies to facilitate the free play of market
forces were regarded as the over-riding necessity for achieving development, irrespective of how
they affected the social dynamics. It was argued - and even now there are zealots arguing on the
same lines, that the increase in the GNP brought about by economic reforms can take care of the
objectives of social development. In this connection, statistical evidence has been adduced
which show a positive relationship between increase in GNP and poverty reduction. This is a
lopsided and partial way to look at the development process.
Prof. Amartya Sen has raised the very pertinent question: Are not "the reforms much too
conservative in keeping intact governmental under-activity in social infrastructure, while trying
 (8)
to cure governmental over-activity intrade and manufacturing industries” Prof. Sen puts the
reforms-social development dilemma in the correct perspective when he says that whereas on
the one hand, the opportunities offered by a well functioning market may be difficult to use
when a person is handicapped by, say, illiteracy or ill health, on the other hand, a person with
some education and fine health may still not be able to use his or her capabilities because of the
limitations of economic opportunities, arising from absence of markets, or overzealous
bureaucratic control or lack of finance. Social opportunities are, thus, influenced by a variety of
factors which include both a properly functioning market as well as a deliberate
provisioning of social services
Taking the case of India, Prof. Sen states that the blame for independent India’s past failures is
often put on the insufficient development of market incentives. While there is considerable truth
in that diagnosis, it is quite inadequate as an analysis of what has gone wrong in the country.
There are many failures, particularly in the development of public educational facilities, health
care provisions, social security arrangements, local democracy, environmental protection, and so
on, and the stifling of market incentives is only one part of that larger picture

Prof. Sen, therefore, suggests that we should get the "debate on contemporary India's political
economy beyond the familiar battle-lines around the issues of economic reforms, liberalisation
and de-regulations".
The main problem in focussing on that question is the resulting neglect of other public policy
matters, dealing in particular with education, health and social security. "If the central challenge
of economic development in India is understood in terms of need to expand social opportunities,
then liberalisation must be seen as occupying only one part of that large stage."

Enabling Environment for Social Development.

One of the Commitments adopted at the Summit was to create an economic, political, social,
cultural and legal environment that will enable people to achieve social development. To this
end, the Summit adopted the following goals
a. To provide a stable legal framework which includes equality between men and women,
respect for human rights, rule of law, access to justice, transparent and accountable governance
and elimination of all forms of discrimination.
b. To provide more equitable access to income, resources and social services.
c. To promote participatory development through association of NGOs and civil society
organisations and through decentralisation; and
d. To reinforce peace by promoting tolerance, non-violence and respect for
diversity.
In the Plan of Action under this Commitment, it is stated that "social progress will not be
realised simply through the free interaction of market forces. Public policies are necessary to
correct market failures, to complement market mechanism, to maintain social stability and to
create a national and international environment that promotes sustainable growth on
a global scale".
 (9)
Detailed recommendations have been made in the Plan of Action regarding the actions to be
taken for creating an enabling environment for social development. These include: equitable and
non-discriminatory distribution of the benefits of growth; interaction of market forces conducive
to efficiency and social development; public policies that seek to overcome disparities and
respect pluralism and diversity; strengthened role of the family; expanded access to education,
health care services, information, knowledge and technology; increased solidarity, partnership
and cooperation; policies for empowering people; and protection and
conservation of the environment.
In the Geneva conference, the crucial role of the government in advancing people-centred
sustainable development through actions to ensure increased equality and equity, and ensuring
that markets function efficiently, were emphasised. The Conference also renewed commitment
to efficient, transparent and accountable government and to decmocratic institutions.

. Challenges of Social Development

. Eradication of Poverty
. Definition of Poverty. : Poverty has generally been associated with paucity of income to meet
basic needs. Most of the measures of poverty have used per capita income to identify people
above and below the poverty line. However, mainly due to the thinking of Prof. Amartya Sen,
poverty has come to be increasingly seen as deprivation of capability rather than merely lowness
of income. However, income is clearly one of the major causes of poverty, since lack of income
can be a principal reason for a person’s capability deprivation.
Prof. Amartya Sen brings out the advantages of capability approach to poverty. These are:
a. Poverty as capability deprivation concentrates on deprivations that are intrinsically important
and not only instrumentally important. It brings out factors other than lowness of income which
influence capability deprivation.
b. Real poverty, i.e. poverty in terms of capability deprivation, may be in a significant sense
more intense than what appears in the income space. This can be of crucial concern in assessing
what public action is needed to target some particular groups or individuals.
c. The capability deprivation approach to poverty enhances the understanding and causes of
poverty by shifting primary attention away from means to ends.
d. Distribution within the family raises further complications with the income approach to
poverty. If the family income is used disproportionately in the interest of some family members
and not others (for example, because of systematic boy preference) then the extent of
deprivation of the neglected members (for example, the girls) may not be adequately reflected in
terms
of family income. The deprivation of girls is more readily checked by looking at capability
deprivation (in terms of greater mortality, morbidity, under nourishment, medical neglect etc.,)
than can be found in the income analysis.. The instrumental relations between low income and
low capability is variable between different communities and even between different families
and different individuals. The relationship between income and capability is strongly affected by
the age of the person, by gender and social roles, by location, by insecurity and by other
variations over which a person may have no or only limited control
REF:Amartya Sen. 1999. Development as Freedom. New Delhi: Oxford University Press,
pp. 87-110.

(10)
In the context of the definition of poverty as capability deprivation, Prof. Sen tries to link
poverty with inequality. He states that inequality can have a negative effect on capability. Severe
inequalities are not socially attractive.
The sense of inequality may also erode cohesion and some types of inequalities can make it
difficult to achieve even efficiency.
Prof. Sen argues that relative deprivation in terms of incomes can yield absolute deprivation in
terms of capabilities. Being relatively poor in a rich country can be a great capability handicap
even when one's absolute income is high in terms of world standards.
Prof. Sen concludes by observing that poverty debates have been distorted by an over-emphasis
on income poverty and income inequality to the neglect of deprivations that relate to other
variables, such as unemployment, ill health, lack of education and social exclusion.
U.N.D.P. Human Development Report, 1997, devoted to the theme of poverty, focuses on the
same dimensions of poverty as brought out by Prof. Sen in his definition of poverty as capability
deprivation. However, in the HDR, 1997, the idea is sought to be linked to human development.
It is stated that from the human development angle, poverty means denial of choices and
opportunity for a tolerable life. It can mean more than what is necessary for material well being.
It can also mean the denial and choices most basic to human development - to lead a healthy and
productive life and to enjoy a decent standard of living, freedom, dignity, self-esteem and
respect of others. The Report continues: for policy makers, the poverty of choices and
opportunities is often more relevant than the poverty of income, for it focuses on the causes of
poverty and leads directly to strategies of empowerment and other actions to enhance
opportunities for every one.
In the Overview of the World Development Report, 2000-2001, also devoted to the theme of
poverty, poverty has been defined in terms of "multiple deprivations". These include deprivation
of fundamental freedoms of action and choice, lack of adequate food, shelter, education and
health, extreme vulnerability to ill health, economic dislocation and natural disasters, ill
treatment by institutions of the State and the society, and powerlessness in influencing decisions
affecting the life of the poor. Since the problem has multiple dimensions, the solution has also to
be multidimensional.
Extent of global poverty: The Human Development Report, 1997, reports progress in reducing
poverty over the 20th century. In the past 50 years, poverty has fallen more than in the previous
500 years and it has beenreduced in some respects in almost all countries.
Since 1960, in little more than a generation, child death rates in developing countries have been
more than halved. Malnutrition rates have declined by almost a third. The proportion of children
out of primary schools has fallen from more than half to less than a quarter. And the share of
rural families without access to safe water has fallen from 9/10th to about a quarter.
By the end of the 20th century, some 3 to 4 billions of the world's people will have experienced
substantial improvements in their standards of living and about 4 to 5 billion will have access to
basic health and education.. China and East and South East Asian countries have made the most
spectacular progress in reducing poverty. China reduced its poverty from 33 per cent to 7 per
cent between 1978-1994, Malaysia from 60 to 14 per cent between 1970-1993, Indonesia from
60 to 15 per cent between 1970-1990 and the Republic of Korea from 23 to 5 per cent during the
same period.

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Between 1970 and 1995, the largest reductions in the adult illiteracy rate took place in the
Republic of Korea (from 12% to 2%), Thailand (21% to 6%), the Phillippines (17% to 5%),
Indonesia (46% to 16%) and Cuba (13% to 4%).
. However, the advances made have been uneven and marked by setbacks. Poverty still remains
pervasive. Nearly a billion people were illiterate at the time of the writing of the Report, well
over a billion lacked access to safe water, some 840 million went hungry or faced food
insecurity.
The U.N.D.P. Human Development Report, 1997, introduced a Human Poverty Index (HPI).
Instead of measuring poverty by income, it uses indicators of the most basic dimensions of
deprivation i.e. short life, lack of basic education and lack of access to public and private
resources. The finding of the Report was that more than a quarter of the developing world's
people still lived in poverty as measured by this index. About a third lived on incomes of less
than 1 dollar a day. Sub-Saharan Africa had the highest proportion of people in human poverty.
Among these broad groups, the children, women and aged suffered most. Some 160 million
children were moderately or severely malnourished. Some 100 million were
out of school. . A comparison of the HPI with income measurement of poverty based on 1
dollar a day poverty line, revealed the following interesting contrasts:- a. Sub-Saharan Africa
and South Asia had the highest incidents of both income and human poverty.
b. Most of the Arab States had made remarkable progress in reducing income poverty, at that
time a mere 4 per cent; but faced a large backlog of human poverty (32 per cent).
United Nations Development Programme. 1977.
REF: Human DevelopmentReport 1977. New York: Oxford University Press,

`Many countries in Latin America and the Caribbean had reduced human poverty, which was
15 per cent; but income poverty was still 24 per cent.
The World Development Report (2000-2001) in its Overview gives the latest available data on
the extent of poverty at the international level. Of the world's 6 billion people - 2.8 billion -
almost half - live on less than 2 dollars a day and 1.2 billion - a fifth - live on less than 1 dollar a
day. In rich countries, fewer than one child in 100 do not reach its fifth birthday, but in the
poorest countries as many as a fifth of the children do not. While in rich countries, fewer than 5
per cent of all children under 5 are malnutritioned, in poor countries, as many as 50 per cent are.
However, there are regional variations. In East Asia, the number of people living on less than 1
dollar a day fell from around 420 million to around 280 million between 1987 and 1998, even
after the setbacks of the financial crisis. But in Latin America, South Asia, and the Sub-Saharan
Africa, the number of poor people have been rising. In European and Central Asian
countries in transition to market economy, the number of people living on less than a dollar a
day rose more than 24-fold. Experiences are also vastly different at sub-national levels and for
ethnic minorities and women.
Eradicating Poverty – Approaches & Measures. One of the 10 Commitments undertaken at the
Social Development Summit was on
"eradicating poverty." It was also one of the three main themes of social development round
which the Summit was organised.

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Among the manifestations of poverty recognised in the Action Plan under this Commitment are:
a. Lack of income and productive sources sufficient to ensure sustainable livelihood; hunger and
malnutrition; limited or lack of access to education and other basic services; increased morbidity
and mortality from illness, homelessness and inadequate housing; unsafe environment; and
social
discrimination and exclusion.
b. Women bear a disproportionate share of the burden of poverty as do other disadvantaged
groups. The Summit asserts that poverty cannot be eradicated by anti-poverty programmes
alone. It will require democratic participation, changes in economic structures and access of all
to resources and public services.
c. Absolute poverty has been defined in the Action Plan as a condition characterised by severe
deprivation of basic human needs. Among the measures suggested for the removal of absolute
poverty are: eliminating hunger and malnutrition, providing food security, education,
employment, health services, safe drinking water, sanitation and shelter; ensuring poor people's
access to resources i.e. credit, land, education, technology, knowledge and information; ensuring
adequate economic and social protection; and removing inequality.
. The U.N.D.P. Human Development Report, 1997 puts emphasis more or less on the same
measures. However, it attaches much greater importance to the empowerment of people and to
institutional factors, like political commitment to promote and protect the rights of the poor
people and policy reforms to enable them to gain access to assets and security of tenure. Like
other reports, this HDR also regards gender equality as absolutely essential for eradicating
poverty. This would involve focussing clearly on ending discrimination against girls in all
aspects of health, education and upbringing; empowering women by ensuring equal rights and
access to land, credit and job opportunities; and taking action to end violence against
women.
. Globalisation, according to the HDR, offers great opportunities for reducing poverty but only if
it is managed more carefully and with greater concern for global equity. Globalisation has seen a
widening gap between winners and losers in both developed and developing countries.
Therefore, better management of globalisation both nationally and internationally, in terms,
amongst others, of improved access of the poor and weak countries to the markets of the
developed countries, is called for.
. Among international measures for reducing poverty, the Report attaches priority to debt relief,
larger flow of resources, and the opening up of the markets of developed countries for products
of developing countries.
Preparatory to the Geneva Conference, the U.N.D.P. prepared a PovertyReport, 2000 under the
title Overcoming Human Poverty. The Report was designed to contribute to U.N. General
Assembly’s review of the progress in the implementation of the Commitments of the Social
Summit and to help accelerate the collective campaign against poverty in the next five years.
The review was related mainly to the implementation of measures recommended under
Commitment 2, Eradicating Poverty, undertaken at the Social Summit.
 A brief summary of the progress made, the implications of measures that have been taken and
can be taken, and measures recommended in the Report are given below:
a. Commitment to reduce poverty. Some progress was made in estimating poverty but there
was little progress in setting targets.

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b. Integrating poverty reduction programmes into national development plans. The Summit
made this recommendation because it is an evidence of the national commitment to eradicate
poverty and also an evidence of explicit location of resources to this task as well as of the
determination to mobilise additional resources. Only a few governments took measures in
pursuit of this recommendation.
c. Linking poverty to international policies. Such a link is seen mainly in terms of tackling the
problem of external debt, harnessing trade for poverty reduction and making aid work for the
poor. The record on all these counts was not very encouraging.
d. Governance as a missing link. When governments are unaccountable or corrupt, poverty
reduction programmes have little success in targetting the poor. Corruption deprives the poor of
an equitable share of society’s resources and indirectly reduces the opportunities for poverty
reduction by dampening economic growth. Having regular and free and fair elections can boost
accountability. But government officials must be made accountable also between elections. For
this, people have to organize themselves.
e. Organising the poor. The foundation of poverty reduction is for the poor to organise
themselves. This will enable them to influence the local government and hold it accountable.
Through their organisation the poor can form coalitions with other social forces and build
broader organisations to influence regional and national policy making. What the poor need
most are resources to build their organizational capacity. Civil societies can play a very
important role in this. The most common use of civil society is to entrust them with the delivery
of goods and services where local governments cannot do it effectively. But this may not be
advisable over the long term. For, the capacity of the government to deliver goods and services
must be built up. In
fact, the civil society organisations can perform a better function by representing the poor and in
their advocacy role when national and local governments are unresponsive, rather than by
serving as a channel for delivering goods and services. They should engage national policy
makers on poverty issues. The strategic goal should be to forge an alliance between the State and
civil society for poverty reduction.
f. Formulating and implementing pro-poor poverty programmes. Pro-poor poverty
programmes should not have a separate existence of their own. They should be integrated with
the micro-economic policies of the government. In the ultimate analysis, the focussing of
resources on the
poor can be achieved best by empowering the poor and for this the poor have to be organised.
However, parallel macro-economic policies should be so framed as to confer direct benefits on
the poor. This could be done,
for example, by:
Focusing on geographical areas where the poor are dominant. The deficiency of this
approach is that it may include many non-poor households, which could lead to a significant
leakage of benefits.
. Targetting households or communities. This is a very labourious process and to achieve this
an active collaboration of the poor is needed. Besides, the latest thinking on human poverty
shifts
emphasis from the household to the individual - to identify deprivation among, say, women and
children. There is also a shift of emphasis to specific interventions to address specific
deprivations.

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Reaching disadvantaged social groups.
Targetting by type of intervention, that is, to concentrate on projects which can have the direct
effect of benefiting the poor, like providing schools for elementary education, child clinics,
micro-finance etc. However, these interventions have not always proved successful in
reaching the poor. They have also overlooked such measures as economic policy making or
institution building.
Access to basic social services. An enhanced supply of services does not necessarily ensure that
it will go to the poor. Poverty programme should, therefore, focus not merely on providing
services meant for the poor but also on ensuring that the poor are able to take advantage
of them.
. Micro-finance. Micro-finance no doubt contributes to community empowerment but it can be
captured by local political elites. Moreover, the hard core poor, having few assets, are reluctant
to take on the risk of credit. For example, in Bangladesh, which is a pioneer in micro-finance,
only a fourth of micro-finance clients are hard core poor.
Supplying physical infrastructures in poor regions, like rural roads, irrigation works, drinking
water systems etc. China's anti-poverty programme is very much distinguished by an emphasis
on developing infrastructure in the poor regions. However, in this approach, those
better off and closer to towns and existing roads, usually benefit more than the poor.
Much of the success of infrastructure projects depends on whether communities are involved in
selecting them. The advantage of this approach is that unlike micro-credit, wage employment
carries little risk and, therefore, in many regions only hard core poor gravitate to the construction
jobs in infrastructure projects.
Integrated approach to poverty programme. A general weakness of most poverty programmes
has been lack of integration. The problem is particularly severe with regard to integration with
gender and environmental issues. There are also weak links between protecting health
and reducing poverty. Gender equality does not figure prominently as a source of poverty in
most poverty programmes. Nor do gender programmes focus on poverty. Combating gender
inequality is not regarded as the same as combating poverty.
. Monitoring poverty programmes. Not much progress has been made in this area. Most of the
developing countries still need a workable poverty monitoring system to assess progress towards
the target of eradicating extreme poverty and reducing over-all poverty. For this, participatory
poverty assessment is particularly useful. Besides, most poverty monitoring systems continue to
rely on income poverty measures. This needs to be broadened.
The Geneva Conference regarded poverty eradication as "an ethical, social and economic
imperative of humankind". A target was set for reducing the proportion of people living in
extreme poverty by one half by the year 2015. This was basically the reiteration of the target
agreed in the Millenium Session of the U.N. General Assembly. The Geneva Conference
reiterated most of the measures recommended by the Summit. However, it put
emphasis on those measures which can have direct impact on the amelioration of the conditions
of the poor. These included: using employment policies to reduce poverty, improving
productivity in the informal sector, increasing and facilitating the development of cooperatives
among the poor, encouraging sustainable rural development, especially in areas like agricultural

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production, encouraging the growth of small and medium size enterprises by formulating a
consistent long term policy to support them, promoting small business and self-employment for
rural workers in view of increasing rural poverty, landlessness and urban rural
migration.
Most of these measures would seem to fly against the face of the reforms recommended under
the structural adjustment programmes of the World Bank and I.M.F. The consensus arrived at
the Geneva Conference, with the participation of governments and NGOs, is a truer reflection of
the
perception of the vast majority of the countries in the world on what needs to be done for
eradicating poverty than that recommended under the Washington Consensus. This also reflects
the strong urge in these countries to protect the small farmers and enterprises and informal
sectors against the onslaught of globalisation.
. The Geneva Conference also put considerable emphasis on institutional factors for combating
poverty. It emphasised the role of the N.G.Os and civil society organisations in ensuring
community participation in the formulation and implementation of poverty reduction strategies
and programmes. It recommended that institutional mechanism that ensured a multi-sectoral
approach to poverty eradication should be established and strengthened.
On the role of gender equality for reducing poverty, it recommended that the potential role of
women in poverty eradication should be kept in mind and appropriate measures should be taken
to counter the "feminisation of poverty."
The World Development Report, 2000-2001, recognises that poverty is "the result of economic,
political and social processes that interact with each other and frequently reinforce each other in
ways that exacerbate the deprivation in which poor people live". Meagre assets, inaccessible
markets and scarce job opportunities lock people in material poverty. That is why, the
Report says, promoting opportunity by stimulating economic growth, making markets work
better for the poor people and building up their assets is key to reducing poverty.
Thus, the report sails quite close to the Washington consensus of marketinduced
and growth- centred approach to poverty eradication. At different places in the Report, emphasis
is put on recognising the central role of the market, poor people's participation in the market,
encouraging private investment and export-led growth. However, in the year 2000-2001, it was
not possible for the World Bank to have not acknowledged the new and much broader definition
of poverty enunciated in the latest thinking on the subject, and the desirability of adopting
measures on a much broader front, geared to the tackling of poverty as capacity deprivation.

. Gender equality has emerged as a key variant for ensuring the desired outcome through
activities in the field of social development, particularly in the areas of education, health and
nutrition and for dealing with the problems of poverty and unemployment. The present almost
universal recognition of the importance of gender equality in social development represents a
veritable revolution. The U.N.D.P. Human Development Report, 1995, the principal theme of
which is gender equality, regards "the recognition of equal rights of women and the
determination to combat discrimination on the basis of gender” as "achievements equal in
importance to the abolition of slavery, elimination of colonialism and the establishment of equal
rights for racial and ethnic minorities." The report has this well-known aphorism:
"Human development, if not engendered, is endangered".

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Prof. Amartya Sen is a strong believer in the importance of women’s empowerment for
bringing about social change. He states that women are no longer the passive recipient of social
welfare; they are increasingly seen as an active agent of change: the dynamic promoters of social
transformation that can alter the life of both women and men.
Professor Sen draws from empirical studies to demonstrate the connection between women's
empowerment on the one hand and child's survival and fertility on the other hand. He states that
it is striking that demographically backward regions of India, where mortality and morbidity are
high, tend to be those where gender relations are highly unequal. Conversely, States
which have experienced rapid progress in improving health and reducing mortality and fertility
are often those where women have played far more an active role in society. Given the gender
division of labour that prevails in most of India, nutrition, child health, and related matters
typically depend primarily on women’s decisions and actions. It is, therefore, hardly surprising
that social achievements in this domain are more impressive where women are better educated,
more resourceful, more valued, more influential and generally more equal agents within the
household
There is considerable evidence to show that the fertility rate tends to come down with greater
empowerment of women and that women's education and literacy tend to reduce the mortality
rates of children. It works through the importance that mothers typically attach to the welfare of
the children and the opportunities that the mothers have, when they are respected and
empowered, to influence family decisions in that direction. Female literacy is found to have an
unambiguous statistically significant reducing aspect on under-5 mortality. High levels of
female literacy and labour force participation by women are strongly associated with lower level
of familydisadvantage in child survival.
By contrast, variables that relate to the general level of development and modernisation either
turn out to have no statistically significant effect or suggest that modernisation can even
strengthen, rather than weaken, the general bias in child survival. Statistics also show that male
literacy or general poverty reduction have comparatively ineffective roles to play as
instruments of child mortality reduction. Thus the same variables relating to women's
empowerment, in this case their literacy, plays a much more important role in promoting social
well-being than variables relating to the general level of populace in societies. Women's
empowerment improves not only their condition but also the condition of everyone in the
family.
Prof. Sen brings this out very convincingly by analysing how a change in the arrangement in
sharing within the family in favour of women can enhance the welfare of all the members of the
family. The arrangement for sharing within the family is to a great extent done by established
conventions, but they are at the same time influenced by such factors as the economic role and
empowerment of women and the value system of the community at large. In the evolution of
value systems and conventions within the family, an important role can be played by female
education, female employment and ultimately ownership rights and thus social features can be
very crucial for the economic fortunes of all members of the family. Distributional problems
within the family are particularly crucial in determining the general undernourishment and
hunger of different members of the family in situations of persistent poverty. It is the continued
inequality in the division of food – and perhaps even more so in that of health care - that gender
inequality manifests itself most blatantly and persistently in poor societies with a strong

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anti-female bias. On the other hand, there is considerable evidence to show that when women
can and do earn income outside the household, they stand to enhance their relative position even
in the distribution within the household. Thus the freedom to seek outside jobs can contribute to
the reduction of women’s relative and absolute deprivation. Freedom in one area seems to help
foster freedom in others.
Prof. Sen draws a distinction between what he calls the "agency" aspect of women's movements
and its "well-being" aspect. By "agency" he means the combination of all factors which make
women the agent of social transformation. He brings out the inter-relationship between these
two
aspects. He states that agency aspect plays a very important role in removing the inequities that
depress the well being of women. Empirical studies have brought out how the relative respect
and regard for women’s well-being is strongly influenced by such variables as women's ability
to
earn an independent income, to find employment outside the home, to have ownership rights, to
have literacy, and be educated participants in decisions within and outside the family.22
. Gender inequality does not decline automatically with the progress of economic growth. In
fact, in some cases there is an inverse relationship between the two. Secondly, gender inequality
is not only a social failure in itself, but also it leads to other social failures.
. An innovation in the U.N.D.P. Human Development Report, 1995, was the inclusion in it of a
Gender-related Development Index (GDI) reflecting gender disparity in basic human
capabilities. The variables taken into account for developing the GDI were women's
empowerment, literacy rates among women vis-a-vis men, combined enrolment for females, life
expectancy and women's earned income. The Report reveals the following facts
a. Poverty has a woman's face - of the 1.3 billion people in poverty, 70 per cent were women.
The increasing poverty among women is linked to their nequal situation in labour market, their
treatment under social welfare systems and their status and power in the family.
b. Women’s labour force participation has risen by only 4 percentage points in 20 years i.e. from
36 per cent in 1970 to 40 per cent in 1990.
c. Women receive a disproportionately small share of credit from formal banking institutions.
d. Women normally receive a much lower average wage than men.
e. All regions recorded a higher level of unemployment among women than men.
 In addition to the GDI, the 1995 HDR introduced another concept called Gender Empowerment
Measure (GEM), which looks at women's representation in parliaments, women's share of
positions classified as managerial and professional, women’s participation in the active labour
force and their share of national income. The Report grades the countries ofN the world
according to this measure
The Report also points out that a major index of neglect of women is that many of women’s
economic contributions are grossly undervalued or not valued at all. The contributions not
valued may very well be in the order of 11 trillion dollars a year.
Finally it brings out that the most painful devaluation of women is the physical and
psychological violence that stalks them from cradle to grave.

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. One of the Commitments undertaken at the Copenhagen Social Development Summit was on
"gender equality". Under this Commitment, then participating countries have subscribed to the
objective of promoting "full respect for human dignity of women, achieving equality between
men and women and empowering women in Summit set the following goals:
a. Full and equal access of women to literacy, education, training, credit and other productive
resources.
b. Removal of obstacles to their ability to buy, sell and hold property and land.
c. Equitable access to public goods and services.
d. Enhancement of equality of status, welfare, and opportunity of the girl child.
e. Promoting equal partnership between men and women in family and community life.
f. Combating and eliminating all forms of discrimination, exploitation, abuse and violence
against women and girl children.
g. Establishing structures, policies, objectives and goals to ensure gender balance and equity in
decision taking processes at all levels.
The Geneva Conference underlined that participation in leadership role of women in all spheres
should be recognised and enhanced. The Copenhagen Summit recommended the integration of
the gender perspective in the design and implementation of all policies of development The
Geneva Conference embraced the same idea but put it somewhat differently i.e. the need for
"mainstreaming of gender considerations in all levels of policy making".
. As a follow up of the Millennium Session of the General Assembly, the Geneva conference
reiterated the targets set at that session, i.e.
a. Ensuring free, compulsory and universal primary education for both boys and girls by 2015.
b. Achieving 50 per cent improvement in the level of adult literacy by
2015
c. Closing the gender gap in primary and secondary education by 2005.
The Geneva Conference set the objective of promoting the full enjoyment of all human rights
and fundamental freedoms by all women and girls. Governments should ensure that human
rights of women and girls are respected and promoted. Another additional commitment
undertaken at the Geneva conference was to increase the participation of women and bring about
a balanced representation of men and women in all sectors and occupations in the labour market
and close the gender gap in earnings.
. The U.N.D.P. Human Development Report, 1995 identified a 5-point strategy for accelerating
progress towards achieving gender equality:
a. National and international efforts must be mobilised to win legal quality within a definite
period, say the next ten years;
b. Many economic and institutional arrangements may need revamping to extend more chances
to women than men in the work place;
c. A threshold limit must be fixed as minimum share of women in decisionmaking at the
national level (this could be, say, 30 per cent);
d. Key programmes should embrace universal family education,
e. National and international efforts should target programmes that enable women to gain greater
access to economic and political opportunities through basic social services and through credit
for the poor. &_ Human Rights

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Recently human rights have emerged as a very important under-pinning of the objectives of
human development. Human rights have acquired a truly universal character in that they flow
from the dignity that is attached to human being. This essentially modernistic concept has deep
religious roots. Rabindra Nath Tagore in his book Religion of Man has observed that what is
most striking is the divinity of the human being and the humanity of the divine. This is what
lends dignity to human being and makes for the unity of humankind.
Looked at from this angle, human rights cannot be culture-specific as has been claimed by some
Asian intellectuals and political leaders. They have invoked the distinctive nature of the Asian
values as a justification for not accepting human rights as a universal value. In this connection,
they have particularly referred to the Confucian culture where the focus is on discipline
rather than on rights, on loyalty rather than on entitlement. Prof. Amartya Sen does not agree
with this "cultural critique" of human rights. He says that generalisations about Asia are not
easy, given its size. There are no quintessential values that apply to the immensely large Asian
population,which separates them out from people in the rest of the world. Besides,
Confucianism is not the only tradition in Asia.
In the last couple of decades, we have witnessed the expanding horizon of human rights.
Traditionally, human rights concentrated on the right of the individual. Subsequently, it
expanded to cover the rights of communities, ethnic groups, and distinctly marginalised and
neglected groups like women, children and the aged. Traditionally human rights were more or
less identical with political rights; now they have been extended to cover social
and economic rights.
. In his criticism of the "coherence critique” and the "legitimacy critique" of human rights, Prof.
Sen has widened the horizon of human rights still further. According to the "legitimacy
critiques", there are no inborn human rights and they have to be acquired through legislation.
Prof. Sen finds this thesis as militating "in a rather fundamental way against the basic idea of
universal human rights". According to him, human rights can be effectively invoked in the
context even where their legal enforcement would appear to be most inappropriate. For example,
the moral right of a wife to participate fully as an equal in serious family decisions may be
acknowledged by many who nevertheless want this right not to be legalized or imposed. Prof.
Sen argues that it is best to see human rights as a "set of ethical claims", which must not be
identified with legal rights. 25
According to the "coherence critique", one cannot talk about human rights without specifying
whose duty it is to guarantee the fulfillment of the rights. In this view, rights can be sensibly
formulated only in combination with correlated duties. Prof. Sen dismisses this critique on the
ground that human rights can be addressed to any one who can help, even though no particular
person or agency can be charged to bring about the fulfillment of the rights involved. He says,
"it is surely possible for us to make a distinction between a right that a person has which has not
been fulfilled and the right that a person does not have." Thus human rights can be seen as an
entitlement, power, or immunity that benefits all who have them, even though they may
not be legally guaranteed or it may not be possible to assign responsibilities on individuals or
agents for guaranteeing them. The very fact of the articulation of these rights can result in the
widening of freedom and can help to mobilise support from a great many people.

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Literacy & Education
Education is not just an 'absolute value'; it has enormous 'functional value' as well. It builds up,
enriches and empowers the individual at the level of the self and as a member of the society and
the democratic order. Education, and, particularly, mass literacy, are key factors in the
development process.1
In India, there has always been a keen appreciation of the importance of education, with the high
priority it was accorded by the leaders of the Freedom Movement very much in evidence in the
country’s Constitution. Article 45 of the Directive Principle of State Policy says: `The State shall
endeavour to provide, within a period of ten years from the commencement of this Constitution,
free and compulsory education for all children until they complete the age of fourteen years’.
Further along the road, in a public interest litigation in 1993 (Unnikrishnan vs. the State of
Andhra Pradesh), the Supreme Court ruled that "the right to education was a derived
fundamental right flowing from the citizen's fundamental right to live". Following this, the
Saikia Committee was constituted to consider whether education should explicitly feature as a
fundamental right. The recommendations of the committee formed the basis of the Constitution
(83rd Amendment) Bill of 1997, the purpose of which was to make education up to the
age of fourteen a right that is both fundamental and justiciable. Meanwhile, the 42nd
Amendment had shifted education to the Concurrent list, thus formalising the increasing role of
the Centre. The 73rd and the 74th Amendments, which created a framework for the States to
endow panchayats `..with such powers and authorities as may be necessary to enable them
function as institutions of self-government’,4 ushered in yet another change in the constitutional
scheme of things. In the changed policy environment, "education including primary and
secondary schools” were cited in the Eleventh Schedule, in which are listed the areas in relation
to which the States could devolve powers to the panchayats so as to enable them, in their
functioning as local self government bodies, to conceive and implement programmes for
economic development and social justice. On this bold new step, however, there are indications
of a slip between the cup and the lip.
The Right to Education
As with all other obligations under the Directive Principles of State Policy, article 45, which
stipulates that `the State shall endeavour to provide, within a period of ten years from the
commencement of this Constitution, for free and compulsory education for all children until
they complete the age of fourteen years’, is also on a best endeavour basis. Ten years after the
commencement of the Constitution i.e. in 1960, the State was nowhere near achieving the goal
articulated in Article 45. In spite of the impressive progress made during the last decade or so,
even now, this goal continues to elude the nation, notwithstanding judicial pronouncements
in its favour. In the Mohini Jain Vs the State of Karnataka case of 1992 and in the Unnikrishnan
Vs the State of Andhra Pradesh case in 1993, the Supreme Court’s verdict was that the right to
education was a derived fundamental right flowing from the citizens’ fundamental right to life;
the Supreme Court has also given a number of other verdicts widening the scope of the right to
life to include not just animal existence but also right to livelihood; and its interpretation of
Article 19 asserts that the freedom of speech and expression is difficult to be exercised
without education. These judicial interpretations have been in tune with the International
Convention on the Rights of the Child and the International Covenant on Economic, Social and
Cultural Rights. India is a party to both of these instruments.

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The version of the Bill introduced in 1997 had been criticised by experts, civil society
organisations and NGOs on the following grounds:-
a. It did not cover children up to the age of six in spite of the provision of Article 45 that free
and compulsory education shall be provided to “all children until they complete the age of
fourteen years”. Until a sound foundation is laid by providing necessary facilities and services
for the
education of children between the age group 0 to 6, the provision of free and compulsory
education to children in the age group six to fourteen will suffer from fundamental weaknesses
and limitations.
b. The term “free” in the Amendment should be defined to include not only free tuition fee but
also the provision, free of cost, of one meal, books, notebooks, slates, uniforms, and medical &
transport services.
c. The addition to Article 51(K) relating to the parents’ or guardians’ duty is likely to be
misabused. Parents and guardians may be penalised for not sending their children to school,
which may be due to factors beyond their control. This may relieve the State of its obligation to
provide opportunities for education and put the onus on parents.
d. The Article should provide for not only free and compulsory education but also quality
education.
e. The Government should work out the financial implications of the Amendment and indicate
how the additional resources are going to be mobilised.
The Bill as passed tries to take care of the criticism regarding the coverage of children in the age
group 0-6 by amending Article 45 of the Constitution. But this is not adequate because, not
being a part of Fundamental Rights, it is not justicable. Thus free and compulsory education for
children in the age group of 0- 6 will remain on a best endeavour basis.
The Government has clarified that even though the Constitutional Amendment makes it a
Fundamental Duty of every parent/guardian to send his child/ward to school, there is no
provision in it for punishment in case he or she is unable to do so. The Government has
indicated that it will try to facilitate the enforcement of this provision not through punishment
but by the creation of new school facilities, filling up gaps and improving the quality of
education. Moreover, the community will be entrusted with the task of enforcing the right to
education and parents and other members of the community will be mobilised for this purpose.
Article 21-A makes it obligatory for the Government to enact a Central legislation to give effect
to the Constitutional Amendment. At the time the Amendment Bill was passed, the Government
promised that a Central legislation would be introduced spelling out the parameters of what is to
be provided by the State for implementing the Amendment. The parameters will include
teacher/pupil ratio, number of rooms, distance of travel from schools, quality of education etc.
Moreover, the legislation will also create a mechanism by which a citizen who is aggrieved that
the right to education has not been fulfilled, should be able to get relief at district and sub-
district levels rather than filing Writ Petitions in the High Courts and the Supreme Court. This
Central legislation was expected to be introduced and adopted by the Parliament at its monsoon
session. Unfortunately the monsoon session has ended and the Bill is yet to be introduced.
The Government had earlier set up an expert committee to calculate the financial implications of
the Amendment. According to its calculation, the financial implication is expected to be Rs.9800
crores by way of additional resources every year or 0.5 % of GDP for 10 years which is the time
frame envisaged by the Government

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The increase in the provision for elementary education in the last budget has not been at all
commensurate with this requirement of additional
resources.
The Government has in the meantime launched a programme called Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan to
ensure that every child is provided free elementary education. The abhiyan (campaign) aims at
universal enrolment by the year 2003, universal 5 years of primary schooling by 2007, and 8
years of elementary schooling by 2010.
The Sarve Shiksha Abhiyan is being implemented in a Mission mode. The National Mission is
headed by the Prime Minister of India and includes representatives of political parties, NGOs,
academicians, teachers etc. Similarly, at the State level the State Missions are being headed by
the State Chief Ministers. The SSA specifically targets the provision of quality education for all.
It also provides for intensive teachers training and academic resource support in the form of
Bloc Resource Centres and Cluster Resource Centres, Teachers Grants and School Grants. The
Government has calculated that under the SSA, the Government of India will spend about
Rs.63000 crores over the next ten years. Another Rs.7000 crores is expected to be spent through
the streamlining of various programmes. The State Governments will provide additional
resources amounting to Rs.30, 000 crores as their share of the SSA. An amount of Rs.25000
100 crores is expected to come from the private sector and Rs.5000 crores from
community sources.Schools & Schooling - Ground Realities
Evidence of Micro Surveys
Based on surveys of 95 villages spread out over nine States, Vaidyanathan and Gopinath Nair
sum up the findings reported by the authors concerned on a range of policy issues. These are
briefly listed below.
Supply related factors – accessibility, cost, etc. play an important role. Educated parents are
more likely to send their children to schools; hence there is a need for more extensive and
effective adult education programmes.
 Mass literacy campaigns like Bharat Jnan Vigyan Jatha, the Total Literacy Programme and the
Lok Jumbish-Shiksha Karmi programme in Rajasthan do make a difference by instilling
awareness and interest. Social movements, however, are far more potent, and there is a need to
better understand the factors that underlie them.
Economic factors are important. Even in tuition free government schools, private costs are
sizeable. Not only the provision of uniforms etc., the opportunity costs in terms of children’s
contribution to the household are important, hence, the need for development schemes that
reduce these. Social disabilities of caste and religion need to be countered. In this context,
there is a need for public initiatives. While special initiatives for disadvantaged social groups
are called for, there is also a case for the improvement of overall provisioning.
Pupil-teacher ratios should be reasonable and teachers not overloaded with non-teaching
responsibilities.
Teachers should have the requisite competence and should conduct classes
regularly.
a. Demand for Education: There is an overwhelming popular demand for elementary
education of decent quality. The proportion of parents who indicated that it is important
for a boy to be educated was as high as 98%.

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In the case of girls, the figure was 89%. One other indication of the high demand for education
was that the proportion of children who have never been enrolled in a school is declining quite
rapidly. It declined from 50 % in 1986 (NSS data) to 20 % in 1996 (PROBE data). However,
high parental motivation for education is often combined with open contempt
for the schooling system.
b. Poor parents equally concerned about quality of education: Poor parents are concerned
about the quality of education and what is judged to constitute quality of education does not vary
fundamentally between different social groups.
c. General picture: The general picture of the schooling system is characterised by depleted
infrastructure, demotivated teachers, paralyzing curriculum and irresponsible management.
d. Poor infrastructure for education: Schooling infrastructures have significantly improved
during the last ten years. They, however, remain highly inadequate. School facilities are minimal
– classrooms are overcrowded,
school buildings are falling apart, and teaching aids are a rare sight.
e. Inside the classroom: Children are burdened with an over-loaded curriculum, unfriendly
textbooks, oppressive teaching methods and exacting examinations.

1. Skill Levels. Most teachers at the primary stage have at least completed secondary schooling.
About two-thirds received some pre-service training. Among the younger teachers, the level of
general educational qualification is higher but the proportion of those who have received
pre-service training is lower. Teachers’ skills are vastly unutilised. There is little evidence of in-
service training having a practical impact on classroom processes.
.2. Teaching Environment. Teachers feel trapped in a hostile work environment and lack of
respect by the local community. Most teachers convey a deep lack of commitment to the
promotion of education in the local community. Some of them come with good initial
motivations but they lose it over time. The report says: “Indeed, among recently appointed
teachers we often met people with genuine enthusiasm. The honeymoon, however, is short lived,
as the morale of younger teachers is battered day after day”. The main concerns of the
teachers were: poor infrastructure facilities; parents’ apathy towards their children’s education;
paralysing curriculum; unwanted postings distracting non-teaching duties; excessive paper work;
and unsupportive management.
.3. Accountability. Apart from improving teaching environment, the other challenge is how to
ensure teachers accountability.
.3.1. One of the means for doing so is to get the village community interested in the schooling of
the children. This raises the question of teacher-parent relations. The most common pattern was
one of scant interaction between parents and teachers. The two formal institutions of such
interaction are Parents-Teachers Associations (PTAs) and Village Education Committees
(VECs). These institutions were quite dormant. Less than one-fifth of the schools surveyed had a
PTA and even the PTAs that did exist met only once or twice a year for the sake of formality.
VECs were doing only a little better. By and large, they seemed to be token institutions with
neither teachers nor parents expecting much from them.
.3.2. The panchayat supervision of local teachers may have some potential as an accountability
mechanism.

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However, there seems to be a real danger of abuse by despotic sarpanchs. Thus lack of active
parent-teacher interaction is a serious shortcoming of the schooling system as it exists today. In
considering measures for improvement, it is important to take a broad view of the potential tool
of parent-teacher interaction. One should not rely only on formal institutions such as VECs and
PTAs but should also look for outside channels of parents-teachers interaction.
.4. Parents’ frustration: Parents, themselves illiterate in many cases, are powerless. Hence
nothing improves. Lacking faith in the system, parents are half-hearted in their efforts to send
their children to school.
This further demotivates the teachers. Everyone’s hopelessness feeds on every one else’s. The
children are the victims.
.5. Increase in the number of primary schools: The number of primary schools has tripled since
Independence. Most rural households are now at a convenient distance from a primary school. In
1993, 94 % of the rural population lived within one kilometer of a primary school.
However, it is little use living within one kilometer of a primary school if the school is already
over-crowded, or if it has a single teacher, or if the school is deprived of basic facilities such as a
blackboard. Moreover, nearly one-third of the PROBE survey villages did not have a middle
school.
.6. Is education really free? The cash cost of education plays a major role in discouraging poor
families in sending children to schools, especially when the quality of schooling is low. North
Indian parents spend about Rs.318 per year on an average to send a child to a government
primary school. Assuming that they have a family of three children, this is a major financial
burden. In a middle class family, sending young children to school on a regular basis is a
relatively simple affair. In poor rural families, sending children to school is an
exacting struggle.
7. The issue of child labour is exaggerated: Contrary to the popular belief mainly engendered
by the propaganda of the protectionist lobbies in developed countries, only a small minority of
Indian children are full-time labourers. The vast majority of them work as family labourers at
home or in the fields, and not as wage labourers.
.8. School meals: There is a lot of merit in schemes for providing school meals. They promote
school attendance by providing incentives not only to parents but also to the children. They
improve the nutrition level of the children, and facilitate socialisation - sitting together and
sharing a meal helps to erode the barriers of class and caste. None of the PROBE States have
actually introduced school meals. Instead, they run the scheme of “dry rations” which defeats
much of the purpose of the school meals programme. It rewards enrolment rather
than attendance. Moreover, in some PROBE areas, particularly in large parts of Bihar, no food
was released in 1996 even in the form of “dry rations”.
.9. Private schooling: Among the PROBE sample households, 18 % of school-going children
were enrolled in private schools. The figure was as high as 36 % in Uttar Pradesh. Private
schools have emerged mainly because of two factors: (i) the breakdown of government
schools, and (ii) parental ability to pay.
.9.1. It would be a mistake to think that private schooling is restricted to privileged families.
Even among poor families and disadvantaged communities, one finds parents who make great
sacrifices to send some or all of their children to a private school. This is another source of
evidence for their high motivation to educate their children.

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.9.2. The following are some of the positive features of the private schools:
9.2.1. There is a high level of class room activity
.9.2.2. Attendance rates are higher. On an average, 84 % of the children enrolled were present at
the time of the PROBE survey.
9.2.3. The rapport between parents and teachers is more constructive in private schools than in
government schools. There seems to be mutuality in parents-teachers relations.
.9.2.4. There is better utilisation of facilities, greater attention to children, and greater
responsiveness of teachers to parental complaints.
f.9.3. Private schools suffer from serious limitations: -
f.9.3.1. They remain out of reach of the vast majority of poor parents.
f.9.3.2. Private school teachers tend to belong to the privileged class, with an even lower
proportion of women than in government schools. Their formal educational qualifications are
similar to those of government teachers, but most of them (80 percent) are untrained. Private
school teachers also receive very low salaries – often one-fifth of the salary of a government
teacher with similar teaching responsibilities.
.9.3.3. They often take advantage of the vulnerability of parents.They maintain an appearance of
efficiency and discipline, but the teaching standard in many of these schools is no
better than in government schools. The hollow claim of English instruction made by many
private schools is an illustration of this problem.
.9.3.4. Private teachers have little reason to promote the personal development of the children, or
treat them with sensitivity, or to impart a sense of values.
.9.3.5. Finally, the expansion of private schools carries a real danger of further undermining of
government schooling system. The parental pressure to improve government
schools is likely to diminish because of the declining interest of parents from relatively
privileged backgrounds, who can put their children in private schools. This scenario may lead
to a very divisive pattern of schooling opportunities.
Education in the Five Year Plans
We now turn to the shape of and the emphases on educational development in the
Five-Year Plans.
First Plan
The First Plan allocation for education was Rs.153 crores, representing 7.8% of the total plan
outlay, with the following objectives:
; Reorganisation of the educational system into various branches and stages.
; Expansion in the various spheres of education, particularly basic and social education.
; Modification of the form of professional and technical education.
; Organising the existing secondary and university education so as to make it adaptable and
useful for the rural sector expansion of women's education.
; Making provision for the training of teachers in basic schools.
; Providing aid through grants to backward States and areas.

The priorities of the First Plan included:

; Expansion of basic/primary education.

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; Consolidation of secondary and university education.
; Consolidation and development of teachers facilities.
; Teacher training.
; Experiment and research.
; Creation of literature for children.
; Provision of facilities for social education.
; Provision of facilities for professional and technical education.
At the time of initiation of the plan, elementary education received considerable importance, and
the number of institutions imparting education during the period also registered a stable
increase. The coverage of compulsory education, introduced in 396 urban areas before the First
Plan, increased to 1082 urban areas at the end of the plan period. The programme of basic
education was integrated within the elementary education programme and a steady progress
was registered in all the States. After consultation with the States, 37 areas were selected for the
intensive education development programme. This was not just confined to the improvement of
existing primary schools; it included the establishment of training colleges for graduate and
undergraduate basic schoolteachers, as also, community centres and janata colleges for training
rural leaders. In the final year of the Plan, the Ministry of Education established the
National Institute for Research in Basic Education at Delhi. Secondary Education too received
an impetus. The Secondary Education Commission suggested making secondary education more
diversified, with less emphasis on the English language. Training in technical education at the
school level in the form of technical schools and agricultural education in rural schools were
recommended. Teacher training was facilitated. A Bureau of Textbook Research was set up,
along with Bureaus of Educational and Vocational
Guidance in the States, and assistance for establishing guidance bureaus was provided.
The University Grants Commission was set up in 1954. While only 4 universities were
established in the plan period, the number of colleges went up from 695 to 965. The number of
university students increased from 396745 to 720000. The Higher Rural Education Committee
of 1955 recommended that rural institutes provide post-basic courses on rural hygiene,
agriculture, and rural engineering to students in the post higher-secondary stage. In this plan
period also, the Council for Rural Higher Education was constituted and 10 institutes were
selected for developing higher education facilities.
In the field of technical education, the Indian Institute of Technology, Kharagpur was
established, and 14 technical training institutions were selected for further development.
Scholarships and stipends were planned for promoting scientific and technical education and
research. About 40 technical and vocational schools were developed in the First Plan period.
Social Education was planned through literacy and community centres, libraries, and janata
colleges. Towards the end of the Plan period, the National Fundamental Education Centre for
Research & Training of higher personnel in the field of social education was set up.
A Centre of Education for Juvenile Delinquents was established at Hazaribagh, Bihar. Schemes
for scholarships were provided for the blind, the deaf and the dumb. Voluntary organisations
working in the field of social welfare were aided.
Cultural activities were encouraged and promoted through the establishment of institutions like
Sangeet Natak Academy, Lalit Kala Akadami, Sahitya Adademi, the National Book Trust, South
India Book Trust and the National Gallery for Art.

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Second Plan
a. Elementary & Basic Education.
Apart from the continuation of the programmes initiated under the First Plan, the Second Plan
gave an impetus to the expansion of elementary education. Special attention was paid to the
problem of dropouts among school children, especially girl students. Since co-education was not
readily accepted, the Central Advisory Board of Education recommended the shift system in
both basic and non-basic schools. It was suggested that shifts be initially introduced in the first
two classes only, and that the related issues of reduced school hours, rationalisation of the
curriculum
and careful planning of work, inside and outside school, be looked into. With regard to basic
education, the government was confronted with administrative problems, as also, teacher's
training. Training of administrative personnel and teachers for basic education were prominent
in the agenda for education under the Second Plan. The National Institute of Basic Education
was expected to give attention to these aspects. Basic Education was to be linked to allied
programmes like those in agriculture, village and small industries, co-operation, development
and national extension service. To facilitate co-ordination, advisory committees for
basic education were to include persons representing different branches of development work.

b. Secondary Education
The thrust area with respect to the secondary education was the development of multipurpose
schools designed to equip students for an occupation after their secondary schooling. Junior
technical schools were expected to provide general and technical education and workshop
training for a period of three years to boys of the age-group 14-17 years. Training of secondary
school teachers as also teachers for the vocational courses received special attention. The
Ministry of Education envisaged training of degree and diploma teachers for multipurpose and
junior technical schools. Apart from the provision of educational and vocational
guidance, improvement of schools was undertaken for upgrading high schools into higher
secondary schools. Steps were taken for co-ordination between post-basic and secondary
education. At the secondary stage, provision for the study of Hindi in non- Hindi speaking areas,
and of other languages in Hindi-speaking areas, was proposed.
c. University Education
For improving education at the university and college levels and reducing wastage and
stagnation, the UGC initiated measures like the introduction of three-year degree courses,
improvements of buildings, laboratories and libraries, stipends for meritorious students,
scholarships for research, and increase in salaries of university teachers. Establishment of new
universities were to be undertaken as well.
d. Technical Education
The over-all policy for technical education was essentially to improve the technological
manpower necessary to carry out programmes of development. Research and education in the
fields of technology were sought to be provided by the Indian Institute of Technology,
Kharagpur and the Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore. A scheme of management education
and training, covering Industrial Engineering, Industrial Administration and Business
Management, was implemented in seven selected centres. A Board of Management Studies was
set up for training in these subjects in association with industry.

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The upgradation of the existing institutions and the establishment of new ones were an
important part of the Plan aimed at increasing both the graduates and diploma holders in
technical fields.
e. Social Education
Social education was a part of the National Extension and Community Development
Programme. The Ministry of Extension proposed the establishment of a Fundamental Education
Centre for training social education organisers and for study and research in problems pertaining
to
social and basic education.
f. Scholarships
Scholarships were an important agenda item with a provision of about Rs. 12 crores. These
included post-matriculation scholarships, research scholarships, overseas scholarship, and
cultural scholarships for foreign students. Scholarships were provided to students from
backward communities like SCs & STs and Other Backward Classes.
Education in the First Decade of Planning (1951-1961)
The emphasis on basic education was reflected in the growth of both junior and senior basic
education schools. While the junior basic education schools increased from 16 % to 29 %, senior
basic schools increased from 3% to 30%. Reorganisation of secondary education took place
mainly in the form of conversion of high schools into higher secondary schools, and
establishment of multi-purpose schools providing a variety of courses, together with the
expansion of teaching facilities in both general science and science as an elective subject.
In the first decade of planning, progress was greater in respect of establishment of middle and
secondary schools as compared to primary schools. With regard to trained teachers, the decade
saw a rise form 59% to 65% of primary school teachers, an increase from 53 to 65 % of middle
school teachers and increase of 59 to 68 % of high school teachers. The number of students at
the university level also increased considerably.
Notwithstanding the gains, the All India Education Survey undertaken in 1957- 59 revealed
important gaps. It revealed that there were no schools in 29% of the villages and about 17% of
the rural population was not served by a school. Regional variations in the disaggregated figure
make the picture more complicated.
Third Plan
a. Pre Schooling
The Third Plan focussed attention on not just primary education, but also, pre-schooling, which,
in the First and Second Plans, had been left mainly to voluntary organisations and a number of
balwadis. The Third Plan provided for setting up six training centres in Uttar Pradesh for bal
sevikas.
The programme of education allowed Rs. 3 crore for child welfare and allied schemes at the
Central level and above Rs. 1 crore at the State level.
b. Elementary Education
The Plan sought to provide free, universal and compulsory education for children of the age-
group 6-11 years. Special attention was to be paid to the provision of educational facilities in
areas with scattered habitations, such as hilly tracts

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. The Plan sought an increase in the school enrolment of children in the 6-14 years age group,
and, in particular, an increase in the proportion of girls enrolled.
c. Basic Education
The Plan's objectives were to convert about 57,760 schools into basic schools, to remodel all
training institutions along basic lines, to establish basic schools in urban areas and to link up
basic education with the development activities of each local community.
A common syllabus was planned for all basic and non-basic schools, apart from the introduction
of activities like social service, community living, and cultural and recreational programmes. For
the purpose of completing the process of orientation, it was suggested that schools be provided
simple equipment and teachers trained in basic education be given short orientation courses. The
Plan placed an emphasis on trained teachers for basic and other schools, and community effort
for the improvement of enrolment.
d. Secondary Education
Secondary education was to be reorganised, so that it was able to provide a diversified
educational service. Following the Report of the Secondary Education Commission, measures
were envisaged to convert high schools into higher secondary schools; develop multipurpose
schools with provision of a small number of elective subjects; expand academic courses,
improve facilities for the teaching of science; make provision for educational and vocational
guidance; improve the examination and the evaluation system; more facilities for vocational
education; an increase in facilities for the education of girls and the backward classes; and the
encouragement of merit thorough scholarships.
A central organisation was to be responsible for science education to coordinate, guide, and
direct the entire programme of science teaching. Talent search was proposed to identify
promising talent at the secondary stage and provide opportunities for development.
On the basis of the recommendations of the Secondary Education Commission, it was proposed
to concentrate on strengthening the existing multipurpose schools. An integrated teacher-training
programme was to be initiated which would prepare the teachers for training in both practical
and scientific subjects. The State bureaus of Educational and Vocational
Guidance, established in 12 States, were to be strengthened. The idea was to vitalise the State
bureaus so as to ensure a minimum of career information service in as many secondary schools
as possible.
Fourth Plan
The approach of the Fourth Plan was more in the nature of correctives to the previous three
plans. The primary task before the Fourth Plan was to remove the deficiencies in the existing
educational system and link it effectively with the increasing demands of social and economic
development.
a. Elementary Education
The emphasis at the elementary level was on free and universal primary education, doing away
with wastage, and orienting the elementary curriculum towards work and practical outcomes. In
order to come toterms with a 60% drop out rate in elementary education, measures such as
better organisation of schools, free supply of textbooks, and extension of the mid-day meal
programme were initiated. The expanded adult education programme was planned.
Rescheduling of school hours to make them more convenient; planning school vacations to
coincide with

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agricultural operations like sowing, harvesting; and modification of curricula to meet local needs
were other changes effected for tackling the problem of drop out. Provisions were made for new
school buildingsintroduction of two shifts for the first two classes, and maximum utilisation
of space by promoting multiple use of school buildings. Enrolment of women students and
increasing the number of women teachers were other aspects of the Plan.
b. Secondary Education
The provision of vocational education and the strengthening of science teaching received special
attention at the secondary stage. The emphasis was on diversification of secondary education,
with the inclusion of technical, commercial and agricultural courses. To help improve teacher's
knowledge and teaching skills, science teachers were to be encouraged to take correspondence
courses and attend summer classes. In States with a good record of progress in education,
secondary schools were to be upgraded to higher secondary schools, while, in several other
States, high schools were to be upgraded. Multipurpose schools were to be strengthened. Those
leaving secondary school were to be trained for productive employment.
c. University Education
At the level of university education, the proposal was to limit the enrolment in arts and
commerce courses, and expand facilities for science, agriculture, diploma level technical
courses, and medical education. Facilities of post-graduate training and research in science
subjects were to be improved. While no new universities were planned, the preference was for
setting up university centres for post-graduate education and research. Institutes of rural higher
education were to be linked to development programmes in rural areas.
d. Teacher's Education
The improvement of facilities for the education of teachers was to include whole-time, part-time,
correspondence, and short-term courses. The Plan provided for correspondence courses for
1,40,000 elementary teachers and about 17,660 secondary teachers. In universities, State
Institutes of Science Education, State Institutes of Education, and Summer Institutes,
correspondence courses were to be utilised for improving the teacher's knowledge. Cash awards
and special incentives were to be provided to teachers, with a view to the enhancement of their
academic and professional qualifications.
e. Technical Education
The technical education sector built up in the first three plans suffered from "an overall shortage
of 35 percent in teachers, 53 percent in equipment, 51 percent in infrastructure buildings and 55
percent in hostels". The Fourth Plan sought to make up for the deficiencies and consolidate the
existing institutions by providing more facilities. Efforts were to be made to enable
exchange of personnel between institutions. Engineers placed in industries were to be
encouraged to take up teaching assignments for specific periods. Expansions were to be limited
to select existing colleges and institutes. Special attention was paid to engineering courses at the
diploma level. Diversification in training facilities was to be provided to middle level
technicians. The institutes of management at Calcutta and Ahmedabad were to be expanded.
f. Social Education
To cope with the large-scale illiteracy in the country, mass-scale adult literacy movements were
to be launched. Adult Education was to serve as a tool for rural development as well. Libraries
were to be established in rural areas and large-scale production of books for neo-literates were to
be under taken.

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Adult literacy programmes were to be undertaken on the lines of Gram Shikshan Mohim in
Maharashtra.
g. Other Programmes
.1. Language institutes were proposed to be set up and universities were to be encouraged to
develop departments of modern Indian languages.
.2. The National Council of Educational Research and Training and the State Governments were
to cater to the requirements of good textbooks.
A National Book Development Council was proposed to assist the NCERT and the State
Governments in textbook production.
3. Physical education was to be a part of secondary education. Facilities for sports training were
to be provided in the rural areas. The National Institute of Sports and the National College of
Physical Education were to be further developed. Programmes under National Fitness Corps
were to be extended.
.4. Social service camps, campus works projects, youth hostels, scouts and guides were to be
encouraged.
.5. During the Fourth Plan the outlay on scholarships was increased to Rs. 54 crores under
secondary, university and technical education and another Rs. 15 crore for agricultural and
medical education. These scholarships were largely loan scholarships to be paid back after the
students completed their studies and started earning. A national autonomous organisation was to
be set up for the administration of scholarships.
Fifth Plan
The Fifth Plan outlay for education was Rs. 1285 crores, with emphasis on elementary
education. Adequate measures were to be taken for improving the rate of enrolment, increasing
the number and quality of teaching personnel, and for constructing classrooms, especially in
backward areas. Curriculum reorientation, work experience and strengthening the educational
institutions for teachers were among other priorities.
; In secondary education, improvement in the enrolment of students and the vocationalisation of
education were the priority areas.
; University education was to be consolidated and improved. Provisions were to be made for
educational facilities for weaker sections and also for the backward areas.
; Under the National Scholarship Scheme, 3,000 annual awards were to be given in each of the
first 2 years of the Plan, and 5000 scholarships provided in 1976-77. 20,000 yearly national loan
scholarships were provided for. Also, the number of scholarships for talented children in rural
areas was to be increased to about 15,000 per year.
; Schemes for improving existing programmes of non-formal education were to be undertaken.
; Spreading the national language, Hindi, across the country, especially in the non-Hindi
speaking states was emphasised. Language institutes like the Central Institute of Indian
Languages (Mysore), Kendriya Hindi Sansthan (Agra), the Rashtriya Sanskrit Sansthan (New
Delhi), and the Central Institute of English and Foreign Languages (Hyderabad) were to be
developed further.
; The National Service Scheme (NSS) was to be expanded and National Service Volunteers
Scheme was to be launched on a pilot basis.

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; The Fifth Plan provided for development of three national academies – the Sahitya Academy,
Sangeet Natak Academy, and Lalit Kala Academy, for the propagation of culture.
; Under the 20-Point Programme, three components related directly to education - provision of
books and stationary to students at cheaper rates, supply of essential commodities to hostel
students at subsidised cost and expansion of the apprenticeship training programme.
Sixth Plan
The Sixth Plan was characterised by an over all concern for the all round development of
children, especially those from the underprivileged groups. In keeping with that approach, a
preparatory early childhood programme was introduced to serve the requirements of children in
the rural and urban slums and cater to the social and educational backward groups. The Plan
aimed to have at least one Early Childhood Education Centre in every Community Development
Block. The non-formal approach to education was attuned to the perceptions of children on the
suitable use of locally available resources of the community and environment. Programmes were
to be implemented by the National Council for Educational Research and Training, which was to
provide teaching material and teaching aids for teachers
a. Elementary Education
Elementary education constituted a part of the Minimum Needs Programme and its
universalisation was actively pursued. Programmes of non-formal education oriented towards
target groups were organised. While the contents, course duration, place and hours of learning
and pattern of instructions of these programmes were decentralised, a basic
minimum package of inputs to parallel the formal system of education was
identified. In both the formal and non-formal systems, the emphasis was on the
retention of students and the effective delivery of services to recipients. Midday-meals, supply
of uniforms and learning material, and compensation to the families of SC girls were additional
incentives for parents to send their wards to school. Humanistic values, the capacity for
tolerance, promotion of national integration, scientific attitude and temper and the individual’s
capacity to learn from the surrounding world were built into the curriculum. To achieve the
ultimate objective of universalisation programme by 1990, efforts were directed at improvement
of the rates of enrolment in the educationally backward states of Assam, Bihar, MP, Rajasthan,
UP and West Bengal. Expansion of non-formal education was to be continued so that 80-lakh
children were covered in the Sixth Plan period. With regard to target groups to be provided with
universal elementary education, a family
approach was sought to be adopted in conjunction with welfare schemes of different sectors and
agencies. Remedial coaching programmes were to enable these children overcome their
environmental handicap and educational backwardness. It was the specific responsibility of
educational administration and planning to see that these groups were drawn into the
fold of national schemes at the earliest, through appropriately designed strategies.
b. Adult Education
The Sixth Plan laid emphasis on minimum essential education to all citizens irrespective of their
age, sex and residence. Education, with the primary emphasis on the spread of literacy and
imparting of practical skills was to be supported by post-literacy continuing education through a
network of rural libraries as well as instructional programmes and the media. Non-formal
education for adults in the productive age group of 15- 35 years was given higher priority

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because of its potential role in the economy. Priority in productive adult education for the
weaker sections like women, the SCs and the STs, and the agricultural labourers, was
another point of emphasis.
c. Secondary Education
While the quality of secondary education was to be strengthened by updated curriculum and
better textbooks and instruction material, there were programmes also for the strengthening of
science teaching as also the provision of laboratory equipment for both experimentation and
demonstration. Supply of science kits to secondary and higher secondary students was part of
the programme.
d. Higher Education
Improvement of the quality of higher education received special consideration in the Sixth Plan.
Courses were to be designed to facilitate employment generation. Infrastructure improvement
was to be provided for in universities on a regional basis. The academic community was to be
sensitised to the problems of poverty, illiteracy and environmental degradation.
e. Youth Development
The Sixth Plan recognised the importance of training youth to tackle the problems of poverty
and unemployment. The National Youth Policy sought to provide greater equality of opportunity
to the youth, to liberate their talent, and to ensure a higher average level of relevant basic skill
and
education through work and service. To draw upon their idealism and healthy aspirations and
channelise their energies into developmental tasks and projects, institutions like Nehru Yuvak
Kendras and Yuvak Mandals were to be set up.
f. Technical Education
The Sixth Plan sought to improve the facilities for technical education,
with emphases on
1. Consolidation and optimum utilisation of these facilities.
2. Identification of critical areas and creation of necessary facilities for education in
emerging technologies in the light of future technological manpower requirements.
3. Improvement of the quality of technical education at all levels.
4. Enhancement of national efforts to develop and apply science and technology as an
instrument of the country's socio-economic progress.
5. Completion of development projects of earlier plans and upgradation and modernisation
of facilities.
Seventh Plan
The Seventh Plan sought to bring about a reorientation in the education system with the
following objectives: the achievement of universal elementary
education: eradication of illiteracy in the age-group 15-35 years; vocationalisation and skill-
training programmes at different levels of education; upgradation of the quality of education;
making education useful in the world of work; emphasising science and environment values;
making high quality education more readily available at the district level; removal of
obsolescence, and modernisation of technical education. For the achievement of these targets,
the strategies suggested were decentralised planning and organisational reforms, promotion of
non formal and open learning systems, adoption of low-cost alternatives and maximum
utilisation of available resources, the forging of links between development agencies and

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industry, the mobilisation of community resources, and societal involvement.
a. Elementary Education
The main focus was on universalisation of elementary education for the age group 6-14 years by
1990 as a part of the Minimum Needs Programme. A combination of both formal and non-
formal methods was to be used, with a special focus on the needs of the girl child and those
belonging to
the economically and socially weaker sections. Efforts for reducing the number of dropouts were
to be continued. Non-formal education was to be expanded with a view to the universalisation of
elementary education for those not able to attend full-time school. A target of 25 million
children
was suggested for the non-formal programme. Non-formal education was to be made flexible
and appropriate to the area specific target groups. Education centres, schools and adult education
centres were to be linked together and integrated with development programmes. Efforts were to
be made to enhance the quality and efficiency of the education system. Beginning with the
design and construction of school buildings, textbook, curriculum, teaching material and
teacher's learning material were to be focussed upon. Physical facilities for elementary
education were to be built up under the National Rural Employment Programme (NREP).
Integrated Child Development Service (ICDS) was developed as a package with nutrition,
healthcare and social welfare for increasing the retention level of children in schools,
development of the child's personality and inculcation of a healthy attitude among children.
b. Adult Education
b.1. Adult education was to be linked to development projects like the Integrated Rural
Development Programme (IRDP), with active participation of village panchayats, mahila
mandals, and the community centres.
b.2. Programmes of Nehru Yuvak Kendra (NYS) and National Service Scheme (NSS) were to
focus on eradication of illiteracy. Skill based programmes were to be encouraged through the
Shramik Vidyapeeth.
b.3. In 1991, a National Institute of Adult Education was set up.
b.4. Citizenship education was to be an essential part of not just adult education, but of the entire
education system.
c. Secondary Education
c.1. Provision was made for funds to facilitate better utilisation of resources in the existing
schools.
c.2. Distance learning techniques and open school systems were to be further promoted.
c.3. Girls’ education was to be made free till the higher secondary stage, and special attention
was to be provided to the needs of the backward areas and under-privileged sections of the
population.
c.4. Environment education was to be made a part of science education.
c.5. Vocalisation of education at the higher secondary stage was to be emphasised.
c.6. An expert committee was to be set up to suggest ways and means of an expanded
programme of vocationalisation to co-ordinate between the education system and the
requirements of economic development.
. Other elements of the programme were
; Improvement of irrigational facilities.
; Production programmes for rural employment.
; Distribution of surplus land.

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; Minimum wages to landless labourers.
; Rehabilitation of bonded labour.
; Development of Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes.
; Growth of housing infrastructure.
; Increase in power production.
; Family planning.
; Tree plantation.
; Extension of primary health facilities.
; Programmes for welfare of women and children.
; Increase in primary education.
; Strengthening of the public distribution system.
; Simplification of industrial policies.
; Control of black money.
; Betterment of drinking water provisions.
; Development of internal resources.

After change of government at the Centre in January 1982, significant importance was attached
to the revised rural development programme, with an emphasis on attacking rural poverty and
improvement of the conditions of the SCs and STs. In August 1986, in the light of the Sixth Plan
experience, the 20-Point Programme was restructured. The elements of the restructured
programme included –
; Eradication or poverty.
; Raising of productivity.
; Reduction of income disparities and along with it, socio-economic
disparities, and improvement of the general quality of life.
; A strategy for rain-fed agriculture.
; Better use of irrigation water.
; Enforcement of land reforms.
; Special programmes for rural labour.
; Clean drinking water.
; Health for all.
; Two-child norm.
; Expansion of education.
; Justice for Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes.
; Equality for women.
; New opportunities for youth.
; Housing for the people.
; Improvement of slums.
; New strategy for forestry.
; Protection of the environment.
; Concern for the consumer.
; Energy for the villages.
; Responsive administration.

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ROLE OF PRIVATE& PUBLIC ENTERPRENEUR

Business Entrepreneurship is a field of practice that deals with application of entrepreneurial
energy primarily for generating wealth for a commercial business group and its shareholders by
producing/supplying products and /or services to satisfy the demands of the customers. The
practitioners in this field assume a type of leadership role.
Social Entrepreneurship (used as short hand for social and environmental entrepreneurship) is a
field of practice that deals with application of entrepreneurial energy primarily for: (a)
addressing social and environmental issues at community and/or higher levels and (b) causing
social and environmental change through non-violent, noncoercive methods and generating
significant impacts in the target areas and beyond. (I have intentionally mentioned ‘non-violent’
and ‘non-coercive’ here because in some cases, social change is attempted through application
of violent and coercive methods).
Social Entrepreneurship is also a special type of leadership.
The social entrepreneurial strategies and activity plans usually include elements of positive, life
building, and socially and ecologically enriching values, attitudes and behaviors for the target
population (customers).
Entrepreneurial Energy refers to capacity of certain individuals (or teams) for: (a) spotting high-
potential opportunities for intervention, (b) generating innovative products, services and
approaches for solving problems through creative use of resources and creating value for the
target groups/areas; and (c) resource mobilization, risk taking, and sustained striving for
achieving their goals in an ethical manner.
Social Business is a business venture that operates primarily for meeting social objectives. The
profit earned by these ventures is used mainly for social development activities and/or for
reinvestment in the business itself. The primary aim of investors in such businesses is generation
of social value.

Social half of our society

In a recent article, Bill Drayton writes that society consists of two halves: (a) business, and (b)
social. According to Drayton, the business half has made phenomenal progress because it has
benefited from application of entrepreneurial energy in free market, competitive economies. In
contrast, the social half, with its bureaucratic and monopolistic structure, has stagnated over the
years because it has had very little scope for infusion of entrepreneurial energy in its operations.
Drayton feels that with rapid growth of citizen sector organizations, the social half will also
make fast progress in coming years.
Although there has been rapid growth in the number of citizen sector organizations in India, the
practice of social entrepreneurship and management of social businesses as effective tools for
solving social problems are not receiving their due attention. Perhaps, much more needs to be
done for facilitating the application of entrepreneurial energy for benefit of the social half of
Indian society. In particular, the improvement of knowledge base and accountability aspects in
citizen sector deserve urgent attention. The Government departments and Public Sector
Corporations still handle most of the social sector programs in India. Due to the sheer size of
resources needed for the social sector and also due to political factors, this picture is not likely to
change much in the near future.

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Some of the large business houses are gradually showing interest in the social sector. Their
intervention is needed, not only because they can inject financial resources into the social sector,
but also because they can provide sophisticated technologies and creative solutions for this
sector. As an example, the ‘e-choupal’ initiative of ITC Ltd. is likely to generate large social
impact in several rural areas. In view of the above-mentioned points, the social entrepreneurs are
needed not only in citizen sector organizations i.e. NGOs and community-based organizations
(CBOs), but also in the Government and private business sectors in India. Some social
entrepreneurs may be able to operate only as ‘free-agents’ i.e. without any formal institutional
affiliations. Many development challenges like provision of water and sanitation, health,
education and power for the weaker sections of society can be best addressed if there are
collaborative arrangements involving Government, business and citizen sectors. The social
entrepreneurial values and methods can play significant role in successful accomplishment of
such collaborative missions.
The social entrepreneurship can be pursued from several perspectives and their combinations
(involving different levels of complexity), such as:
• Mitigation of human suffering (social and environmental relief and rehabilitation);
• Human rights, social justice, gender and equity perspective, and empowerment of people
• Reduction in violence stemming from social factors
• Social capital, civic participation in development and governance, and inclusive forms of
community development
• Business
• Natural resource management and sustainable development

ROLE OF NGO
Social business and natural resource management
Many of the public sector enterprises (e.g., Housing Development Corporation, Agro- Industries
Corporation, Irrigation Development Corporation etc.) and cooperative sector units were
established long back in India with primarily social goals in view. However, most of them have
turned bureaucratic, ineffective, and loss-making units over the years. There is considerable
scope for injecting entrepreneurial energy and passion for social development in many of these
enterprises through collaborative arrangements or through outsourcing of works to NGOs. In
order to be successful in developing such collaborations, the support from policy-makers is often
required.
In recent years, micro-credit, micro-enterprises and self-help groups have emerged as major
tools for development of poor people. NGO sector has been playing a major role in these fields.
In many areas, mutually aided cooperative societies and linkages with banking institutions have
been formed to provide sustainable structure for these initiatives. Such initiatives have also
infused some degree of business discipline, leadership and entrepreneurship among a section of
poor people (participants in these initiatives) as well as among the NGOs. Many leading social
entrepreneurs are working in these fields.
Several of NGOs have made major contributions and innovations in implementing natural
resource management projects such as watershed management, wasteland development, and
participatory irrigation management. Implementation of these projects has included strategies for
empowerment of poor people in rural areas and for encouraging them to set up micro-
enterprises.

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In general, the quality of people’s participation in development programs has improved
significantly in India during the last two decades. The credit for this achievement goes to social
entrepreneurs in NGO sector. Another field where NGOs like MSSRF, BAIF etc. have made
significant impact is promotion of rural eco-entrepreneurship. Many international organizations
(e.g., Ford Foundation and Ashoka Foundation) have made important contributions by
supporting innovative endeavors.
Challenging the change agent
Government agencies usually follow this one-dimensional approach because it is simple
and fast. The underlying assumption seems to be that the social and behavioral aspects are either
unimportant or unalterable. Departing from this view, the project utilized a comprehensive,
multidisciplinary approach, which included components of social, environmental, engineering
and agricultural improvements. The project encouraged poor people to discuss and analyze the
causes of their poverty and assisted them in finding solutions. It assisted them in managing their
saving, gender integration, group formation, water sharing, water management, environmental
care, micro-enterprises, self management skills, marketing linkages etc. In this process, the
project did encounter some problems, conflicts in opinion, and delays. As an example,
empowerment of women and their organization in groups was often not liked by male members
in the family and community. If a woman sets-up her micro-enterprise, her husband has to share
some of the household chores; in many cases, change in gender roles clashes with local customs
and traditions. Because of similar reasons, some powerful people in communities did not like
empowerment of poor people and their group activities. But these problems were sorted out
through discussions and negotiations. It took more time and effort, but it was worth it. The
experience of this project demonstrated the role of multidisciplinary approaches in development
projects and importance of grass root NGOs in ensuring people’s participation and local conflict
resolution. It also demonstrated that social change, economic development, and environmental
management could be combined in a single project. Similar experience has been noted in several
watershed management projects.
the project faced relatively small problems; but some other projects have faced bigger problems.
Many of them ignore social and ecological factors, and pursue only economic growth. In this
process, they damage local environment, alienate local population, and often harm the interests
of poor and disadvantaged sections. Economic reform policies can also have similar effects if
they are not properly planned and adjusted locally for protecting the interests of weaker sections
of society. Many economists treat development as a form of ‘tough love’. In this context, a
United Nations document of 1951 cited by anthropologist Arturo Escobar says:
“ Ancient philosophies have to be scrapped, old social institutions have to disintegrate; bonds of
caste, creed, and race have to burst; large number of people who can not keep up with progress
have to have their expectations of comfortable life frustrated.”
Fortunately, most development planners have now recognized the importance of social and
ecological factors and processes in the development approach. Consequently, more people are
now talking about sustainable development. In his recent book ‘Development as freedom’, the
famous economist and Nobel laureate Amartya Sen writes: “the overarching objective of
development is to maximize people’s capabilities – their freedom to lead the lives they value,
and have reason to value.” To a certain extent, this may sound too idealistic; but if we use the

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spirit of this viewpoint, much of it can be accomplished by promoting social entrepreneurship in
conjunction with business entrepreneurship and general development approaches.

Scope for improvement

The Indian scene is full of possibilities and challenges. The country possesses quite good
human resources, and has made good progress in achieving scientific and technological
capabilities. The business management education is also quite good in India. After liberalization
of economy in early nineties, there is significant growth in Indian economy. Despite these
positive factors, the social and environmental problems are increasing year after year. Another
limitation in India is general dearth of multidisciplinary thinking on these problems. I believe
that India needs extensive application of multidisciplinary approaches and entrepreneurial
energy in social and environmental sectors. The challenge is: How to have more number and
better quality of social entrepreneurs in the country?
Social entrepreneurship, although an old field of practice, is a new and emerging field of
systematic knowledge and learning. The growth in social entrepreneurship should not be left to
chance. In his famous book “Innovation and Entrepreneurship”, Peter Drucker writes: “….
everyone who can face up to decision making can learn to be an entrepreneur and behave
entrepreneurially. Entrepreneurship, then, is behavior rather than personality trait. And its
foundation lies in concept and theory rather than in intuition”. Even if we concede some role for
personality factors (as some other experts have suggested), a large number of selected people
(after initial screening) can be trained to be entrepreneurs. Extending this logic further, I think
that most people who can combine a spirit of social service and entrepreneurial behavior can
learn and develop themselves as social entrepreneurs.
It is important that this field of practice develops as a knowledge- based practice, rather than just
a random occurrence based on ‘hits or miss’ approaches and intuition. Furthermore, when social
entrepreneurial education and training is spreading in other countries (e.g., USA and UK), there
is growing need to promote such education in India also. Social entrepreneurship can draw and
adapt much of its knowledge from the fields of business entrepreneurship, and social and
environmental sciences. The topics of particular importance are: business and project planning,
strategy formulation involving multiple criteria (e.g., balanced score boards), project and venture
management, socialsector specific marketing, triple bottom line enterprises, hybrid enterprises,
blended value, community development, impact evaluation etc. Since about 70% population in
India is rural based (unlike in USA and UK), social entrepreneurship here should have a strong
rural orientation. In UK, the Blair Government is taking initiative in promoting social businesses
in a big way. Since the Government is a prominent player in social sector in India also, India can
learn several lessons from the experience in U.K. By their very orientation of thinking and
temperament, the accomplished social entrepreneurs are likely to be independent-minded, self-
driven, and goal focused persons who may not bother much about documenting their
experiences, approaches, methods and strategies. Yet, this is what we need for developing this as
knowledge based practice, so that the quality of practice improves and more people are able to
practice it successfully. Keeping this in view, networking of interested people in this field is
urgently needed. The social entrepreneurship, as a special type of leadership, can flourish here
only if its value is recognized by a significant section of Indian society, especially the policy

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makers, media and the other important players. If this happens, it can create new waves of
opportunities, strategies, approaches, and impacts in the direction of sustainable development.

NEHRU YUVA GRAMIN SEVA SANASTHAN, a nonprofit organization in Uttar Pradesh

working in remote tribal areas.Nehru yuva gramin seva sanasthan , a NGO in India organized
medical and health camp at Manipur Mandal, Agra District, Uttar Pradesh , India on
26.07.2010. This is a remote tribal habitation where 318 sugalis live in unhygienic conditions.
Most of them are illiterate and living below poverty line. They do not have awareness on health
and hygiene. They are superstitious and are not availing medical facilities available at Mandal
Head Quarters. They do not have safe drinking water and there is no proper drainage system in
the thanda. Water logging is there, where mosquitoes breed enormously. Due to mosquitoes and
unsafe drinking water, they have been infected by various diseases like malaria, TB, cold, caugh,
typhoid, etc., The women, particularly pregnant and lactating mothers, suffer a lot due to lack of
personal hygiene and nutritious diet

Health Checkup and Distribution of Medicines to Tribals

Nehru yuva gramin seva sanasthan conducted medical checkup through qualified Doctors and
provided medicine for common diseases. Paramedical staff diagnosed and conducted blood,
urine test. The serious cases of illness refer to the Government General Hospital . They were
sensitized on health, hygiene, sanitation and safe drinking water. They were motivated to utilize
the medical and health facilities available in Primary Health Centres. They were cautioned on
dangers of traditional treatment and about quack doctors. 250 tribals particularly of women,

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children and old age people utilized the service and medicines provided by Nehru yuva gramin
seva sanasthan.
This program was conducted with the kind donations from GIVE INDIA.
NGO in India conducting Computer Training Program to the educated unemployed youth
under Skill Development Initiative 2010-11:

Nehru yuva gramin seva sanasthan., a non-profit

organization (NGO) in India has created awareness
& mobilized 50 educated unemployed rural youth
and are conducting skill development computer
training classes to them. We are creating awareness
within community on the importance of Computer
Education which would fetch placement in any
department either private or Government. Fifty
poorest of the poor youth were selected for the
benefit of the program and imparted 3 Months
course from 10 July 2010 onwards in Computer
Fundamentals, MS Office, DTP, Internet Concepts
and Soft Skills. The program is supported by
Community Polytechnic Scheme, Ministry of
Human Resource Development, Govt. of India. After
successful completion of the training we will provide
escort services linkage with the banks and other

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financial institutions, placement in private and

 government sectors in Uttar Pradesh .
.

There is great demand for computer trained

professionals. Considering this demand we have
developed a project on skill development trainings in
computers and approached NABARD for financial
assistance. NABARD was kind enough to sanction
Rs.66040. With this financial assistance, Nehru yuva
gramin seva sanasthan NGO INDIA organized
computer skill training program to 25 educated
unemployed rural youth drawn from different Mandals
of Agra District of Uttar Pradesh. This program was
conducted for a period of three months i.e. from
January to March 2010. Computer Fundamentals, MS
Office, DTP, Internet & communication skills, etc.
were taught, both theoretically and practically.

Another 2 urban dalit adolescent girls were also

providing computer skill training for a period of 12
months which has commenced on March 2010. An
amount of Rs.11400/- was spent for this program,
which is received through Give India donation. The
training program for this two girls is continuing.

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FUNCTIONAL CONSTRAINS
  NGO is little known  NGO is known in its  NGO has a clear image
Public Relations outside of its direct own community, but and message of
collaborators. does little to promote mission, programs,
To what extent is the NGO  There is no clear image its activities with the accomplishments.
known to the public? of the NGO articulated general public and These are documented.
What materials does the and presented to the government.  NGO’s work is well
NGO have that describe public.  There is known to public and
its mission, programs,  There are no understanding that policy makers and it
and achievements? documents or prepared public relations is a uses this to attract
What use does the NGO statements available that function of NGOs but support when
make of mass media to provide information about little understanding of necessary.
disseminate information the NGO. how to implement  A public relations
about itself and its public relations. plan is being
achievements?  The NGO has an implemented.
annual report.
 NGO tends to view the  Beginnings of support  NGO’s projects bring
Local private sector from community support from local
(businesses) as the residents through agencies to assist
Collaboration/Supp
“others,” sometimes volunteerism. project results and
ort even with suspicion  NGO seeks technical sustain those results.
and distrust. assistance from some  Staff member serves as
How effective is the NGO in  It does not work in local private sector and development officer
accessing local financial, cooperation with the government resources. and knows the local
human, and other private sector to draw  NGO seeks support private and public
resources? on human or other from service agencies sector donor
How does the NGO make resources, technical in the private and opportunities.
an effort to engage expertise, or advocacy public sectors.  Private sector/NGO
community citizens in support. cooperation is the
the NGO as volunteers  The NGO’s norm and the NGO is a
or through individual programming has a full community
gifts? limited relationship partner.
How active is the NGO in with local citizens.  Private and
seeking support, public sector individuals
monetary, gifts-in-kind recruited to serve on
and volunteers from board.
local businesses?
 Organization does not  Organization is  NGO plays leadership
NGO Cooperation have experience increasingly known role in promoting
working with other and trusted by the coalitions on projects
Does the NGO cooperate or NGOs, local, national, NGO community but and in the sponsorship
partner with other local or international. has little experience and participation in a
NGOs?  NGO does not with collaboration. formal association of
Has the NGO established try to plan or deliver  NGO tries to plan NGOs.
national linkages with services in collaboration services in collaboration NGO is fully integrated
other NGOs? with other NGOs or see wit other NGOs, but into NGO community that
Has the NGO established the value of partnering mostly on an ad hoc basis. includes developing and
international linkages supporting formal group
with other NGOs or advocacy mechanisms
development groups?
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SWOT ANALYSIS

STRENGHT

- Abundant financial resources.

- Better logistical support (transport and equipment).

- Use multidisciplinary teams and more holistic approaches.

- Good networking skills.

- Use of participatory and bottom-up approaches ensures effective grassroots and community
participation.

- Provide training, extension and finance from one source.

- Greatly improved understanding of community needs (through accountability and

demonstration of impact to donors).

- Small independent decision-making units facilitate quick decision-making and greater

flexibility in project and programme implementation.

WEAKNESS

- Thin on the ground, so very limited coverage.

- Lack integrated approach (despite the rhetoric).

- Lack information and technical expertise.

- Lagging technical knowledge in new enterprises (e.g. ostrich/crocodile farming).

- Exist for financial benefits: are dollar-driven.

- Funds abused or not passed to the rightful beneficiaries.

- Work is too localized.

- Programmes that are too short to have much impact.

- Programmes that are too narrow (sector-focused) to have much impact.

- Ineffective umbrella body: the National Association of NGOs (NANGO).

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- Overdependence on external financial resources and expatriate technical assistance.

OPPURTUNITIES

- Potential for effective programme implementation: cooperative NGOs involve everyone.

- Donors will fund well-designed programmes with demonstrated impact.

THREAT

- Unstable sociopolitical environment not conducive to normal operations.

- Donor fatigue and investment withdrawal.

- Political pressure to extend programmes or projects beyond the available resources.

- Programmes may be overwhelmed as economic decline and retrenchment lead more and more
beneficiaries to seek involvement.

- Political pressure may force closures (e.g. NGOs accused of supporting opposition and banned
from holding meetings in some areas).
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CONCLUSION
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KEY LEARNINGS

1) A large section of the Indian society is suffering from poverty. Poverty is a phenomenon
which is objective as well a subjective. Objectively poverty implies a dehumanizing condition in
which people are unable to look after the basic needs. Subjectively poverty stands for perceived
deprivation.
2) Causes of poverty has lead to many answers. It has been located in the individual, in the
social structure, or the culture of the people.
3) The life in the poverty condition reinforces certain behaviour pattern, values and coping styles
which, reduce the chances of upward social mobility.
4) The Indian society consists of people from different religious, linguistic and ethnic
backgrounds.
5) The transformation of nation as a self sufficient and cohesive political entity has proved to be
a difficult challenge.
6) Traditionally the Indian society was hierarchically arranged and the different communities
and caste groups showed a pattern of social distance in which low caste, tribals and minority
groups were discriminated against and looked down upon.
7) The Indian constitution prohibits against such discrimination and has abolished
untouchability.
8) Women and men are equally important for the growth and development of individual and
social lives.Social Problem :: 207
9) In the Indian society women are considered major contributors to family and society. We
have gods and goddesses both and one of the incarnation of lord Shiva is Ardhanareeshwar,
which is made of half male and half female in its constitution.
10) some Indian women have been able to overcome the barriers in their path and became
successful in many walks of life.
11) India is facing a number of problems which need careful analysis and demands steps for
their solution. These problems are many in number.
12) The social problems described above deal with different domains of life, the solutions for
these problems require inputs from different disciplines.

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