Fluid Mechanics: Fundamentals and Applications

3rd Edition
Yunus A. Cengel, John M. Cimbala
McGraw-Hill, 2014

Chapter 1
INTRODUCTION AND
BASIC CONCEPTS
 Objectives
• Understand the basic concepts of Fluid Mechanics.
• Recognize the various types of fluid flow problems
encountered in practice.
• Model engineering problems and solve them in a
systematic manner.
• Recognize the importance of dimensional
homogeneity in engineering calculations.

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1–1 ■ INTRODUCTION
Mechanics: The oldest physical
science that deals with both stationary
and moving bodies under the influence
of forces.
Statics: The branch of mechanics that
deals with bodies at rest.
Dynamics: The branch that deals with
bodies in motion.
Fluid mechanics: The science that
deals with the behavior of fluids at rest
(fluid statics) or in motion (fluid
dynamics), and the interaction of fluids
with solids or other fluids at the
boundaries.
Fluid dynamics: Fluid mechanics is Fluid mechanics deals
also referred to as fluid dynamics by
considering fluids at rest as a special
with liquids and gases in
case of motion with zero velocity. motion or at rest.3
Hydrodynamics: The study of the motion of fluids
that can be approximated as incompressible (such as
liquids, especially water, and gases at low speeds).
Hydraulics: A subcategory of hydrodynamics, which
deals with liquid flows in pipes and open channels.
Gas dynamics: Deals with the flow of fluids that
undergo significant density changes, such as the flow
of gases through nozzles at high speeds.
Aerodynamics: Deals with the flow of gases
(especially air) over bodies such as aircraft, rockets,
and automobiles at high or low speeds.
Meteorology, oceanography, and hydrology: Deal
with naturally occurring flows.

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5
 What is a Fluid?
Fluid: A substance that has no
fixed shape whether in the
liquid or gas phase.
A solid resists a shear force
while a fluid deforms
continuously under the action of
a shear force.
A fluid deforms continuously
under the influence of a shear
stress, no matter how small.
In solids, stress is proportional
to strain, but in fluids, stress is Deformation of a rubber block
proportional to strain rate. placed between two parallel plates
When a constant shear force is under the influence of a shear
applied, a solid eventually stops force. The shear stress shown is
deforming at some fixed strain that on the rubber—an equal but
angle, whereas a fluid never
opposite shear stress acts on the
stops deforming and
upper plate.
approaches a constant rate of 6
strain.
In a liquid, groups of molecules can move relative to each other, but the
volume remains relatively constant because of the strong cohesive
forces between the molecules. As a result, a liquid takes the shape of the
container it is poured in, and it forms a free surface in a larger container.
A gas expands until it encounters the walls of the container and fills the
entire available space. This is because the gas molecules are widely
spaced, and the cohesive forces between them are very small. Unlike
liquids, a gas in an open container cannot form a free surface.

Unlike a liquid, a gas

does not form a
free surface, and it
expands to fill the
entire available
space. 7
 Pressure vs Stress

Stress: Force per unit area.

Normal stress: The normal
component of a force acting
on a surface per unit area.
Shear stress: The
tangential component of a
force acting on a surface
per unit area.
Pressure: part of the
normal stress in a fluid that
depends only on the
The normal stress and shear stress at
thermodynamics variables. the surface of a fluid element. For
fluids at rest, the shear stress is zero
and pressure is the only normal stress. 8
Intermolecular bonds are strongest in solids and weakest in gases.
Solid: The molecules in a solid are arranged in a pattern that is repeated
throughout.
Liquid: In liquids molecules can rotate and translate freely.
Gas: In the gas phase, the molecules are far apart from each other, and
molecular ordering is nonexistent.

The arrangement of atoms in different phases: (a) molecules are at

relatively fixed positions in a solid, (b) groups of molecules move about each
other in the liquid phase, and (c) individual molecules move about at random
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in the gas phase.
 Application Areas of Fluid Mechanics

Fluid dynamics is used extensively

in the design of artificial hearts.
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1–4 ■ CLASSIFICATION OF FLUID FLOWS
Complex model: (very
accurate )
Simple model : (not-so-
accurate)
Simplified models are often used
in fluid mechanics to obtain
approximate solutions to difficult
engineering problems.
Here, the helicopter's rotor is
modeled by a disk, across which is
imposed a sudden change in
pressure. The helicopter's body is
modeled by a simple ellipsoid. This
simplified model yields the
essential features of the overall air
flow field in the vicinity of the
ground.
The right choice is usually
the simplest model that
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yields satisfactory results.
 Viscous versus Inviscid Regions of Flow
Viscous flows: Flows in which the frictional effects are significant.
Inviscid flow regions: In many flows of practical interest, there are regions
(typically regions not close to solid surfaces) where viscous forces are
negligibly small compared to pressure forces.

The flow of an originally

uniform fluid stream
over a flat plate, and
the regions of viscous
flow (next to the plate
on both sides) and
inviscid flow (away from
the plate).

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 Internal versus External Flow
External flow: The flow of an unbounded fluid over a surface such
as a plate, a wire, or a pipe.
Internal flow: The flow in a pipe or duct if the fluid is completely
bounded by solid surfaces. The flow of liquids in a duct is called
open-channel flow if the duct is only partially filled with the liquid
and there is a free surface.

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External flow over a tennis ball. Internal flow a pipe.
 Compressible versus Incompressible Flow
Incompressible flow: If the
density of flowing fluid remains
nearly constant throughout (e.g.,
liquid flow).
Compressible flow: If the density
of fluid changes during flow (e.g.,
high-speed gas flow)
When analyzing rockets, spacecraft,
and other systems that involve high-
speed gas flows, the flow speed is
often expressed by Mach number
V speed of flow
M= =
C speed of sound Schlieren image of the spherical shock
wave produced by a bursting ballon
M=1 Sonic flow at the Penn State Gas Dynamics Lab.
M<1 Subsonic flow Several secondary shocks are seen in
M>1 Supersonic flow the air surrounding the ballon.
M >> 1 Hypersonic flow
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 Laminar versus Turbulent Flow
Laminar flow: The highly
ordered fluid motion
characterized by smooth
layers of fluid. The flow of
high-viscosity fluids such as
oils at low velocities is
typically laminar.
Turbulent flow: The highly
disordered fluid motion that
typically occurs at high
velocities and is
characterized by velocity
fluctuations. The flow of low-
viscosity fluids such as air at
high velocities is typically
turbulent.
Transitional flow: A flow
that alternates between
being laminar and turbulent. Laminar, transitional, and turbulent flows
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over a flat plate.
 Steady versus Unsteady Flow

• Steady: implies no
change at a point with
time.
• Unsteady :The pattern
of the flow is time-
varying.

Oscillating wake of a blunt-based airfoil

at Mach number 0.6. Photo (a) is an
instantaneous image, while photo (b) is
a long-exposure (time-averaged) image.
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Steady versus Unsteady Flow

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 One-, Two-, and Three-Dimensional Flows
• A flow field is best characterized by its
velocity distribution.
• A flow is said to be one-, two-, or three-
dimensional if the flow velocity varies in
one, two, or three dimensions, respectively.
• However, the variation of velocity in certain Flow over a car antenna is
directions can be small relative to the approximately two-dimensional
variation in other directions and can be except near the top and bottom of
ignored. the antenna.

The development of the velocity profile in a circular pipe. V = V(r, z) and thus the
flow is two-dimensional in the entrance region, and becomes one-dimensional
downstream when the velocity profile fully develops and remains unchanged in 20
the flow direction, V = V(r).
1–5 ■ MATHEMATICAL MODELING
OF ENGINEERING PROBLEMS
Experimental vs. Analytical Analysis
An engineering device or process can be studied either experimentally
(testing and taking measurements) or analytically (by analysis or
calculations).
The experimental approach has the advantage that we deal with the
actual physical system, and the desired quantity is determined by
measurement, within the limits of experimental error. However, this
approach is expensive, time-consuming, and often impractical.
The analytical approach (including the numerical approach) has the
advantage that it is fast and inexpensive, but the results obtained are
subject to the accuracy of the assumptions, approximations, and
idealizations made in the analysis.

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