ICT

INFORMATION COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGY(ICT)

INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTERS
Definition of a computer:
 An electronic device that operates (works) under the control of programs stored in its own memory
unit.
 A computer is an electronic device that accepts user input (referred to as data), and transforms it
under the influence of a set of special instructions called programs, to produce the desired output
(referred to as information).
 An electronic machine that processes raw data to give information as output.
A computer automatically accepts data and instructions as input from an input device, stores them
temporarily in its memory, then processes that data according to the instructions given, and finally
transfers the processed data (information) to an output device.
Explanations.
 A computer is described as an electronic device because; it is made up of electronic components
and uses electric energy to operate, e.g. electricity.
 A computer has an internal memory, which stores data and instructions temporarily waiting
processing, and even holds the intermediate result (information) before it is communicated to the
recipients through the output devices.
 A computer works on the data using the instructions issued. This means that, the computer cannot
do any useful job on its own. It can only work as per the set of instructions issued.
A computer will accept data in one form and produce it in another form. The data is normally held
within the computer as it is being processed.
Data:
Data is a collection of raw facts, figures or instructions that do not have much meaning to the user,
and cannot be used to make decision.
- Data may be in form of numbers, letters or symbols, and can be processed to produce information.
Types of data.
There are two types/forms of data:
a) Digital (discrete) data
This is data that is discrete in nature. It must be represented in form of numbers, alphabets or
symbols for it to be processed by a computer.
- Digital data is obtained by counting, e.g. 1, 2, 3 …
b) Analogue (continuous) data
This is data that is continuous in nature. It must be represented in physical nature in order to be
processed by the computer.
- Analogue data is obtained by measurement, e.g. pressure, temperature, lengths or currents, etc
Program:
 A program is a set of related instructions written in the language of the computer and is used to
make the computer perform a specific task (or, to direct the computer on what to do).
 A set of related instructions which specify how the data is to be processed.
 A set of instructions used to guide a computer through a process.
 A set of instructions which a computer uses to carry out/perform a particular task.
Data processing:
 The process of collecting all items of data together and performing operations on them so as to
generate a set of output which is able to convey some meaning.

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 The process of transforming raw data into meaningful output (described as information)
 It refers to the way the data is manipulated (or handled) to turn it into information.
The processing may involve calculation, comparison or any other logic to produce the required result.
The processing of the data usually results in some meaningful information being produced.
Information:
 Information is the meaningful output obtained after processing data values.
 This is data which has been refined, summarized and manipulated into a more meaningful form for
decision-making.
 It is data which is summarized and prcessed in the way you want it, so that it is useful in your
work.
- The information must be accurate, timely, complete and relevant.
Comparison between data and information.
Data Information
1. Unprocessed (raw) facts or figures. 1. It is the end-product of data processing (data
which has been processed)
2. Not arranged. 2. Arranged into a meaningful format.
3. Does not have much meaning to the user. 3. More meaningful to the user.
4. Cannot be used for decision-making. 4. Can be used to make decisions.
Information processing cycle
Information processing is a cycle of input, processing and output.

Input Output

Processing
The collected data is input into the computer. The data is processed, and the information is output.
This cycle continues until there is no more data to input.

Characteristics/features of a computer.
Before 20th century, most information was processed manually or by use of simple machines. Today,
millions of people are using c t5 omputers in offices and at home to produce and store all types of
information
The following are some of the attributes that make computers widely accepted and used in the day-to-
day activities in our society:
1. Speed.
Computers operate at very high speeds, and can perform very many functions within a very short
time. They can perform a much complicated task much faster than a human being.
The speed of a computer is measured in fractions of seconds.
Millisecond - a thousandth of a second (1/1000 sec)
Microsecond - a millionth of a second (1/1000, 000 sec)
Nanosecond - a thousand millionth of a second (1/1000, 000, 000 sec)
Picosecond - a million millionth of a second (1/1000, 000, 000, 000 sec)
2. Accuracy:
Unlike human beings, computers never make mistakes.
A computer can work for very long periods without going wrong. However, when an error occurs
the computer has in-built, self-checking features in their electronic components that can detect
and correct such errors.
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Usually errors are committed by the users entering the data to the computer, thus the saying
garbage in garbage out (GIGO). This means that, if you enter incorrect data into the computer
and have it processed, the computer will give you misleading information.
3. Reliability.
The computer can be relied upon to produce the correct answer if it is given the correct
instructions and supplied with the correct data.
Therefore, if you want to add two numbers, but by mistake, give the computer a “multiply”
instruction, the computer will not know that you intended to “ADD”; it will multiply the numbers
supplied. Similarly, if you give it the ADD instruction, but make a mistake and enter an incorrect
data (e.g. 14 and 83 instead of 14 and 38), then the computer will produce the “wrong” answer 97
instead of 52. However, note that, 97 is ‘correct’ based on the data supplied.
Therefore, the output produced by a computer is only as reliable as the instructions used and the
data supplied.
4. Consistency:
Computers are usually consistent. This means that, given the same data and the same
instructions, they will produce the same answer every time that particular process is repeated.
5. Diligence:
Unlike human beings, a computer can work continuously without getting tired or bored. Even if
it has to do a million calculations, it will do the last one with the same speed and accuracy as the
first one.
6. Storage:
- A computer is capable of storing large amounts of data or instructions in a very small space.
- A computer can store data and instructions for later use, and it can produce/ retrieve this data
when required so that the user can make use of it.
- Data stored in a computer can be protected from unauthorized individuals through the use of
passwords.
7. Automation:
A computer is an automatic device. This is because, once given the instructions, it is guided by
these instructions and can carry on its job automatically until it is complete.
It can also perform a variety of jobs as long as there is a well-defined procedure.
8. Versatile:
A computer can be used in different places to perform a large number of different jobs depending
on the instructions fed to it, e.g. a computer can be used in handling complex arithmetic problems,
in railway and airline reservations, for process control in nuclear reactors, for diagnosis and
control in intensive care units in hospitals, etc.
Review Questions.
1. What is a computer?
2. Why is a computer referred to as an electronic device?
3. Define the following terms as used in computer science.
(a) Data. (c) Programs.
(b) Data processing. (d) Information.
4. (a) Briefly explain the two forms of data.
(b) Give three differences between data and information.
5. What is meant by the term ‘information processing cycle’?
6. The speed of a computer is measured in ___________.
7. What does the term GIGO stands for?
8. List and explain 4 salient features/ properties of a computer.
9. List five advantages of a computerized system over a manual system.

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PARTS OF A COMPUTER.
A computer is made up of a collection of different components that are interconnected together in
order to work as a single entity.
A typical computer consists of the following parts/devices:
1. The system unit. 4. Keyboard.
2. Mouse. 5. Monitor.
3. Printer.
1. System unit.
This is the casing (unit) that houses the internal components of the computer, e.g. central
processing unit (CPU) and storage devices.
The system unit contains the following components: -
 Central processing unit (CPU), which is also referred to as processor.
 Disk drives, which are used to store, record and read data.
 Motherboard. ● Power supply unit. ● Main memory.
 Hard disk. ● Battery. ● Input/output ports.
 Video card. ● Expansion slots. ● Buses
(a) Central processing unit (CPU)
The CPU is the most important item inside the system unit. It is the brain of the computer.
 It carries out all the processing operations, i.e. calculations, and processing of data and
instructions.
 It also handles input/output signals from the peripheral devices
The CPU consists of two main parts:
(i) Control unit (CU) - The CU fetches data from the main memory and puts it in the proper
order for the processor. It also sends the processed results back to the main memory.
(ii) Arithmetic logic unit (ALU) - The ALU carries out all the logical and arithmetic
processing. It decodes the instructions and then processes the data.
(b) Main memory
Every computer comes with a certain amount of physical memory, usually referred to as main
memory or random access memory (RAM).
 The main memory stores information and also the instructions that tell the CPU how to
process the data.
 The data in the main memory is temporary, and is lost when the computer is switched off.
(c) Battery
The battery provides constant power for the system clock and Date/Time stamp that are inside
the system unit. The power keeps the clock running even when the main power to the
computer is turned off.
(d) Video card (display adapter card)
All the information is stored in the computer memory, and in order to modify the data, it has to
be displayed on the monitor. The video card links the computer memory and the monitor.
(e) Hard disk
The hard disk is the computer’s main storage unit where all data is stored. It can hold large
amounts of data, and the data is not affected when the computer is turned off.
(f) Disk drives
Disk drives are used to read from or write to floppy disks and compact disks, e.g. Compact
disk drives (popularly known as CD-ROM drives) can be used for reading and writing CDs.

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(g) Expansion slots
An expansion slot is where an expansion card can be fitted. Each expansion slot leads to the
bus on the motherboard.
Expansion board is a circuit board that installs into an expansion slot in the computer. It
allows additional hardware to be attached to the system.
Types of system units
There are two makes of system units:
1. Tower style system unit
This system unit is designed to stand alone or to be placed on the floor.
- The system unit is placed lying on its side.
- They have more space for expansion than the desktop units.
- They occupy less space.
2. Desktop system units
Desktop units lie on the desk with the monitor placed on top.
 The system unit is placed lying on its base.
 They have less space for expansion.
 They occupy a larger space.

Features of the system unit.

- It houses the CPU.
- It connects to all peripheral devices using ports.
- It has the computer’s power switch.
2. Keyboard
The keyboard looks like a typewriter, and has letters, numbers and other keys through which data
is entered into the computer. It enables the user to enter data and instructions into the computer by
pressing its keys.
3. Mouse
It is a pointing device that enables the user to issue instructions to the computer by controlling a
special mouse pointer displayed on the screen.
4. Monitor
It is a television-like screen used for displaying output. When you type a letter or number on the
keyboard, it shows up on the monitor.
Note. The monitor enables the user to monitor/track or see what is going on in the computer.
5. Printer - it is used to create permanent copies of output on paper.
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Computer peripherals.
Peripheral devices are the hardware elements (devices/components) connected to the CPU by use of
special cables called data interface cables.
The cables are connected to the system unit using connectors called ports, and are used to carry data,
information and programs from the devices to the processor and from the processor to the devices.
Examples of peripheral devices include;
- Monitor. - Keyboard - Printer. - Modem.
- Plotter. - Speakers - Mouse - Scanner.
- Joystick. - Digital camera - Light pen
Review Questions.
1. List down the components that make up a computer.
2. Clearly draw and label the main physical parts of a simple computer system.
3. (a) What are computer peripherals?
(b) Give four examples of peripheral devices.
4. (a) Explain the term system unit.
(b) Name four components found in the system unit.
(c) Give three features of a computer’s system Unit.
5. Give two differences between tower and desktop system units.
6. Why is the screen also called a monitor?
7. What is a mouse in relation to computing?

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DEVELOPMENT OF COMPUTERS.
History of computing.
Before 1900, most data processing was done manually using simple tools like stones and sticks to
count and keep records.
Around 2000 years ago, Asian merchants came up with abacus; a special calculating tool that could
be used to calculate large figures. Abacus is made up of a rectangular frame and a crossbar at the
middle. It is fitted with wires or strings running across from the frame to the crossbar.
How to represent a number using an abacus.
Each bead in the lower row has a value of 1, while each bead in the upper row has a value of 5. To
represent a number, the bead is moved to the crossbar. Those beads away from the crossbar represent
zeros.
The figure below represents the number 6908 (six thousand nine hundred and eight).

After Abacus, the first machine that is usually regarded as the forerunner of modern computers was
named the Analytical engine, and was developed by an English mathematician called Charles
Babbage.
In 1939, Professor Howard Aken of Horrard University designed the first computer-like machine
named Mark 1. Since then, a series of advancements in electronics has occurred. With each
breakthrough, the computers based on the older form of electronics have been replaced by a new
“generation” of computers based on the newer form of electronics.
Computer Generations.
A computer generation is a grouped summary of the gradual developments in the computer
technology. The historical events are not considered in terms of individual years, but are classified in
durations (a period of more than a year).
Factors considered when classifying computers according to generations.
- Size of the computer. - Technology used.
- Processing speed. - Cost
- Memory capacity. - Type of memories used.

1ST Generation computers (1946 – 1956).

√ The 1st generation computers were built using electronic gadgets called vacuum tubes or
thermionic valves to control internal operations (to process information).

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Vacuum tube
√ The tubes consumed a lot power, and produced a lot of heat during processing.
√ Due to the excessive heat generated, the computers constantly broke down; hence, they were
short-lived, and were not very reliable.
√ They used magnetic drum memories to store information.
√ Cards were used to enter data into the computers.
√ Their internal memory capacity was low - it was approx. 2 KB (2,000 bytes).
√ The computers used big physical devices in their circuitry; hence they were very large in size, e.g.
ENIAC (the earliest electronic computer) occupied an area of about 150m2 (the size of an average
3-bedroom house).
√ They were very slow compared to today’s computers. Their speed was measured in milliseconds,
e.g. ENIAC could perform 5,000 additions and 300 multiplications per second.
√ The computers were very expensive - they costed millions of dollars.
Examples of 1ST generation computers:
 ENIAC (Electronic Numerical Integrator And Calculator) – was built in 1946 for use in World
war II. It contained 18,000 vacuum tubes.
 EDVAC (Electronic Discrete Variable Automatic Computer) – was developed in 1945 by Dr.
John Von Neumann. It was the first computer that used instructions stored in memory.
 UNIVAC (UNIVersal Automatic Computer).
 IBM 650.
 LEO (Lyon’s Electronic Office).
Advantages of first generation computers
- The vacuum tube technology made possible the advent of electronic digital computer.
- These computers were the fastest calculating devices at their time.
Disadvantages
- They were too bulky (large and heavy)
- They were unreliable.
- Had limited memory.
- They generated a lot of heat.
- Consumed a lot of power.

2ND generation computers (1957 – 1963).

√ The computers were built using tiny, individual electronic devices called transistors for internal
operations.

Transistor
√ They consumed less power, generated less heat, and were more stable and reliable than those made
with vacuum tubes.
√ They used magnetic core memories for storage purposes.
√ RAM memory size increased to 32 KB.
√ They were much faster compared to first generation computers, and their speeds were measured in
microseconds, e.g. a computer could perform 1 million additions per second.
√ They were smaller in size and occupied less space compared to 1st generation computers.
√ They were less costly than the 1st generation computers.
√ They were less prone to hardware failure.
Examples of 2nd generation computers:
 NCR 501, IBM 300, IBM 1401, IBM 7070, IBM 7094 series and CDC-6600 mainframe
computers.
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 ATLAS LEO Mark III.
 UNIVAC 1107.
 HONEYWELL 200.
Disadvantages of 2nd generation computers
- Required air conditioning to cool them down.
- Required frequent maintenance.
- Commercial production was difficult and costly.

3RD generation computers (1964 – 1979).

√ They used electronic devices called integrated circuits (ICs), which were made by combining
thousands of transistors and diodes together on a semiconductor called a silicon chip.

Integrated circuit
√ Were more reliable compared to 2nd generation computers.
√ They required less power.
√ They emitted less heat.
√ They were faster than second generation computers, e.g. they could process 5 million instructions
per second.
√ Had high storage capacity than 2nd generation computers (the RAM memory capacity was 2 MB).
√ Used magnetic disks for storage purposes.
√ They were smaller in size than the 1st and 2nd generation computers.
√ The computers used a wide range of peripheral devices.
√ Had better performance, and were more reliable that 2nd generation.
√ The computers could support more than one user at the same time. They could also support
remote communication facilities.
√ The 1st microcomputer was produced during this period (1974).
√ Software industry emerged during this period.
Examples of 3rd generation computers:
 IBM 360, 370;
 ICL 1900 Series;
 8-bit microcomputers and PDP-11 mainframe computers.
Advantage of 3rd generation computers
- Maintenance cost was low because hardware failures were rare.
Disadvantages
- Highly sophisticated technology is required for the manufacture of integrated circuit.
- They were costly.

4TH generation computers (1979 – 1989).

√ They used large scale integrated (LSI) and very large scale integrated (VLSI) circuits, which
are made by compressing more tiny circuits and transistors into even smaller space of the silicon
chip.

Very large integrated circuit

√ They are small in size because of high component density.
√ They generate negligible heat.
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√ Very reliable.
√ They are very fast (i.e. they work at very high speeds), e.g. they could process 50 million
instructions per second.
√ Have large storage capacity, i.e. their memory sizes increased to several hundred megabytes.
√ They use magnetic disks, bubble memories and optical disks for storage of information.
√ The first operating system was introduced during this period.
Examples of 4th generation computers:
 IBM 308 and 4300;
 Amdahl 580
 Honeywell DPS-88
 Burroughs 7700, and the 16-bit and 32-bit microcomputers. The first microcomputer was called
Apple II.
Advantage of 4th generation computers
- They are not prone to hardware failure.
- They are portable because of their small size.
Disadvantage
- Highly sophisticated technology is required for the manufacture of LSI chips.

5TH generation computers (1990 – present).

√ These are the modern computers.
√ They are designed/constructed using parallel architectures, 3-D circuit design and super
conducting materials. These technologies have led to the development of supercomputers.
√ The computers are very powerful.
√ They have very high processing speeds. Their speeds are measured in nanoseconds and
picoseconds.
√ They are able to perform parallel processing (or multi-processing) whereby a single task is split
among a number of processors.
√ Have very large memory sizes, which are measured in terms gigabytes.
√ The use of VLSI and microchip technology has given rise to computers that are very small in size.
√ This generation has led to the merging of telecommunication systems with computer technology
for communication purposes.
√ The computers are able to support complex programs that can mimic human intelligence often
referred to as artificial intelligence. Such programs can help managers to make decisions and
also provide critical expert services to users instead of relying on human professionals.
√ Use advanced hard disks, zip disks, and optical disks (e.g. CDs, VCDs and DVDs) for storage.
√ Use of multi user operating systems and advanced application programs.
Review Questions.
1. Briefly describe the history of computers.
2. Who developed analytical engine?
3. (a) What do you mean by computer generations?
(b) Describe the five generations of computers in terms of technology used and give an example
of a computer developed in each generation.
(c) Compare computer memory sizes during the five computer generation periods.
4. (a) What was the most remarkable discovery during the second computer generation?
(b) What are the major developments in the fourth and fifth generation of computers?
5. Give four characteristics of first generation computer.
6. Write the following abbreviations in full:
(a) ENIAC (b) IC (c) VLSI
7. What is artificial intelligence?

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CLASSIFICATION OF COMPUTERS
Computers can be classified according to the following factors:
1. Physical size and processing power.
2. Purpose for which they are designed (i.e. according to the tasks they perform).
3. Functionality (type of data they process).
4. Type of processor (CPU).
1. Classification according to Physical size.
(a) Supercomputers.
Supercomputers are the most powerful computers available.
- They are very fast in processing (i.e. can perform many complex calculations in a fraction
of a second).
- They are very expensive.
- Supercomputers use multiple processors, where a single task is split among the processors
for faster execution. However, all the processors are controlled by a single central
processor.
- They generate a lot of heat, and therefore require special cooling systems. Sometimes, the
whole CPU is deeped in a tank containing liquid fluorocarbon to provide cooling.
- They are very large and heavy, and are usually kept under special environmental conditions
(i.e. in a special room).
- They are operated by computer specialists.
- A supercomputer can be operated by over 500 users at the same time.
Areas where supercomputers are used
Supercomputers are mainly used for complex scientific applications that involve large
amounts of data, and which need to be manipulated within a very short time, e.g.
 Weather forecasting.
 Petroleum research.
 Weapon analysis.
 Aerodynamic design and simulation.
Examples of supercomputers: CRAY T3D, Deep thunder, NEC-500.
(b) Mainframe computers.
- Mainframes are less powerful and less expensive than supercomputers.
- They are large in size but smaller compared to supercomputers.
- Are powerful computers with very high capacities of main storage. They also have a large
backing storage capacity.
- Have a very high processing speed, i.e. can process large amounts of data very quickly.
- They are usually kept in an air-conditioned environment in a special room.
- They can support a large number of peripherals of different types.
- They can handle hundreds of users at the same time, e.g. they can be operated by 200 users
at a time.
- Mainframe computers are general-purpose, and can handle all kinds of problems whether
scientific or commercial.
Areas where mainframe computers are used
Mainframe computers are mostly found in big companies, banks, and government agencies,
which have large information processing needs, e.g. they are used in;
 Banks for preparing bills, payrolls, etc.
 Hospitals.
 Communication networks such as the internet where they act as servers.
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 Airports for reservation purposes - the airlines have a mainframe computer at their head
office where the information of all flights is stored. Small computers at the booking offices
are attached to the central data bank so that up-to-date information of flights is always
available.
Examples of mainframes: IBM 4381, ICL 39 series, CDC cyber series.
(c) Minicomputers.
- A minicomputer is less powerful than a mainframe computer.
- It is physically smaller than a mainframe. However, it can support the same peripheral
devices supported by a mainframe.
- It can support several users at a time - Several workstations are connected to one central
minicomputer so that users connected can share its resources (CPU time, storage, etc).
- A minicomputer is easier to manufacture and maintain compared to a mainframe.
- It is cheaper than a mainframe, but more expensive than a microcomputer.
- Has less memory and can handle small amounts of data than a mainframe.
- It is slower than a mainframe computer.
Areas where minicomputers are used:
 Scientific laboratories.
 Research institutions.
 Engineering plants/factories to control chemical or mechanical processes.
 Space industry.
 Insurance companies and banks for accounting purposes.
 Business organizations as network servers.
Example of minicomputer: PDP-8, which was built in 1965 by Digital Equipment Corporation
(DEC) in the United States.
(d) Microcomputers.
A microcomputer is a computer whose CPU (processor) has been implemented with a
microprocessor (or, a computer whose data processing is done by a microprocessor).
- Microcomputers are the Personal computers (PCs) mostly found today in homes, schools
and many small offices. They are called personal computers because they are designed to
be used by one person at a time.
- They can support very few peripheral devices (usually 1 or 2).
- They are smaller in size than minicomputers. Their design is based on very large scale
integration (VLSI) that confines several physical components into an IC.
- They are cheaper than minicomputers.
- They are less powerful than minicomputers.
- Their internal memory is smaller than that of minicomputers.
Note. Usually, a microcomputer uses one or more boards to implement all the functions of a
complete system.
Areas where microcomputers are used:
 Training and learning institutions such as schools.
 Small business enterprises, e.g. shops, small offices and homes.
 Communication centres as terminals.
Types of microcomputers.
1. Laptop computer.
A laptop computer is designed to be used by placing it on the lap.
Laptops normally have in-built disk drives and flat screens (Liquid Crystal Displays).

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Ways that can be used to select items on the screen of a laptop computer.
- Mouse pointer - Pointing stick
- Touch pad - Trackball
- Light pen
Advantages of laptop computers
i) They are light such that the user can use it comfortably on his/her lap.
ii) They are portable; hence, making it possible to work anywhere.
iii) They are very small in size; hence, they occupy small office space. In addition, a
laptop can fit inside a briefcase; still leaving room for other items.
iv) They consume less power - laptops operate mainly on rechargeable batteries, which
serve as built in uninterruptible power supply.
v) Their screens display sharp and clear images, which prevents eye strain.
vi) Laptops are designed to withstand most of the rigors of travel.
vii) They enable the user to enhance productivity and make better use of time.
Disadvantages of laptop computers
i) Performance - many laptops have slower clock speeds to conserve power.
ii) Expansibility - laptop PCs have no potential for expansion, e.g. they have few ports and
their disk drives are in-built.
iii) Can only support a limited number of peripheral devices.
iv) Have limited storage (memory) capacities.
v) Security - laptop PCs are easier to steal.
vi) Display - laptop screens are limited to VGA resolution.
Reasons why laptops are more expensive than desktop computers
- The technology of producing smaller devices is expensive.
- They are convenient because they are portable.
- They have advanced power management capabilities (they consume less power).
2. Palmtop computer.
Palmtops are small enough to fit in the pocket, and can be held in the palm when being
used.
- Have limited storage capacities.
- Palmtops are mainly used as personal organizers, with some minimal programs for
calculations, word processing, spreadsheets, and e-mail.
Example of a palmtop; Personal Digital Assistant (PDA).

3. Desktop computer.
A desktop computer is any computer designed to be used when placed on a desk in an
office environment.
- They are not portable.

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Personal computer (PC).
This is a microcomputer designed for independent use by an individual at work or in the home
mainly for business purposes.
- A PC can support only 1 user at a time.
- PCs are mostly used in offices, schools, business premises, and at home for various
applications like computer literacy, games, database management, accounting, word
processing, telecommunication, etc.
- A PC can be connected to a mini and mainframe computer so as to enable the user access
the facilities offered by the larger machines.

Differences between a microcomputer and a PC

- A microcomputer is larger in physical size than a PC.
- A microcomputer is more powerful than a PC.
- A PC was designed to be used by one person only.
An embedded computer.
 This is a computer that is within another device or system but is not accessed directly, e.g.
there are embedded computers operating within petrol pumps, lifts, watches, cameras and
video recorders.
 A computer attached to another machine.
Reasons why microcomputers are widely used in almost every area of business activity.
1. They are cheaper than minicomputers and mainframe computers.
2. Have high processing speeds.
3. Are small in size, hence, occupy less office space.
4. Are more energy efficient (i.e. consume less power)
5. Are more reliable in doing various functions than the early mainframe computers.
6. Are versatile, i.e. can be used for many different tasks.
2. Classification according to Purpose.
(a) General-purpose computers.
General-purpose computers are designed to perform a wide variety of tasks. They use
specifically written instructions (programs) to carry out the desired processing tasks, e.g. a
single computer can be used to write letters, carry out calculations, play games, among others.
Their programs can be changed, i.e. to perform a task, the appropriate set of instructions
required to perform that particular task are loaded into the computer memory, e.g. if you want
to play a game, the appropriate program is loaded into the computer’s memory and the
computer is instructed to execute the instructions which make up the game.
(b) Special-purpose computer.
Special-purpose computers are designed to handle particular specific tasks only, and cannot
perform any other task except the one they were meant to do, e.g. in a computer network, the
front end processor (FEP) is only used to control the communication of information
between the various workstations and the host computer.
Their programs are fixed (hard-wired) at the time of manufacture.
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A special-purpose computer is dedicated to a single task; hence it can perform it quickly and
very efficiently.
Examples of special-purpose computers:
 Robots used in a manufacturing industry for production only.
 Mobile phones used for communication only.
 Calculators that carry out calculations only.
 Computers used in digital watches.
 Computers used in petrol pumps.
 Computers used in washing machines.
 An automatic pilot – a computer dedicated to the task of operating an aircraft.
 A word processor – a special-purpose computer used for producing office documents,
letters, etc.
Reasons why a mobile phone is regarded to be a computer.
 It is electronic and uses electric energy to operate.
 It has a display unit (screen).
 It has a keypad.
 It has a memory for storage.
 It is programmable.
Advantages of special-purpose computers
- They are less expensive.
- They are faster and efficient.
- They re smaller and lighter than general-purpose computers.
(c) Dedicated computer.
This is a general-purpose computer that is committed to some processing task; though capable
of performing a variety of tasks in different application environments, e.g. the computer can
be dedicated to carrying out Word processing tasks only.
3. Classification according to Functionality.
(a) Digital computer
This is a computer that operates on discrete data only. It can process both numeric and
alphabetic data within the computer, e.g. 0, 1, 2, 3…, A, B, C….
Its operation is based on two states, namely “On” and “Off” or on digits “1” and “0”.
Therefore, any data to be manipulated by a digital computer must first be converted to digital
form.
Its output is usually in form of numbers, alphabets, and symbols.
Digital computers are usually general-purpose computers; hence, they are widely used in
different areas for data processing.
Most of the devices found at homes today are digital in nature.

Digital computers are less accurate, i.e. may not solve all your problems since the facilities
provided are generalized.
Examples:
 A television with a button which is pressed to increase or decrease the volume.
 Digital watches.
 Calculators.
 Microcomputers. They are said to be digital because they posses the ALU.
(b) Analogue computers.
An analogue computer is a computer that operates on continuous data.

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They process data by measuring the amount of change that occurs in physical quantities, e.g.
changes in electrical current, speed, pressure, length, temperature, humidity, etc.
An analogue computer is able to accept inputs which vary with time and intensity, and
directly apply them to various devices within the computer which perform the computing
operations.
The output from the system may be in form of a graph produced by a plotting pen or a trace
on a cathode ray tube (CRT) from which the information can be read.
Analogue computers are usually special-purpose device. They are used in specialized areas
such as in:
- Manufacturing processes to monitor and regulate temperatures and pressures in a furnace.
- Weather stations to record and process physical quantities, e.g. wind, cloud speed,
temperature, etc.
- Scientific or engineering experiments.
- Military weapons.
 They are very accurate and efficient since they are dedicated to a single task.
 They are very fast since most of them use multiple processors.
Examples of analogue devices
Note. Analogue computers usually use one characteristic (e.g. a length), to give information
about another physical characteristic, e.g. weight.
 Computer used to control a flight simulator for training pilots.
The computer responds to the cockpit simulator control movements made by the pilot to
physically change the environment so that the pilot feels as if he were controlling an actual
aeroplane.
 Bathroom scale - it uses the weight of a person to move a pointer smoothly/continuously
over calibrated scale, which shows the person’s weight.
 Thermometer - it uses a volume of mercury to show temperature.
 Speedometer – it converts the pressure created by the rotation of the wheel to a voltage,
which causes a pointer to rotate over a dial calibrated in km/h or miles/h.
 Petrol pump - measures the rate of flow of petrol and converts the volume delivered to 2
readings; one showing the volume and the other showing the cost.
 Post-office scale - converts the weight of a parcel delivered into a charge for posting.
 A monitor with knobs that are rotated to increase brightness.
 A television or radio with a knob that is rotated to increase or decrease the volume.
(c) Hybrid computer
It combines both the functional capabilities of a digital and analogue computer; hence, can
process both analogue and digital data.
Hybrid computers are more expensive.
Comparison between a computer and calculator.
Computer Calculators
1. Costly due to the technology used. 1. Cheaper.
2. Bigger in size. 2. Comparatively smaller.
3. Operate at very high speeds. 3. Slower than computers.
4. Are more accurate (they give up to over 4. Less accurate (they give up to 8 dp of
10 decimal places of accuracy). accuracy)
5. Flexible – can be used in solving any
problem. 5. Mostly used for numerical calculations
6. Work under the control of programs. involving arithmetic/ mathematical operations
7. Support various devices, e.g. keyboard, 6. They are non-programmable.
mouse, light pen, printer, etc. 7. They only use display units and keyboards of

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8. Have a large internal memory limited capabilities.
8. Internal memory is small. They use registers
9. Can serve several people at the same time. for temporary storage during calculations.
10. Have got telecommunication capabilities. 9. Can serve only 1 user at a time.
11. Require well-monitored environmental 10. Have no telecommunication capabilities.
conditions. 11. Do not require well-monitored environmental
conditions.

Review Questions.
1. State 3methods of classifying computers, and list the different types of computers in each.
2. What is a personal computer?
3. Differentiate the following types of computers.
a). Supercomputer and mainframe computer.
b). Minicomputer and a personal computer.
c). Special-purpose and general-purpose computers.
d). Desktop computers and laptop computers
4. (a) Briefly describe terms “analogue” and “digital computers” as used in computer science.
(b) What is the main difference between analogue and digital computers?
5. Give three examples of special-purpose computers.
6. Name any four classes of computers based on size and complexity.
7. How does a computer differ from a simple calculator?
ADVANTAGES OF USING COMPUTERS.
1) They process data faster than other devices such as typewriters and calculators.
2) A computer is accurate and reliable – given the correct instructions and data, they produce
accurate results. They also handle numbers with many decimal places.
3) They are more efficient (i.e. they require less effort to process data compared to other machines).
4) They can effectively store and retrieve large amounts of data.
5) They can conserve a lot of space when saving information.
6) They occupy very little office space.
7) They help to reduce paper work significantly.
8) A computer can perform different kinds of jobs as long as there is a well-defined procedure.
9) Computers are cheap (i.e. they can be used to perform activities meant for individual persons,
hence reducing the number of employees and the cost in an organization.
10) They enhance the security of stored data through the use of passwords.
11) Have made communication easier.
12) Computers produce better information (i.e. computer output is tidy and error-free).
13) Computers reduce duplication of data or information.
14) They can operate in environments that are dangerous to human beings, e.g. chemical plants.
Disadvantages of using computers.
1) Computers are costly in terms of purchase and maintenance.
2) Computers can only be used areas where there is source of power.
3) Require skilled people to operate, i.e. one has to be knowledgeable so as to operate a computer.
4) The records are usually stored in a form that is not human-readable.
5) A computer, like any other machine can break down.
6) The information stored can easily get lost due to power interruptions or machine breakdown.
7) A computer doesn’t have its own intelligence, i.e. it cannot do any useful job on its own, but can
only work as per the set of instructions issued.
8) The technology is changing very fast. This makes computers and related facilities to become
outdated very fast, hence posing a risk of capital loss.
9) Installation of computers has increased the rate of unemployment since they are now being used
to perform jobs, which were done by human beings.

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10) They have led to increase in computer crimes, e.g. computer criminals steal large amounts of
funds in banks belonging to various companies by transferring them out of their company
accounts illegally.

AREAS WHERE COMPUTERS ARE USED.

The following are some of the areas where computers are used:
1. Supermarkets.
Supermarkets and other retail stores use computers:
- For stock control (i.e. to help keep records of the items in store, and those that are out of stock).
- To input and output data at the point where sales are transacted, e.g. at the supermarket
checkout counter.
- It can be used for pricing the different types of commodities.
- For adding totals of purchase and calculating customers change.
- For production of receipts.
- It can be used as a barcode reader.
2. Hotels.
Computers can be used in hotels:
- For reservation/booking of rooms.
- Stock control (i.e. to keep record on sales and purchases).
- For accounting purposes (financial management)
- To produce bills and payrolls.
- For advertisement.
- For communication.
- To enhance security.
3. Industries.
Computers are used in industries:
- To monitor and control industrial processes through the use of robots. A robot is a remote
controlled machine that works like a human being, but performs tasks that are unpleasant,
dangerous, and tedious to be done by human beings.
- For management of transactions, e.g. to keep track of orders.
- To assist in developing new products and services.
- For advertisement purposes, which enable an industry to attract more customers.
4. Banks
Computers are used in banks:
- To manage their financial transactions through the use of automated teller machines (ATMs),
which enable customers to deposit and withdrawal cash.
- For processing of bank cheques (i.e. to read cheques)
- To compute salaries for employees, and also prepare payrolls.
- For better keeping of financial records.
- For processing of documents.
- To produce financial reports, e.g. bank statements, balance sheets, etc
- To provide electronic money transfer facilities, which enable transfer money between different
bank accounts.
- To process customer’s transactions.
- For security purposes.
5. Hospitals.
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Computers are used in hospitals:
- To keep medical records of incoming and outgoing patients.
- To assist in analysing sicknesses and checking for damages, e.g. x-ray.
They are used to get a cross-sectional view of the patient’s body that enables physicians to
properly diagnose the affected part of the body with high levels of accuracy.
- To control life-supporting machines in the intensive care units (ICU).
- For communication - a doctor needing specialised opinions can now easily retrieve such
information from computer storage.
- To access foreign expertise or labour.
Computers enable medical experts in different countries to share their expertise or labour.
They also make it possible for hospitals in one country to use consultants or surgeons in another
country, hence, reducing travelling for patients and professionals.
- For inventory control (stock management).
- To control devices that help in caring for the handicapped, e.g. the deaf, blind or bed-ridden.
6. Offices.
- For storage of information.
- Keeping of records.
- To process information.
- For distribution of information, i.e. receiving and sending of messages through e-mails, fax, etc
- For security purposes.
- Production of documents.
7. Government institutions.
- Government ministries use computers to store/keep records and improve the efficiency of work
within the Civil service. If computers were not used, the large number of files in government
registries would make information retrieval extremely difficult.
- Government agencies use computers to keep their records, and produce bills and statements.
8. Education.
Computers are widely used in learning institutions (schools and colleges). Learning and teaching
using computers is referred to as computer aided learning (CAL) and computer aided teaching
(CAT).
- They are used as teaching aids (i.e. to help in teaching various subjects), e.g. they are used to
demonstrate experiments in subjects like Chemistry or Physics using a special program that can
illustrate them on the screen through a process called simulation.
- For preparing teaching/learning materials, e.g. notes, teaching aids
- For maintaining student records, e.g. personal data, examination results, etc
- For analyzing academic data, e.g. compiling examination reports.
- For document processing, e.g. writing memos.
- Communication between different departments or individuals within the institution.
- For accounting purposes (financial computations).
- To assist in e-learning and long distance learning. In e-learning, the learners do not need to go
physically to a college; instead, they use computers to access learning material on the internet.
- For research purposes, e.g. to download materials from the internet by teachers and students.
- Computers are used in aviation for training of pilots. Flight simulators are used to monitor the
control movements made by the pilot while the computer is used to physically change the
environment so that the pilot feels as if he were controlling an actual aircraft.
- For entertainment, e.g. playing games, watching video, etc
9. Research.
Computers can be used for research in various fields:
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 Meteorologists use computers to:
 Analyse and predict weather patterns using the large volumes of data collected from air
pressure, humidity, temperature, and wind speed.
 Process satellite images and weather station reports.
 Engineers and architects use them to design and test their work.
 Space exploration and military research bodies use computer systems to:
 Design and control unmanned spaceships, airplanes and missiles.
 Study the movements of stars in hope of seeing signs of planetary bodies.
 Launch space vehicles and monitor the flights and activities both onboard and around them.
10. Communication industry.
The integration of computers and telecommunication facilities has made the distribution of data
or information from one person or location to another very fast and efficient.

Computers can be used:

- In telephone exchanges to switch incoming and outgoing calls.
- For sending and receiving electronic messages, e.g. e-mails, if connected to a computer
network.
- Facsimile, i.e. sending a fax documents over the internet using a computer.
- In radio broadcasting stations to record and manage radio programmes meant for broadcasting.
- To enable people in different locations to have a meeting (commonly known as video
conferencing).
- Telecommuting, i.e. a situation where an employee works from home through a computer
connected to the network of the workplace.
11. Transport industry.
Computers are used in:
♦ Automobile traffic control, e.g. to monitor vehicle traffic in a busy town.
♦ Railway corporations to co-ordinate the movement of their goods and wagons.
♦ Shipping control for efficient management of fleets, cargo handling and for communication
purposes.
♦ Airports (airline industry);
- To control the movement of aircrafts, such as taking off and landing, through the use of radar
equipment.
- For making reservations (booking or enquiry purposes).
- For storing flight information.

12. Police (law enforcement agencies)

The police use computers:
- To keep criminal databases on fingerprints, match and also analyse them.
- To identify people by recognizing and analyzing features such as fingerprints, voice, lips, iris
colour, etc.
- For taking photographs and other identification details.
- To store information and for record keeping.
- Provide assistance to officers through easy access to information.
- Communicate with other relevant departments and agencies.
- Examine forensic evidence (i.e. for scene monitoring and analysis, which help them to arrest
traffic offenders and criminals).
The information held in computers help the law enforcers to fight crime by carrying out criminal
investigations speedily.
13. Defence.
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In defence, computers are used in:
- Electronic news gathering, efficient communication, detecting and tracking of targets; in radar
systems, warning systems and in guided missile systems.
- Military defence equipments, e.g. fighter jets, rockets, bombers, etc.
14. Home.
Computers are widely used at home:
- For preparing domestic budgets.
- For watching movies, playing music and computer games.
- For teaching children on educational concepts.
- For storing personal information.
- In household items, such as, microwave ovens, televisions, etc.

15. Library services.

Computers can be used in a library:
- To manage the issuing and return of borrowed reading materials.
- For inventory control, i.e. to enable the library personnel to easily access and keep updated
records of books and other library materials.
- To search for book titles instead of using the manual card catalogue.
16. Multimedia applications.
- Computers are used to prepare business presentations for advertisement purposes.
The presentations are done using overhead projectors attached to computers running slide shows
and digital video clips taken using a camcorder. An overlaid voice is used to describe the
product.
- Computers are used in music related equipment such as synthesizers.
- In games and movies, computers are used to add stereo sound and digital video clips, which
make games more realistic.
- In education and training, multimedia discs are used as teaching aids for all types of subjects.
17. Employment (Job opportunities).
Computer technology has raised the standards of living of people by providing employment
opportunities in different fields, e.g. computer engineering, system analyst, etc
Review Questions.
1. Explain exhaustively the importance of computers in the following areas:
i) Industries. (iv) Hospitals. (vi) Education
ii) Research. (v) Communication industry. (vii) Law enforcement agencies.
iii) Home and entertainment.
2. Explain various ways computers have been mostly used in our country.
3. List down and explain 6 uses of computers in our society.
4. Explain the similarities and differences between human beings and computer systems.

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COMPUTER LABORATORY.
This is a room that has been specially prepared to facilitate installation of computers, and to provide a
safe conducive environment for teaching and learning of computer studies.
Safe use and care of computers (computer hygiene)
Computer hygiene involves keeping the computers in good care and order.
Computer systems are expensive to acquire and maintain, and should therefore be handled with great
care. Most computer breakdowns are caused by failure to follow the correct instructions on use of
equipment, carelessness, and neglect.
Factors to consider when preparing a computer laboratory.
1. Reliability of the source of power.
2. Security of the computers, programs and other resources.
3. Number of computers to be installed.
4. The amount floor space available.
5. The maximum number of users that the laboratory can accommodate.
Requirements of a Computer Laboratory.
i) Standard and enough furniture.
ii) Good ventilation.
iii) Reliable and enough source of power supply.
iv) Free from dust and moisture.
v) Enough floor space.
vi) Proper cabling of electric wires.
vii) Fire fighting equipment.
viii)Good lighting equipment.
ix) Strong doors and windows for the security of computers.
Review Questions.
1. Define a computer laboratory.
2. Give three factors to be considered when preparing a computer laboratory.
3. What are the requirements of a computer laboratory?

SAFETY PRECAUTIONS AND PRACTICES IN A COMPUTER LABORATORY.

After establishing the computer laboratory, a number of safety precautions, rules, and practices need
to be observed in order to avoid accidental injury to the users, damage of computers or lack of a
conducive environment for teaching and learning.
The safety precautions and practices include;
1. Behaviour in the computer laboratory.
The following rules must be followed in and around a computer laboratory.
(a)Entering the computer room
- Avoid smoking or exposing computers to dust.

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√ Smoke and dust contain small abrasive particles that can damage computer components
and cause wearing of the moving parts.
- Do not carry foods and drinks/beverages to the computer room.
√ Food particles may fall into the moving parts of the computer and damage them.
√ Liquids may spill into the computer parts causing rusting or electrical faults.
- Avoid unnecessary movements, because you may accidentally knock down the peripheral
devices.
- Accidents which may occur should be reported immediately.
- If you are not sure of how to handle or operate any piece of equipment in the laboratory,
please ask for assistance.
- Remove your shoes before entering the computer room to prevent dust.
- Collect any waste materials (e.g. paper bits) which might be lying in the computer room and
put them into the dustbin.
- Computer users should be trained on how to use computers frequently.
- Shut the door of the computer room properly.
(b) Starting and Shutting down the computer.
- Always follow the proper procedure when starting and shutting down the computer to avoid
loss of data and damage to computer programs.
- Avoid turning the computer on and off frequently. Every time a computer is turned on, the
internal components get heated and again cool down when the computer is turned off. As a
result, the circuit boards expand and contract and this can badly affect the solder-joints of the
computer.
- Do not open up the metallic covers of computers or peripheral devices when the computer’s
power is still on.
2. Protection against Fire and Accidents.
Fire outbreaks in the laboratory can be caused by either:
Inflammable chemicals, such as those used for cleaning and servicing the computer equipment.
Open wires/cables.
Smoking.
Lighting of candles in the computer room.
Malicious students/people starting fire.
- Keep the chemicals away in a store after using them to avoid any accidents.
- Ensure that all electrical wires are properly insulated as can cause fire leading to damage of
equipment. If a cable is open, use an insulating tape to cover it or replace it with new one.
- The computer room must always have a gaseous fire extinguisher especially those containing
carbon dioxide in case of any accidents.
Note. Water based or powder extinguishers should not be used in the computer room.
√ Water causes rusting of the metallic parts and short circuits.
√ Powder particles normally settle on storage devices and may scratch them during read/write
operations.
- Report any incidence that may result in damage to equipment to the person in charge of the
laboratory immediately.
- No student should attempt to repair any equipment in the laboratory without assistance as this
may lead to complete damage of the equipment.
Effects of Smoking in the computer lab.
- Smoke contains abrasive particles which settle on storage devices and may scratch them
during read/write operation.
- It can cause fire.

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- It deposits ash on devices causing damage to computer components and also wearing of the
moving parts.
- It affects the cooling of the computer.
- It affects the health of other users.
What to do in case of a fire outbreak in the computer laboratory.
- Raise an alarm.
- Evacuate users from the lab, or direct all the users to the exit.
- Switch off all the power sockets including the main source.
- Use a gaseous fire extinguisher to put off the fire.
- Call for professional help, e.g. fire brigade.

3. Insulation of cables.
All power cables in the computer room must be properly insulated and laid away from busy
pathways in the room (i.e. preferably along the walls). This prevents the users from stepping on
the cables, which might cause electric shock or power interruptions.
4. Stable power supply.
Computers require a stable supply of power. This prevents:
(i) Damage to the computer’s secondary storage media.
(ii) Damage of application software stored on the media.
(iii) Loss of important data or information that had not been saved before the failure.
Note. Power from a generator or the main supply is not always stable and may sometimes
experience power surges or under voltage (also referred to as brownout). To protect the
computer from being damaged due to power instabilities, avoid connecting it directly to the main
supply. Instead, connect the computer to a special power protection device such as a surge
protector or uninterrupted power supply (UPS), and then connect the UPS to the main supply.
(a)A surge protector protects the computer against electrical surges. Surges are large amounts of
electricity which exceed the standard amount a device is capable of holding. Surges are
capable of damaging or destroying the components within a computer.
(b) Uninterrupted power supply (UPS) protects a computer from loss of power because it uses a
special battery that stores temporary electrical power.

Functions of the UPS

1. It regulates power from an unstable power source to the required clean stable voltage.
2. It prevents power surges and brownouts that might destroy the computer.
3. It provides power temporarily to the computer in case of the main power failure. This allows
the user to save his/her work and shutdown the computer using the correct procedure.
4. Alerts the user of any power loss (by beeping). The UPS gets charged when the main power is
on. When the main power goes off, it gives some sound to alert the user.

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To ensure that work continues even in the absence of main power, organizations that give
important services such as banks, schools, and hospitals usually install devices that provide
alternative sources of power, e.g. standby generators, solar panels, rechargeable batteries, etc that
automatically comes on in case of a power failure. Such devices are referred to as power
backups.
5. Burglar proofing.
Computer equipment is expensive, and should therefore be protected against theft. Physical
access to the computer room should be restricted to ensure that only authorized persons get access
to the computers.
To prevent unauthorized access to the computer room, the following controls should be
implemented:
- Fit strong metallic grills on the windows and roofs (in case the roofing is weak).
- Firmly lock the doors to the computer room when it is not in use.
- Avoid welcoming strangers into the computer room.
- Install security alarms at strategic access points so as to alert the security personnel in case of
any break-in.
- Use of personal identification cards.
- Use of fingerprint identification.
- Use of special voice recorders that would be able to analyse the voice of a trespasser and check
against the database containing the voice patterns of valid users.
- Secure/protect the computers with passwords to minimize chances of theft.
6. Ventilation.
Both computers and human beings emit heat energy into the environment. Therefore, the
computer room must have good circulation of air. This prevents excessive heat (overheating),
which can easily damage the electronic components, and also prevents suffocation of the users.
The following facilities can ensure proper ventilation in a room:
- The room should have large and enough windows and doors. However, it is not advisable to
keep the doors and windows wide open because of dust and rain.
- Installing an air-conditioning system which will assist in controlling the temperature, airflow
and humidity within the room.
- Installing cooling fans.
- Avoid overcrowding of either machines or people in the room.
7. Dust control
The following methods can be used to minimize dust in a computer laboratory:
- Set up the computer laboratory in a location away from excessive dust.
- Fit the computer room with special curtains to reduce entry of dust particles.
- Cover the floor with carpets in order to absorb dust, and also absorb the noise made by chairs.
- Cover the computer devices with dust covers when not in use or when cleaning the computer
room to avoid dust getting into them.
- Clean the laboratory regularly.
- Remove your shoes before entering the computer room to prevent dust.
Note: If the environment is dusty, service the computers regularly to get rid of harmful dust. The
service involves blowing dust from the system unit, cleaning the floppy drives, cleaning the
keyboard, cleaning the monitor externally, and also cleaning all peripheral devices, e.g. printers
and mouse.
8. Dump (humidity) control.
Humidity in the computer room should be regulated to remain at an optimum 50%.
√ Low humidity allows static electricity to build up and cause damage to sensitive electronic
components.
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√ High humidity of over 70%:
 Can cause corrosion (rusting) of the metallic parts of the computer.
 Can cause electrical faults.
 Can destroy the computer devices.
To control humidity in a computer room:
- Install humidifiers (to increase the humidity) or dehumidifiers (to lower the humidity).
- Ensure there is adequate drainage system.
- Setup the computer room on higher grounds to avoid floods and humidity.
- Use of water-proof ceilings and floors

9. Handling of materials and equipment.

Computer devices are delicate, and if not carefully handled they can easily get damaged.
- Avoid dropping or banging the devices as this can cause a permanent damage on the device.
- Always use the carton from the manufacturer when transporting the devices.
- Do not place heavy objects on the computers.
- Protect the monitor and the disks from any electrostatic discharge.
- Do not expose the computer devices to warm objects or direct sunlight. This causes the internal
components of the computer to get heated, hence weakening the solder-joints.
- Turn off the screen when not in use in order to prevent screen burnout.
Floppy disk management.
Floppy disks are normally used to store data, load software, or transfer information between
computers.
Note. Data is very difficult and expensive to reconstruct, unlike application software, which can
easily be re-loaded. Therefore, diskettes need to be handled with a lot of care so as to ensure they
work properly, and also reduce the likelihood of destroyed or corrupted data.
Handling precautions for diskettes.
1). Insert the diskette in the drive in the correct direction. The diskette should slide in easily (with
no force at all) until it locks in the drive. To remove the diskette out of the drive, press the
Eject button.
2). Don’t touch the exposed surface of the diskette when inserting or removing it.
3). Don’t remove the diskette from the drive if the drive light is shining. This indicates that the
diskette is in use, and removing it might damage the files on the diskette.
4). Never place heavy objects on the diskette to avoid damaging it.
5). Keep disks away from extreme temperatures, e.g. never place the diskette on top of monitor.
6). Keep floppy disks away from any magnetic media. Why? Disks are made of magnetic
components, if exposed to magnetic fields it will be demagnetised hence damaging or lending
it useless (i.e. they can corrupt the data).
7). Protect the diskette against dust by storing them in a proper storage jacket. Use envelopes or
enclosed polythene when carrying them.
8). Do not bend the diskette.
9). Protect the diskettes against viruses, i.e. you should not use foreign diskettes in your computer,
especially if you suspect that they might have viruses in them.
10). Never leave the diskette in the computer after finishing its job.
11). Label all your diskettes carefully using meaningful names that indicate the right contents of
the diskette. The labels should be applied at the slightly depressed region at the top surface of
the diskette.
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√ Labelling of floppy disks helps the owner to identify which files are stored in that storage
device.
√ Labelling prevents confusing the data in the different diskettes.
√ It also prevents mixing of diskettes that are used everyday with those used for long-term
storage of important data.
12). Use a soft writing material such as a soft felt pen to write on the diskette.
13). Write-protect the diskette so as to safeguard the data stored in it.
Write protect means that you cannot write or store data in the floppy disk. To write-protect
the diskette, the shutter at the bottom of the diskette is pushed up until the hole is covered and
no data can be written to the diskette. To write to the diskette, the hole must be left open.
14). Avoid overusing the diskette. If used for long (i.e. over 6 months), its surface wears out.
15). Never use clips or staples to hold the disks to avoid damaging them.

Use of printers.
1. Printer paper - different printers have different sensitivity to printing papers. Using the wrong
quality paper in a particular printer can make the paper get stuck.
2. Cartridges and ribbons - printers are very specific to manufacturer’s cartridges and ribbons. Use
of clones or imitations (i.e. the wrong make and model) can damage the printer mechanism.
3. Refilling of cartridges or re-inking of ribbons - avoid refilling of cartridges or re-inking of
ribbons as it can spoil the printer due to leakage or use of poor quality materials.
10. Computer laboratory layout.
- The floor space should be enough so as to facilitate free movement from one place to another.
- The furniture in the room should be well arranged to prevent accidents, e.g. there should be
enough space between rows so that a person can easily move about the room.
- The sitting arrangement of users should be proper.
11. Standard furniture.
- The table on which a computer is placed must be strong and large enough to hold the computer
and accommodate all the peripheral devices. This prevents squeezing the devices together and
also minimizes breakages.
- The seat for the user must be comfortable, and have a straight backrest that allows someone to
sit upright. This prevents muscle pains and backaches caused by poor sitting posture.
- The chairs should have low back support and should be adjustable.
- The seat must be high enough relative to the table so as to enable the user use the hands on the
keyboard comfortably.
12. Posture.
- Adjust the height of the chair so that your forearms are parallel with the floor and your wrists
are straight.
- The eyes must be at the same level with the top of the screen when the user is seated upright.
- The feet should be placed firmly flat on the floor.
- Adopt a relaxed, upright working posture. Avoid bending forward or leaning far backwards.
- Place the working materials you use frequently within easy reach, e.g.
 Position the keyboard, mouse and any other input device in such a way that your hands are
in a relaxed, comfortable position.
 Position the keyboard directly in front of you. This makes it possible to type with your
shoulders relaxed and your upper arms hanging freely at your sides.
 Position the mouse at the same level as the keyboard.
13. Lighting.
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A computer room must be well lit to avoid eyestrain that eventually leads to headaches, stress,
and fatigue.
- Position the lighting equipment or sources of light such that bright reflections on the display are
minimized. Where necessary, use indirect lighting to avoid bright spots on the display.
14. Vision care.
- Tilt the computer screen to face away from the windows, and also away from the user. This
will minimize bright reflections on the screen.
- Fit radiations filter screens that are specially tinted to reduce the light that reaches the eye.
- Avoid using a flickering monitor. This causes extreme eyestrain that can damage your
eyesight.
- The wall paints used should not be very bright as they reflect too much light causing eyestrain.
- Using screens/monitors with good resolution.
- Adjust the brightness of the computer monitor until the eyes feel comfortable, and also to
improve image quality of your display.
- If the room has windows, use blinds or shades to control the amount of daylight in the room.
- When you work at your computer for long periods of time, your eyes may become irritated.
You should therefore, take frequent breaks and rest your eyes.
- Keep the appropriate distance from the computer screen. The distant between the user and
screen should be between 450-500 mm.
- Wear special glasses that are specifically suited for working with the computer display in order
to control the light intensity.
- Keep your glasses and the display clean.
- Have your eyes examined regularly by a vision care specialist.
Review Questions.
1. List down any three safety precautions one should observe when entering a computer laboratory.
2. Why must foods and beverages be kept out of the computer room?
3. Discuss two main causes of fire in the computer laboratory and give the precautions that should
be taken to guard against them.
4. (a) State six safety precautions you should take when handling diskettes.
(b) Where should the arrow on a diskette point when being inserted into the floppy drive.
(c) What do you understand by the term ‘write protected’ with reference to a diskette.
(d) What is the purpose of labelling a diskette?
5. List three things that can spoil a printer if they are not of the correct specification, and explain
what damage may be caused.
6. Why are powder based and water-based fire extinguishers not allowed in the computer room?
7. Identify three facilities that will ensure proper ventilation in a room.
8. Explain precisely how the keyboard, mouse, and other input devices should be arranged to avoid
strain while working on the computer.
9. (a) What name is given to alternative sources of power in a computer?
(b) Name any three sources of power in a computer system.
10. State two reasons why a computer needs to be connected to a stable power supply.
11. State two functions of the UPS.
12. State two reasons that are likely to cause eye-strain in the computer room.
13. Identify three proper sitting postures while using the computer.

STARTING UP A COMPUTER
1. Before switching on a computer, make sure that all the components are properly connected, and
that the computer is connected to an active power source.
2. Turn on the switch at the source of the power supply. If your computer is connected to a constant
voltage stabilizer or an uninterrupted power supply (UPS), turn it on after switching the main
supply.
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3. Turn on the switches on the system unit and the monitor.
Booting a computer
 Booting is a term used to describe the process of starting up / switching on / powering a computer.
 It is the process by which a computer loads system files into the main memory.
 Process by which a computer starts executing the instructions held in read only memory (ROM).
 It is the entire process that makes the computer ready for use.
Types of booting.
There are 2 types of booting;
1. Cold booting - The process of switching on a computer that was originally off by pressing the
power button on the system unit.
2. Warm booting - This happens when a computer that was originally on is forced to restart.

Ways of performing a warm boot in a computer.

 Press the restart button on the system unit.
 Press a combination of keys, i.e. Ctrl+Alt+Del on the keyboard.
 In a Windows operating system, click the Start button, click Shut Down, then choose Restart.
The Booting Process.
 When the power is switched on, internally, the computer execute a small program called the
Power-On-Self-Test (POST) that is permanently stored in read only memory (ROM).
The POST program instructs the computer:
√ To check every piece of hardware connected to confirm whether it is available for use, and
whether it is functioning correctly, e.g. main memory (RAM), the CMOS (BIOS), hard disk
and floppy disk controllers, and the keyboard.
√ To check if all the memory cells are fine, and if so, it allocates each a unique address.
√ To check the condition of the software installed in the computer.
 Information about the status of each device being tested is displayed on the screen.
 If a problem is found, e.g. in case one of the devices is faulty or missing, the process is stopped and
an error message is displayed on the screen indicating to the user where the problem is located.
Sometimes, an error code is displayed with the message, or an abnormal number of beeps are
sounded.
 If no problem is found, it then loads the operating system after checking the drive containing it.
 The operating system checks the input/output devices.
The POST process is directed by special system software called the Basic Input Output System
(BIOS).
√ BIOS is a program that holds hardware setup and configuration information.
√ It controls the movement of information between the CPU and input and output devices.
SHUTTING DOWN A COMPUTER.
After finishing working with the computer, the user must follow the correct procedure to shut it down
before turning it off. This prevents:
 Damaging the storage devices that may still be in use.
 Damaging computer programs, e.g. system and application files.
 Loss of data and information.
Procedure for shutting down a computer.
1. Save all the work done on the computer, and close all programs that may be currently running.
2. Remove any storage device that you might have connected to the computer.
3. Follow the proper shut-down procedure required by the operating system in your computer before
switching it off, e.g. to shut down any computer running Windows operating systems:
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a) Click the Start button on the screen, then select Shut Down from the list.
b) In the prompt that appears, select Shut down, then click OK (or, press Enter on keyboard).
c) When the message “It is now safe to turn off the computer” appears on the screen, switch off
the system unit, then the monitor.
Note. Some system units switch themselves off automatically. In such a case, press the button
on the monitor to turn off the screen.
4. Switch off the printer and any other output devices.
Review Questions.
1. Write down the procedure to be followed when switching on a computer.
2. (a) What is meant by the term ‘booting up’?
(b) Differentiate between cold booting and warm booting.
(c) Explain what happens in the computer during the booting process.

3. Complete the following abbreviations used in computer technology and explain briefly their
purpose.
(i) BIOS (ii) POST
4. List down the steps that must be followed before switching off the computer.

THE KEYBOARD.
The keyboard is a computer input device by which data and instructions is typed into the computer
memory. It enables the user to enter data and instructions into the computer by pressing its keys.
Types of keyboard.
1. Standard keyboard – has 99 keys.
2. Enhanced keyboard – has between 102 and 105 keys.
Keyboard Layout.
The keyboard of a computer consists of keys similar to those of a typewriter. It contains the usual
range of alphabetic characters (A–Z), digits 0–9, and other symbols frequently used to represent data
items. However, it has some command keys for giving special instructions to the computer.

Data is input into the computer by pressing the appropriate keys. When you type data into the
keyboard devices, it converts it into machine-sensible forms.
Parts (sections) of a keyboard.
Most keyboards have a total of 101 keys, which are divided into 6 different groups:
(1) Function (command) keys.
These are the keys marked F1-F12 located along the top of the keyboard. They are used to issue
commands into the computer.
Each key is used to perform a specific function, e.g. F1 is used in most applications for help.
Note. Function keys are used differently by different applications, i.e. their functions vary with
different programs, and are therefore sometimes called programmable keys.

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(2) Alphanumeric keys.
This section consists of alphabetic and number keys. It has letters A-Z marked in capitals, and
numbers 0 – 9. It also contains the Caps Lock key, Enter key, Tab key, Spacebar, punctuation
marks (e.g. comma, full-stop, etc) and some symbols.
 Alphanumeric keys are used for typing of text.
 TAB key ( ).
It is used in a word processor to move the text cursor or a certain text at set intervals on the
same line to the required position on the screen.
Text cursor is a blinking underscore ( __ ) or a vertical beam (I ) that shows where the next
character to be typed will appear.
 Caps Lock key.
Used to switch between capital letters and small letters.

 ENTER key ( ).
- When pressed at the end of a text line or paragraph in a word processor, it forces the text
cursor to move to the beginning of the next line or paragraph.
- It is used to instruct the computer to execute (carry out) a command that has been typed or
selected on the screen.
 Spacebar.
It is used to separate every two words or sentences from each other (or, to leave a blank space
after typing each word).
Note. A blank space is a printing character; it takes up memory, has an ASCII code, and is
printed on the screen in the same manner as any other character.
(3) Numeric keypad.
It is on the rightmost part of the keyboard. It has keys with digits/numbers 0 - 9 marked on them
in rows from the bottom upwards and some mathematical symbols marked on its keys.
Mathematical symbol Used for
+ (Plus sign) Addition
- (Minus sign) Subtraction
* (Asterisk) Multiplication
/ (slash) Division
. (decimal point)
^ (Up carat) indicates exponential (raising to a power)
 The numeric keypad is used for fast entry of numeric/mathematical data into the computer.
(4) Directional (cursor control) keys.
They are used to move the text cursor (insertion point) within the window of an application. They
include; Page Up, Page Down, Home, End, and the four Arrow keys.
(5) Editing keys.
They are used to delete or insert characters in a document. These include: Backspace, Delete and
Insert key.
 Backspace key.
It has a backward arrow () marked on it. It is used to erase characters to the left of the text
cursor (i.e. from right to left on the same line).
 Delete (Del) key.
It is used to erase characters to the right of the text cursor, (i.e., from left to right).
(6) Special PC operation keys.

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They are used in combination with the other keys or on their own to perform special functions, or
to give special instructions to the computer.
They include: Esc, Shift, Ctrl, Alt, Num Lock, Scroll Lock.
 Shift key ( ).
The Shift key is a special key and works in combination with other keys.
- It is used to get single capital letters.
- It is used to get the symbols on top of the number keys or the punctuation marks on top of the
alphabetic keys.
 Escape (Esc) key.
It generates special code for the computer. In some programs, it is used when you want to quit
from doing some task (i.e. to escape from or to cancel a task).
 Control (CTRL) key.
It is used in combination with other keys to control various functions, e.g. CTRL+”S” is used
to give the command for saving the text/object.
 Num Lock key.
It is used to activate or deactivate the Numeric keypad (i.e. the numbers on the Numeric keypad
can only be used when the Num Lock key is turned on).
Commonly confusing key shapes.
Some key shapes cause much confusion. If you use the wrong key, the process you are working
on may not work as expected, but it may be very difficult to determine what is wrong.
 Capital “I”, one (1) and “l” (lowercase “L”), and small “o”, capital “O” and zero “0”.
 The slash (/) is used as:
- As a division symbol when writing a formula.
- To separate parts of a path in a UNIX file name.
The backslash (\) is used in MS-DOS to separate parts of a path in a file name.
 Hyphen ( - ) and Underscore ( _ ).
The hyphen (dash or minus) and the Underscore (underline) are on the same key. To get the
underscore, use the SHIFT.
The Underscore is used in places where a space is needed to separate individual words, but is
not legal in the context, e.g. the filename TAX 1990 is illegal in MS-DOS because of the blank
space between TAX and 1990, but TAX_1990 is legal.
 Single quote (‘) and Double quote (“).
Both symbols are on the same key. To get the double quote, use the SHIFT.
 The Parenthesis ( ), Square brackets [ ], and Curly braces { }
Each of these symbols is used differently depending on what program you are running.
Practical keyboard skills.
When using the keyboard, observe the following typing rules:
1) Sit upright with both feet firmly placed on the ground.
2) Place the material to be typed on your left in a position you can read without strain.
3) Rest both hands on the keyboard with fingers resting on the Home keys.
Home keys are the keys on which fingers rest during typing in readiness to press other keys. The
home keys for the left hand are A, S, D, F, while those of the right hand are the apostrophe (‘),
semicolon (;), L, K. The thumbs of both hands should be on the Spacebar.
4) Start typing the text slowly at first, making sure you are using all the ten fingers, and that you
press the key nearest to the home keys with the closest finger, e.g. to press Q, use the small finger
on the left hand, while to press J, use the index finger on the right hand.
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Descriptive Questions.
1. What is a computer keyboard?
2. (a) Give the two types of keyboards found in the current market.
(b) State 6 categories of keys on a standard keyboard and briefly explain their functions.
3. State the use of each the following section or combination of keys on the keyboard:
(a) Function keys. (b) Numeric keypad (c) Arrow keys. (d) Control key.
4. Name three main sections of the keyboard that are used in typing.
5. What is the difference in the function of a special key and a function key?
6. Explain the functions of the following keys on the keyboard.
(i) Caps Lock (iii) Spacebar (v) Shift Key. (vi) Enter Key.
(ii) Backspace (iv) Delete. (vi) Escape. (viii) Num Lock.
7. Name four toggle keys on a standard computer keyboard.

MOUSE.
A mouse is a pointing device that enables the user to issue instructions to the computer by controlling
a special mouse pointer displayed on the screen.
A mouse consists of 4 parts:
1) Casing - it assists in holding the mouse in the hand.
2) Roller ball – used to slide/move the mouse on a flat surface. It also enables the cursor to move on
the screen as required.
3) Sensor buttons:
- It is used for making selection from menus.
- It enables movement of objects around the screen.
- Enables one to paint or draw.
Note. The left (primary) button is used for most tasks; the right (secondary) button is used to
quickly accomplish common tasks.
4) Cable – it connects the mouse to the system unit.

Using the mouse.

To use a mouse, hold it in your hand and move it across a flat surface or on top of a table. When you
move the mouse, an arrow-shaped pointer called the mouse pointer moves across the computer
screen in the same direction. The pointer is usually controlled by moving the mouse.
To select an option/ item on the screen;

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 Position the tip of the pointer (cursor) over the item to be selected;
 Press a button on the mouse to make your selection.
Rules to observe when using the mouse:
1). Place the mouse on a flat smooth surface.
2). Gently hold the mouse with your right hand, using the thumb and the two rightmost fingers. The
index finger should rest on the left button, while the middle finger should rest on the right button.
Techniques of using a mouse.
(1) Pointing - moving the mouse until the tip of the pointer on the screen is over the item you want to
select.
(2) Clicking - pressing and releasing the left mouse button once. A click usually selects an
item/object on the screen.
(3) Double-clicking - pressing the left button twice in a quick succession (in a row) without moving
the mouse. Double-clicking usually opens a file or starts a program.

(4) Right-clicking - pressing the right-hand side mouse button once (or, selecting an item by use of
the right mouse button).
A right click usually displays a list of commands called a shortcut (or, context-sensitive) menu.
This is because; the commands on this menu apply to the specific item that has been right-clicked.
Shortcut menu
 This is a list of commands that appears when an object is right-clicked.
 A menu that shows a list of commands specific to a particular item that has been right-clicked.
(5) Drag and drop - This is whereby the user moves an item from one location on the screen to
another.
To move an item on the screen by dragging;
(a) Point to the item you want to drag.
(b) Press and hold down the left mouse button.
(c) While still holding down the mouse button, slide the mouse until the pointer reaches the
desired position on the screen.
(d) Release the mouse button to ‘drop’ the item in its new location.
Review Questions.
1. What makes a mouse move a pointer on the screen?
2. Explain the meaning of the following terms associated with the use of a mouse:
(a) Mouse pointer. (c) Clicking (e) Double-clicking.
(b) Right-clicking. (d) Drag and drop. (f) Shortcut menu.
3. Distinguish between:
(a) Click and right-click. (b) Double-clicking and dragging.

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