11TH OCTOBER ,2021

MONDAY
BIOLOGY
SUPPORTING TISSUES IN PLANTS
LEARNING OBJECTIVES:
Different types of supporting tissues in plants.
Main features of supporting tissues in plants.
(ii) Functions of supporting tissues in plants: strength,
rigidity (resistance against the forces of the wind and
water), flexibility and resilience.
The different types of supporting tissues: turgid
parenchyma, collenchyma, xylem (wood) sclerenchyma
should be studied.
Candidates should be able to cut and draw the low
power of the T.S. of stem and root of a herbaceous
plant and label the different tissues; epidermis, cortex
and stele.
MEANING OF SUPPORTING TISSUES:
Supporting tissues are types of connective tissues. It
forms the framework and supporting structures of the
body, including bone, cartilage, mucous membrane,
and fat. Parenchyma, Collenchyma, Sclerenchyma,
Vascular tissues (Xylem, Phloem) are the supporting
tissues in plants.

The development of stable supporting elements has

been an important prerequisite for the evolution of
large terrestrial organisms. Animals have endo- or
exoskeletons that correspond in function to the woody
stems or trunks of plants. The architectural design of
the plant's body of vegetation is very complex. Thin
petioles carry heavy and flat laminas, stems support
leaves, flowers and fruits. All plant organs are exposed
to mechanical strains. Organs above ground follow the
wind's drift. Their high elasticity lets them either return
to their original position, or it makes them swing
around an imaginative axis. Trunks are stable enough
to resist the wind's pulling. They withstand pressure
and are inflexible, although their projecting treetops
provide the wind with a large target. The wind makes
the upper plant organs and the trunk act like a lever, a
large part of the force is hence exerted onto the roots,
that anchor the plant in the soil. Other functions of the
root are water and nutriment uptake.
The strength of tissues protects also against enemies.
The hard shell of many seeds prevents a chewing to
pieces or puncturing by animals and avoids that
parasites like fungi or bacteria force their way into
them.
The preceding topic mentioned the high water-content
of plant cells that lends a high tension to plant tissues
and is caused by the turgor. It supplies plant tissues
with a certain stability. Its actual importance is seen
best in wilting leaves or flowers after their water
supply has been stopped. Extensive specialized
supporting tissues exist only in vascular plants. Despite
the existence of huge marine brown algae (seaweeds,
like Macrocystis, Laminaria), not a single terrestrial
alga, whose thallus raises more than a few cell layers
above ground, is known. Vascular plants have up to
three types of supporting tissue:
The collenchyma, a tissue of living cells,
the sclerenchyma, a tissue of nearly always dead cells,
and
the vascular tissue consisting of both living and dead
cells. It is responsible for the transport and dispersal of
water, nutriments and assimilates.
All three types are reviewed below.
The larger a vessel plant is, the higher is its content of
dead cells. Dead cells are exceptions among
bryophytes, but very common in flowering plants. They
are usually elongated (prosenchymatous) cells, in
parallel to the axis of the respective organ and often
combined in sheaves.
The Collenchyma
The three most characteristic morphological features
of collenchyma are
(i) their axially elongated cells;
(2) their cell wall thickenings;
and (3) their living protoplasts (in the below Figure)
Other features of Collenchyma,
4.These cells are isodiametric .
5.Cell walls are unevenly thickened at the corners due
to the deposition of cellulose, hemicellulose and
pectin.
6.They often contain chloroplasts.
7.Intercellular spaces are absent.
8.It provides mechanical support to the growing parts
of the plant

During elongation, collenchyma cells do not divide as

much as the surrounding parenchyma cells, which
explains their prosenchymatic nature
The collenchyma is the typical supporting tissue of the
primary plant body and growing plant parts. Its
prosenchymatous cells are living at maturity and are
always kept in a primary state, which means that they are
never lignified. IMPLIES THEY ARE FLEXIBLE.
Collenchyma walls are interspersed with groups of pits
that tend to be organized in special areas. The name
collenchyma derives from the Greek word "kolla",
meaning "glue", which refers to the thick, glistening
appearance of the walls in fresh tissues.

The collenchyma is the typical supporting tissue of the

primary plant body and growing plant parts, though it is
kept with unaltered structure and function even in
outgrown organs like stems, petioles, laminae or roots.
In cross-sections of stems, the collenchyma commonly
appears as discrete strands or as a peripheral cylinder that
lies, depending on the species, either directly beneath the
epidermis or is separated from it by several layers of
parenchyma. The cylinder is usually composed of several
layers.
COLLENCHYMA ARE FOUND
1.Collenchyma is also found bordering the veins of dicot
leaves.
2. It forms fibres in edgy stems that run along the edges
or ribs.
3. Often either phloem or xylem of the vascular bundles
is associated with collenchyma cells.

Many transitions prove the collenchyma's origin from the

parenchyma. The differentiation is reversible, a
degeneration to meristematic states has often been
observed. The walls of collenchyma cells are
strengthened by the deposit of cellulose and the coating
with pectin. These strengthenings are often restricted to
single parts or edges of the cell. The walls of parenchyma
cells are opened by pits that are often arranged in special
areas.
The unevenly thickened cell walls led the German
botanist C. MÜLLER (1890) to distinguished between
different collenchyma types:
1.ANGULAR COLLENCHYMA
2.TANGENTIAL COLLENCHYMA
3.LACUNAR COLLENCHYMA
1. Angular Collenchyma. A thickening of the cell's
edges can be seen in cross-section. Longitudinal
sections show the elongated shape of both cell and
thickening. A cross-section through the stem of
Begonia rex or related species is the typical
specimen used in botanical microscopic courses.
Angular collenchyma occurs also in species of the
following genera: Ficus, Vitis, Ampelopsis,
Polygonium, Beta, Rumex, Boehmeria, Morus,
Cannabis, Pelargonium and others.
2. Tangential Collenchyma. The tangential walls of
this collenchyma type are thicker than the radial
walls. Examples: Sambucus nigra, species of the
genera Sanguisorba, Rhoeo, Eupatoria.
3. Lacunar Collenchyma. While hardly any
intercellular spaces exist in the two types above,
are those of this type very large. Clear gaps can be
recognized between the cells. Occurrence: species
of the genera Lactuca, Salvia, Prunella and the
Composite-family.
FUNCTIONS OF COLLENCHYMA
Collenchyma tissue is composed by elongated living
cells of uneven primary thick walls, which possess
hemicellulose, cellulose, and pectic materials.
1.It provides support, structure, mechanical strength,
2 and flexibility to the petiole, leaf veins, and stem of
young plants, allowing for easy bending without
breakage.
3.Performs photosynthetic function
4.tensile strength
5.elasticity
The cell walls of collenchyma cells are distortable when
stretched. Shape and arrangement of the cells cause a
high mechanic stability with a capacity of 10-12 kg/mm2.
This quality is especially advantageous in growing plant
organs. It enables the collenchyma cells to stretch in
synchrony with the other cells without spoiling the
toughness of the tissue.
PARENCHYMA

Parenchyma is a type of tissue consists of cells

that carry out an essential function. In botany
(plant biology), parenchyma is the simple
permanent ground tissues that form the bulk of
the plant tissues, such as the soft part of leaves,
fruit pulp, and other plant organs e
simultaneous working-in of additional wall
material.
What is the function of parenchyma cells?
Parenchyma forms the bulk of plant ground
tissue, where they may be specialised to
function in photosynthesis, storage, or
transport. Parenchyma is integral to vascular
tissue, where it provides a route of exchange for
materials within and between the xylem and the
phloem
Parenchyma is one of the simple permanent
tissues that help in creating a major portion of
fundamental or ground tissues in plants. There
are mainly three types of simple permanent
tissues found in plants – Parenchyma,
Collenchyma, and Sclerenchyma.
However, among these three types of ground
cells, only parenchyma cells consist of thin-
walled, living, simple, and structure-wise
unspecialised cells. Thus, these cells are
adaptable for several functions.
Notably, these ground tissues are neither
embedded nor vascular. Moreover,
parenchyma tissue is alive, and hence it can be
involved in secretion, food storage,
photosynthesis, and various other life
processes of plants.
Characteristics of Parenchyma
There are some fundamental characteristics
seen in parenchyma cells. Those are-
• After reaching maturity, these permanent
living cells can divide. With this
characteristic, these tissues can help in the
healing of wounds and regeneration.
• Parenchyma is the foundation of most
plant cells. The reproductive cells of plants
like gametes, spores, etc. are
parenchymatous.
• Plant zygotes are also made of single
parenchyma. Thus, a parenchymatous
zygote can grow into an entire plant
through cell division. These cells are known
as “totipotent” cells.
• This cell can appear as continuous masses
like the cortex & pith of roots and stems,
the endosperm of seed, mesophyll of the
leaf, the flesh of juicy fruits, etc. This type
of tissue is called homogeneous
parenchyma tissue.
• Parenchyma can create heterogeneous
complex tissues by associating with
different kinds of cells. The parenchyma
present in phloem or xylem is an example
of heterogeneous parenchyma.
• Essential life process activities like storage,
assimilation, photosynthesis, excretion,
respiration, transportation of water
throughout the body, etc. require these
cells.
Structure of Parenchyma
Parenchyma cells are living cells. A vital part
for respective organisms, its basic structural
characteristics are noted below.
• This ground cell consists of prominent
protoplasts and nuclei.
• Mostly, parenchymas are polyhedral or
isodiametric in shape. However, these cells
can be round, oval, elongated, or polygonal
as well.
• The intercellular space of parenchyma is
small, and the cells might also be tightly
packed.
• They have thin cell walls which are
composed of hemicelluloses and cellulose.
• In a parenchyma tissue, plasmodesmata
joins all the cells.
• These cells have multiple small vacuoles. In
older parenchyma, these small vacuoles
fuse and form a large central vacuole. This
 large vacuole can accumulate tannins or
anthocyanin.
• Vacuoles in parenchyma have abundant
water, and they work as water reservoirs
of plants.
• Storage parenchyma can have thick cell
walls of xyloglucan like the endosperm of a
date palm. During the germination of
seeds, the sugar is utilised and the walls
are reduced to thin layers.
• Chromoplast is present in the parenchyma
of fruits and flowers.
• Sometimes, parenchyma also has a thick
lignified cell wall similar to sclerenchyma.
• The mechanical strength of parenchyma is
derived from the cell’s hydraulic property.
• Parenchyma contains chloroplast that
specifically performs photosynthesis.
• Some parenchyma cells contain dense
protoplasm that is highly composed of
endoplasmic reticulum, golgi bodies, and
 ribosomes. These cells help in performing
a secretory function.

Depending on the location, structure, and

functions, parenchyma can be divided into the
following categories-
Types of Parenchyma
Parenchyma type Description
Parenchyma with
chloroplast that helps
Chlorenchyma in performing
photosynthesis is
called chlorenchyma.
These parenchyma
cells transport the
Transfer cell
solutes over a shorter
distance.
This parenchyma is
composed of vascular
Vascular parenchyma tissues. They are of
two types- phloem
parenchyma and
 xylem parenchyma.
Phloem parenchyma
consists of cylindrical,
elongated, and
tapering cells with
dense cytoplasm.
Xylem parenchyma
has thin walls of
cellulose.
This parenchyma acts
as the reservoir of
water and food of the
Storage parenchyma
cell. These cells also
contain starch,
protein, etc.
This thick-walled
parenchyma provides
Prosenchyma strength and rigidity
to the cell of the
plant.
Contrary to another
Aerenchyma parenchyma, this cell
has a large
 intercellular space.
They are mostly seen
in the aquatic plants.
Some gymnosperms
Epidermis
have these cells in
parenchyma
their epidermis.
Conjunctive In the root system of
parenchyma plants, this
parenchyma is found.

Functions of Parenchyma
Parenchyma helps to perform different
biological functions.
• Storage
The intercellular space between parenchyma
cells works as the storage of water, starch,
fats, etc.
• Photosynthesis
Chlorenchyma carries chloroplast that is
present in all green parts of a plant and
performs photosynthesis.
 • Transport
Parenchyma tissue transports water,
nutrients, and other important chemicals
throughout the plant body.
• Protection
The spiny projections in the parenchymatous
cells of gymnosperms protect them from
predator attacks.
• Gas exchange
Aerenchyma helps in the exchange of gasses.
• Totipotent
Parenchyma can transform into other kinds of
cells in case they predecease.
• Regeneration and healing
The ability of cell division of parenchyma helps
in healing body wounds with their
regeneration.
• Buoyancy
Aerenchyma consists of air sacs that help the
aquatic plants to float.
The above discussion provides a
comprehensive understanding of parenchyma
cells which includes its characteristics, types
and functions. You should note them in detail
since it is one of the vital topics in your
curricula.

The Sclerenchyma

The other true supporting tissue is the

sclerenchyma. Two groups of sclerenchyma
cells exist: fibres and sclereids. Their walls
consist of cellulose and/or lignin.
Sclerenchyma cells are the principal
supporting cells in plant parts that have ceased
elongation. Sclerenchyma fibres are of great
economical importance, since they constitute
the source material for many fabrics (flax,
hemp, jute, ramie).

Contrary to the collenchyma, mature

sclerenchyma is composed of dead cells with
extremely thick cell walls (secondary walls)
that make up to 90% of the whole cell volume.
The term "sclerenchyma" is derived from the
Greek "scleros", meaning "hard". It is their
hard, thick walls that make sclerenchyma cells
important strengthening and supporting
elements in plant parts that have ceased
elongation. The difference between fibres and
sclereids is not always clear. Transitions do
exist, sometimes even within one and the
same plant.
Fibres are generally long, slender, so-called
prosenchymatous cells, usually occuring in
strands or bundles. Such bundles or the
totality of a stem's bundles are colloquially
called fibres. Their high load-bearing capacity
and the ease with which they can be processed
has since antiquity made them the source
material for a number of things, like ropes,
fabrics or mattresses. The fibres of flax (Linum
usitatissimum) have been known in Europe
and Egypt since more than 3000 years, those
of hemp (Canabis sativa) in China for just as
long. These fibres, and those of jute (Corchorus
capsularis) and ramie (Boehmeria nivea, a
nettle), are extremely soft and elastic and are
especially well suited for the processing to
textiles. Their principal cell wall material is
cellulose.
Contrasting are hard fibres that are mostly
found in monocots. Typical examples are the
fibres of many Gramineae, Agaves (sisal:
Agave sisalana), lilies (Yucca or Phormium
tenax), Musa textilis and others. Their cell
walls harbour, besides cellulose, a high
proportion of lignin. The load-bearing capacity
of Phormium tenax is as high as 20-25 kg/mm2
and is thus the same as that of good steel wire
(25 kg/ mm2). But the fibre tears as soon as it
is put too great a strain on it, while the wire
distorts and tears not before a strain of 80
kg/mm2. The thickening of a cell wall has been
studied in Linum. Starting at the centre of the
fibre are the thickening layers of the secondary
wall deposited one after the other. Growth at
both tips of the cell leads to simultaneous
elongation. During development do the layers
of secondary material seem like tubes, of
which the outer one is always longer and older
than the next. After completion of growth the
missing parts are supplemented, so that the
wall is evenly thickened up to the tips of the
fibres.
Fibres stem usually from meristematic tissues.
Cambium and procambium are their main
centers of production. They are often
associated with the xylem of the vascular
bundles. The fibres of the xylem are always
lignified. Reliable evidence for the fibre cells'
evolutionary origin of tracheids exists. During
evolution the strength of the cell walls was
enhanced, the ability to conduct water was
lost and the size of the pits reduced. Fibres that
do not belong to the xylem are bast (outside
the ring of cambium) and such fibres that are
arranged in characteristic patterns at different

sites of the shoot.

Sclereids are variable in shape. The cells can be

isodiametric, prosenchymatic, forked or
fantastically branched. They can be grouped
into bundles, can form complete tubes located
at the periphery or can occur as single cells or
small groups of cells within parenchyma
tissues. But compared with most fibres
sclereids are relatively short. Characteristic
examples are the stone cells (called stone cells
because of their hardness) of pears (Pyrus
communis) and quinces (Cydonia oblonga) and
those of the shoot of the wax plant (Hoya
carnosa). The cell walls fill nearly all the cell's
volume. A layering of the walls and the
existence of branched pits is clearly visible.
Branched pits such as these are called
ramiform pits. The shell of many seeds like
those of nuts as well as the stones of drupes
like cherries or plums are made up from
sclereids.
What are the three functions of
sclerenchyma?
When you hear the word sclerenchyma you
should think of three 'S's: support, structure,
and strength. These cells are found in parts of
plants that need these characteristics. These
cells are known for their extremely thick cell
walls.
Sclerenchyma is found in the covering of
seeds and nuts, around the vascular tissues in
stems and the veins of leaves. Sclerenchyma
provides strength to the plant. The main
function of sclerenchyma is to provide
mechanical support and protection to the
plant.