The modelling of coalescence processes in fluid-liquid

dispersions : a review of current understanding

Chesters, A.K.

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Chemical Engineering Research and Design

Published: 01/01/1991

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Chesters, A. K. (1991). The modelling of coalescence processes in fluid-liquid dispersions : a review of current
understanding. Chemical Engineering Research and Design, 69(A4), 259-270.

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 25')

TUE MODELLING OF COALESCENCE PROCESSES

IN FLUID-LIQUID DISPERSlONS:
A Review of Current U nderstanding
A. K. CHESTERS
EilJdhoven University 0/ Tedm%gy. Laboratory 0/ F/uid Dynal11ics and Heat Tral1.ifer, Eind/lOven, The Netherlands
lIJstitut NatiolJa/ Po/ytedmique de Tou/ol/se, Institut de Mecanique des F/uides, Tou/ouse. From'e

":he re~iew addre~ .curren~ uoderstandin~ of the. p.rocesses of collision and coalescence in pure gas-Iiquid and liquid-liquid
~lsperslOns. Attentton IS restncted to f1ow-dnven collisIons, apart from briefreference to related
gravity-driven pbenomena at free-
mterfaces. Plane-film an~ full numerical solulions of drainage are compared in Ihe immobile, parlialJy-mobile and fully-mobile
cases aod related expressIOns developed for Ihe coalescence probabilily. Fioally, tbe perspeclives and prnblems in"olved in Ihe use
of such expressions are examined, in conjunction with flow simulation codes for the mathematic.al modelling of particle-size
evolution in dispersed f1ows.

1. INTRODUCTION the recent article of Yiantsios & Davis l . The majority of

Together with break-up and mas transfer, coale cence non-cited contributions will in fact be readily disco ered
controls the evolution of drop and bubble sizes in on consuiting the references supplied.
naturally occurring and man-made f1uid-f1uid disper- The review begins with an examioation of the models
sion . While the former proce es involve the interaction available for the sub-processes of collision, film drainage
between a single particIe and the continuous-phase flow and rupture in pure systems, their implications and their
coalescenc i intrinsically more complex involving an Iimitations. The area of confluence is omitted sin e onc
interaction triangle con i ting of this flow and two rupture ha occurred so has coalescence, in tbe ense that
(typi ally unequal) partiele . In the absence oftechniques a single connected domain ofthe dispersed phase has been
~ r tackling such interactions in their entirety the first
created. The fir t tage of confluenee--the expansion of
step toward quantitative modelling ofcoale cence must the hole in the film by interfacial t nsion- iU in fact he
be the choice of a conceptual fram work which split tbi extr mely rapid in 'ew of the film's small thjcknes . Tbe
mplex whole into a numberofcoupled bul individually later stage may take considerably longer and ma ,
manageable sub-processes. exceptionally, fail to reach completion due to disrllptive
Figure I depicts one way of doing th is in the f1uid- forces exerted by the external flow.
liquid case (bubbles or drops in a eontinuOlls liquid The models concerned are used to arrive at expressions
phase). the first step being to split the flow into an internal for the coalescence probability in three praclically impor-
and an external field, rather as is done when employing tant examples: rigid parlicles (coagulation, rather than
the concept of a boundary layer. The external flow (the coalescence) in viscous shear, drops with partially mobile
continuous-phase flow, in which the partic\es are embed- interfaces in viscous shear and bubbles in turbulent flow.
ded) governs the frequency, force and duration of The framework required to incorporate such ex-
collisions, the latter two providing the boundary condi- pressions in relations for the rate of change of local
tions for the internal flow. The internal flow (in the dispersed-phase characterstics such as specific interfacial
draining film between the particles) is characterized by area is then discussed, including such questions as the
deformation of the approaching interfaces and, if suffi- modelling of transitions between regimes, local polydis-
cient time is available, by rupture and confluence. persity and the effect of interfacial tension gradients.
The above picture implicity assumes the role of gravity The final section views lhe perspectives and remaining
to be negligible, which may not be the case in dispersions challenges in lhe area of the mathematical modelling of
of large bubbles. where buoyancy-induced velocilies can coalescence processes in dispersed flows.
be thc principal source of collisions. With the exception of
coalcscencc at free interfaces, however, little attention has
so far been paid to this area and the present review is 2. PARTICLE COLLISION
limited to f1ow-induced collisions, aside from a few
comments on the free-interface case in section 3. 2.1. Collision frequency
As the title indicates, the objective is to review the Expn:ssions for the collision frequency. C. per unit tim
current understanding of coalescence, ralher than the and volume can be derivcd if the particles are suppo cd to
available Iiterature. With apo logies to very many con- be spherical and to follow the basic continuou -phase
tributors, work is therefore cited only when it is essential flow. For lhe equal-particle case Cis then gi en b'
10 the considerations at hand. Since free-interface coales-
(I)
cenee is merely touched on, this means in particular thaI
many important contribulions in this area are omilted. where ,. is a characteristic velocit between tw p inL a
For an cntry point into the area the reader is referred to distance d apart in the basic flow. Choices of ,. t ~ether
0263-8762/91/ 0500 + 0.00
© Inslitution of Chemical Enginc l'S
 260 CHESTERS

]"",,, I. Pani.:k collisi 11 r:IICS. neglecting hydrodynamic interaction. in Viseaus co/lisions

arious fiows The collision of solid particles in viscous simple shear
has been analysed by Batchelor and Green 5 for theequal-
/' k Rcfcrcnce
particIe case and by Adler 6 for a number ofparticle radius
Viscous simpk shear }'d 2/3 2 ratios. Confining attention to the former case, a typical
Fine-seak turbulence (cfv)' 2d (2n/l5)1 ! 3 force exerted by the external flow on a colliding partiele
Inenial-subrange turbulence (cd)' J (8nfJ) I '2 4 (and transmitted to the second partiele, inerti:..ll forces
being negligible) would be expected to be givcn hy a
Stokes-type expression:

with the corresponding values of k are given above lor F-61tpR(YR). (2)
three important flow types (Tabie I). A typical collision duration-the time spent by the
[n realit . ev n at separations comparable with the particles in close proximity-would be expected lo be
particIe iz. particIe trajectories deviate significantly given by
from the streamlines ofthe basic flow. The first reason for
1;-R/(YR)-(Y)-I. (3)
this is that each particIe disturbs the flow in its vicinity. [n
i c u. imple shear for example the streamline which, at Equations (2) and (3) are confirmed by Batchelor and
infinity. is on lin with the centre of a rigid particIe Green's results, which indicate that provided the particles
a tuall. pa se ir at a distance ofsome 15% ofthe particIe are close, F depends only on the inclination of their axes
mdius ( ee. for exarnple. Batchelor and Greens). This and not on their exact separation. This confinns the
mans rhar a maller particle cannot approach c10sely expectation, implicit in the internal/external spli t, thal Fi
unies it radius i at least 15% of that of the larger. [n to the first approximation independent of the details of
\;e\\, of uch powerful h drodynamic interactions. an the internal flow including presumably any interfacial
,tension f equation (I) to the unequal-particle case is of deformation, provided the region concerned is Inueh
litlle value. dded to the preceding effect is the fact that smaller than the particIe radius (a~R: Figure I). The
ani Ie _ do n t perfecti)' folio the flow produced by exact interaction time in a given case depends on the
pani Ie I. a a r uit both of inertial effects (important incidence of the particles.
only if Red = pdc 11 ~ I) and of the pressure generated by The particles of interest in the present context are of
:<pul ion ofthe intervening liquid. The latter effect can be
\'ie\\ed as pan of film drainage. Inertial effects can either
course fluid rather than solid and F and 'j
will then in
addition be a weak function of Pd/JI. No informati n on
in rease or d rea e th colli ion rate, depending on this dependence is currently available, however.
wheth I' th parti I i (respecti ely) more or Ie dense Similar rea oning applied to the ca e of vi caus
than the continuous pha e aod can be een a part of the colli ions in turbulent flow lead 1.0 the replac mem of~1 in
tataI hydrod -namie interaction of the panicle . equations (2) and (3) by Yk, a rate of strain characteri ti
The approximation at present offered by the literature of flow in the smallest eddies:
is to ignore all hydrodynamic interaction. While this
approximation is likely to be reasonable for particles of (4)
similar size (see section 5,1 for corroboration), it is likely
to fail seriously in the low-Reynolds-number, unequal-
particIe case. A number of collision mode Is taking
account of hydrodynamic interaction, developed by the
author in the context of a recently completed BRITE
project·, should appear in the literature shortly.

2.2. CoUision force and duration

Depending on whether the particIe Reynolds number
Extemal flow InternaJ flow
Red is much smaller or much greater than unity, the
respective forces governing the collision will be predomin- collision
antly viscous or inertial. Laminar flows being typically frequency, C
characterized by moderate or small system Reynolds
contact flanening
numbers, while the particIe Reynolds number is of the force, F (film radius, a)
order (d/L)2 smaller still, collisions in such flows will F(l)
generally be viscous. In turbulent flows the viscous and conlact film drainage

.
time, ~ (film thickness, h)
inertial regimes correspond respectively to particles much
maller and much larger than the length scale of the
smallest (Kolmogorov) eddies. film ruplure
(h ~ hel

• Partners' '( K), Imperial Colle3e (London). Uni lever Research confluence
~
(the etherland ) Figure I. Conceptual framework ror coalescence modelling.

Trans IChcmE, Vol 69, Part A, July 1991

 MODELUNG OF COALESCENCE PROCESSES IN FLUID-LIQUlD DISPERsrONS 261

IJlerlial collisions =/R=(CI/R)2~[(4pd/3p+I)WE/2]1 2 ( 12)

During viscous collisions, particles are brought
o that th inLeraction time, I" from the onset offlaltening
together by the flow, rotale around each oLher as a
up to the point at which the particIe motion is arrested. is
"dumbelI" and then separaLe again ifcoalescence has not
of order
occllrred. It is tempLing to extend th is picture to inertial
collisions, using a characteristic velocity variation in the ( 13)
basic flow over a distance of order d to construct
Not surprisingly, th is expression is similar to that for the
expressions for F and I (see for example Ross and Curl 7
period of oscillation of a single drop or bubble and is
and COlllaloglo1l 8). Since particIe Reynolds nllmbers are
Iikcwise independent of the amplitude of the deforma-
considerably larger than unity, system Reynolds numbers
tion.
will be very large and the flows concerned will al most
Assuming that V ~ u, a comparison of Ij with I<XI now
always be turbulent. A characteristic velocity variation is
indicates that
then given by
t;/l cx1 -[(4pd/ 3P+ l)We/8]1/2~ We'/2, (14a)
C=(Cd)l(I (5)
where
and a typical force exerted by the external flow on a
particIe shollid be given by We=pl/R/a=p(ed)2/3d/2a. (I4b)
F cXl - p12d2~ pd 2(ed)2/J (6) The interaction time Ij is lh us smaller than. or of the order
of, the time scale IC<! except at large values of the Weber
while the time for two particles to pass one another should
number. Such large Weber number canno! readily arise
be given by
however since particIe break-up in the turbulence field is
tCXl-d/u~(d2/e)I/J. (7) then ob erved to OCCllr (see, for example, Sevik and
Park 10).
In reality, however, the virtual absence of viscous
Since the excess pre sure in the film is of order 2al R, th
di sipation means that colliding drops/bubbles bounce
interaction force, F, is given by
kinetic energy being converled 10 surface energy durin~
the film formation process and, in the ab enee of F ~ rra 2(2a/ R). (15)
eoale ce nee, re-eonverted as they bounee apart. The time
Equation (1Ia) and (6) then lead to
eale of thi· proce s will be seen typically to be Ie s than
Ic" a nd the interaction force F. exerted by one particIe on F/Fc ,,-We- 12 , (16)
th ot her, greater than FeX!. (Unlike the ca e of vi eous
indicating that Fis greater lhan or of order F~'(I'
ollision , these two force are not in general equal. ince
the y tem p se es inertia.)
An approximate quantitative de cription of particle 3. FILM DRAINAGE
bouncing is obLained if the transition between the flat-
tened and spherical regions of the particle surface is The 3nalysis of film drainage dUJ'ing particIe collisions
idealized as abrupt (Chesters and Hofman 9 ). Thus, is greatly facilitaLed if the region of significant excess
considering the case of symmetrical collision of equal pressure is small in comparison wiLh the particIe size
(a ~ R: Figures land 2). Though restrictive at first sight,
particles (Figure 2) and small val lies of the ratio a/ R. the
relative increase in surface area is found to be this condition will be found 10 be broadly satisfied for
collisions leading to coalescence, since only for gentIe
(8) collisions is the required drainage time less than the time
The corresponding lI1crease in surface free energy per of interaction. Since furthermore, the final stages of
particle is therefore 4rrR2 a(a/2R)4 and the value of a at drainage are typically rate-Iimiting,
which relative motion is arrested, is given by h~ü~R. (17)
4rr R 2a(a/2R)4 = (1/2)m( v/2f. (9) Tt is then rcadily shown (Chesters and Hofman'''. Ches-
Here 111 is the actual, plus virtual, mass of aparticle:
m=rrRJ(4pd/3+fJp). (10)
The coefficient of virtual mass, p, is 2/3 for an isolated
particIe but rises to about I for particles in close
proximity. Combination of equations (9) and (10) now
leads to
(a/R)~[(4pdi3p+I) WE/2] 1/4, (11 a)

where the Weber number, WE, is defined as

WE=pV 2R/a. (ll b)
IL is seen that Lhe rcquirement that a/ R ~ I corresponds to
the requiremenl thaI the Weber number be smal1.
The distance, 2R - =, between the particle centres is Figllre 2 ldealized deforn131ion during the inerlia-conlrolled collis.ion
given by equal partic\es.

Trans IChemE, Vol 69. Part A. July 1991

262 CHESTERS

ters 11) that the equa tions governing (axi-symmetrical) why coalescence is favoured by gentie collisions. The
film drainage between unequal particles are the same as explanation is supplied by equation (15): increase in F
th se between equal particles of equivalent radius, Rcq , increases lhe size of the film while the driving pressure
given by remains Iimited to the order of 2a/R.
11' F is constant, integration of equation (22) yields
Rcq -I =(R 1- 1+R 2- 1)/2. (18)
h- 2 -h - 2-(16n(J2/3).LR 2 F)l
o (23a)
Equation (18) indicates, for example, that provided thè
deformed porlion of the interface is smalI, drainage or
betwen a free interface and a drop of radius R is h 2 _ (3).LR 2F/ 16n(J2)/t, (23b)
equivalent to drainage between equal drops of radius 2R.
The following discussion of drainage between equal if h~ho
partiJ can thus be generalized directly to unequal
panicles, provided estimates of the relevant boundary The onset ofjlaltening
conditions (collision force/velocity and duration) are As initially spherical particles having immobile inter-
available. faces approach each other under the action of a constant
Vari us regimes of drainage may be distinguished, force, the pressure at the centre of the intervening film
depending on the rigidity and mobility of the interfaces. rises, eventually becoming of the order of the pressure,
The onl one permitting an analytic solution is that of 2a/R, required to f1atlen the interfaces. The separation,
rigid immobile interfaces. Important regimes of h ftal at which this occurs can be estimated either from an
deC rmed-particle drainage are those of immobile. par- expression 1'01' the film pressure or from the separation at
tially mobile and fully mobile interfaces. The latter regime which the drainage relations, equations (19) and (22)
splits into t\ 0 sub-regime. depending on whether inertial yield the same thinning rate, - dh/dt:
or viscous forces domina te in the draining film. Analyses
hflal - F/2n(J. (24)
of these regimes are 1.0 be found in the literature the
eartier models approximating the film as parallel-sided
NlIlI1ericaf reslIlrs
while Lat r ones oumerically tackle the full coupled
Recently Yiantsios and Davis' have generaled nurneri-
problem of interfacial deformation and film flow. All
cal solutions of the coupled deformation and film-flow
modeLs supp e simple boundary conditions: either con-
equations for the gravity-driven approach of a drop lo a
tant interaction force or constant approach velocit ; in
free interface, under lhe restriction equation (17). Gravity
realit bath will ary duriog acollision.
J
then plays a role only in supplying the inleraction force,
F= (4/3)nR 3tlpg (25)
3.1. Drainage bem een rigid particles
and lhe result an be tran.lated, via lhe equivalent radiu
FOT a gi en approach velocity (- dh/drY ofthe spheres, principle, to any constant-force collision.
lhe mean radial velocity in the film follows from conti- In the Iimiting case of very high drop viscosities, for
nuity and implies in turn (via the Poiseuille relation for which the interface is immobile, the authors express the
flow between quasi-parallel sUl'faces) a certain pressure governing equations in terms of the dimensionless vari-
variation and hence a certain interaction force: ables,
F= 3n11R2( - dh/dr)/2h. ( 19) 11'=h/h;, r'=r/(h;R)'/2, ('=t/().L/tlpgR), (26)-(28)
For constant F, (19) integrates to resulting in a single dimensionless parameter in their
h=hoexp( -t/leh), (20a) equations, (5:
where the characteristic time. Ich, is given by (29)

leh
2
= 3nR .11j2F. (20b) These equations are then solved 1'01' one value of
(5=0.025*.
Before discussing the resul ts obtained, it is noted that
3.2. Drainage between deformable immobiLe interfaces an alternative transformation of variables,
Parallel-film model h* = h'/0 = ha//1pgR J = h/(3F/4na) (30)
11' the deformed portion of the film is supposed to be 4
parallel-sided a similar approach to the preceding one r*=r'l(51/2=r(a//1pgR )1/2=r/(3FRcq /8n(J)12 (31)
yields (Mackay and Mason l2 ) 1* = (' = t/(n).LR c//3F), (32)
-dh/dl = 2h 3F/3nJ-L Q 4. (21) leads Lo a universal set of equations containing no
Fand a are not independent ofeach other sim;e the excess parameters at all. Expressed in terms of these asterisked
pressure in the film must be of the same order, 2(J/ R, as variables, the solution of Yianlsios and Davis can thus be
that in the drop/bubble (equation (15)). Flimination of a translated into the behaviour in any other case, regardless
with the help of equation (15) leads to of the value of () or of the radius ratio of the particles

-dh/dt-8nc?h 3/3).LR 2F. (22)

* This SolUlion proves lhe same as thaI for the approach of a
In contrast with the rigid-particle case, increase in the deformable drop 10 a plane rigid slIrface if <Î is twice as large (0.05l. The
inleraclion force now decreases the thinning rate, which is results disclIssed here are in faCI derived from those for Ihis rigid case.

Trans IChemE, Vol 69, Part A. July 1991

 MOOELLING OF COALESCENCE PROCESSES IN FLUro LIQUro DISPERSIONS 263

I that is to
"*Illin = (4/3) 1/2 (34)
0.02
In view of the distinctly non-plane character of the actual
I' = 29 film in the final stages of drainage, the re emblance of
h' equations (33) and (34) to the corresponding predictions
(23b*) and (15*) of the plane-film model is astoni hing.
0.01
51.5
74 3.3. Drainage betwccn defor-mabJe partially-mobile
intcr-faces
119
The approximation of immobility of the film surfaee i
0 applicable only to systems with extremely high dispersed-
r' 0 0.1 0.2 phase viscosities or to one containing a urfactant
soluble in the continuous phase_ In many pure Iiquid-
liquid systems, drainage is eontrolled predominantly by
the motion of the film surface, the eontribution of the
0.003 additional flow within the film due to the prevailing
(' = 907 pressure gradient being much smaller. This situation is
termed here partial mobility, the term full mobility being
reserved for system in whieh the interface is effeetively
0.002 shear-stress free.

h' Parallel-film models

Since interfaeial mobility is controlled by the hear
stress, 'ct, exerted on the film by the adjacent liquid in the
0.001
drop the starting point ofany model must be a considera-
tion of the type of f10\ gen rated in the drop by the
draining film. Two limiting possibilities pre ent them-
selve : boundary-Iayer flow or qua i- teady ereeping
O->--~-----~----.------,--~--,---' flow. Analy es ba ed on the former situation ha e been
r' 0 0.1 0.2 carried out by Reed, Riolo and Hartland 13· 14 and b
Figllrl' J. -ilm drainage re ulls of Yianlsios ::lIld Oa is l for deformable I ano and Traykov l5 while a model for the lalt r ha
immobile interfaces al smal! and large drainage times. been developed by the present autllOr I6 . 11 .
While the boundary-layer situation may apply in
certain cases involving coalescence of large drops at free
involved. In terms of these variables, the relations (24), interfaces, it can be shown that coalescence processes
(15) and (23) for the plane-film model become: between colliding drops satisfy the quasi-creeping flow
approximation (Chesters II). The thickness of the flow
lI*nal ~2/3, (24*)
created in the dispersed phase is then comparable with its
a* ~ (4/3) 1/2 (15*) radial extension, a, so that
and (35)
h*-2_h(~-2~/* (23a*) As variation ofvelocity across the film is negligible in the
regime ~onsidered, the interface velocity, Ujn!' is simply the
or
film vdocity, whieh in turn is related to the thinning rate,
h*2~ 1/1*, (23b*) - dh/dl. via continuity:
ifll*4.h~ Uint = (r/2h)( - dh/dl). (36)
The results ofYiantsios and Oavis indicate that the film 'ct is relatéd. via a force balance on an element of film
beeomes paral1el-sided at h' ~ 10-2, that is, at h* ~0.4, (inertial forees being negligibJe), to the pressure variation
which agrees with the order-of-magnitude expectation in the film: .
expressed by equation (24*). Thereafter a dimple de-
velops (Figure 3), the minimum film thickness tending at
Cd = (h/2)àp/àr. (37)
large times to Combination of equations (35)-(37) now yield the
required relation between the thinning rate 3nd th
h' = (0.05 X 0.4897)(-1/2,
pressure varialion in the film. resulting finall in the
that is to drainage expression
I 3 )
11*'- = 0.959/1*, (D) - dll/dl- [2(2n(J/ R).1 2/ nflct F -]Ir.
while the radius at which this minimum occurs t~nds to whieh integrates at constant F to
r' min = (2 x 0.05/3)1/2, 11- 1 -IJ;; 1 ~ [::!(2n(J/ R).1 21nfldFI ~( (3 a)

Trans IChemE, Vol 69, Part A, July 1991

264 CHESTERS

or which effectively represents the viscous resistance to

squeezing between two perfectly lubril:ated slabs. Note
"~[nJ4JF' /2(2na/ R)J/2]/t, (39b) that - dh/dt is independent of the film size, a, and hence
if IJ/ho.:g I. of the applied force, F. Equation (45) integrates to give
h=hoexp(-t/teh)' (46a)
l/II/erical reSl/llS
Equation corresponding to this case were solved where
numeri ally by Yiantsios and Davis (who termed it full
teh = 3 JlR/2a. (46b)
mobilit ) for the gravity-driven approach of a drop to a
free interface, under the Iimitation of equation (17). The In the inertia-controlled limit, equation (44a) is shown
equations, formulated in terms of transformed varia bles, to reduce to
again contained the dimensionless parameter O. As in the (47a)
h = hoexp( - t/teh),
immobile ca e. an alternative transformation resu1ts in a
universal set of eqllations: where now
IJ* = Iz'jb = IJ/(3F/4na) (40) leh = P VR 2 /8a. (47b)
r* = r' /bl 2 = r/(3F~/8na)I'2 (41 )
Numerical resl/!ts
[* = 1'/0' 2 = 1/f.J.4J(n~J/6Fa)IJ2]. (42) A numerical solution of the coupled deformation and
film-flow equations lInder conditions of constant
Here h' and r' are the same as in the immobile case
approach velocity, V, has been obtained by Chesters and
(equations (26) and (27» while t' = !'.J.pgR312/Jldhj'-.
Hofman 9 for a number of Reynolds numbers in the small
E 'pressed in terms of asterisked variables, the plane-film
Weber nllmber limit, for which equation (17) is satisfied.
drainage relation (39) becomes
In the inviscid case (inenial control) a universa! set of
equations is again obtained ifa suitable transformation of
or variables is applied:
h* =h/Rcq WE, r* =
Th result once m re exhibit fiauening and dimple
r/RcqWE I / 2 , ,* = t V/R eq WE (48)-(50)
formation. F LI wing fiattening the thinning rate is If viscous tenns are retained, the Reynolds nllmber RE
intiall weil described by quation (39a*), the best fit
being prO\.ided bya omewhat maller coefficient:
h*-'_h:- I =0.66/*, (43a)
1 .-4
lmplying that
2 • - 1.76 r"
h* = 1/0.66t'" (43b) 3 ·-0j95
• • 0.0075
at large drainage times. The results at large t'" indicate
5 • ll.3475
that equation (43b) somewhat overestimates the final 6 • Q.546)
thinning rate. The authors suggest an asymptotic film- 7 • 0.6725
thickness dependence as t- 213 • I • 0.76
9 • 0.1338
10 • 0.9003
3.4. Drainage between deformable full)' mobile interfaces 11 • 0.9353

If the viscosity of the dispersed phase is sufficiently I: - 0.9531

l3 • 0.9611
smalI, drainage is no longel' controlled by th is phase as in 14 • 0.96.59
the partially mobile case but by the resistance offered by
the film to deformation and acceleration. Domination by
U
the former farces corresponds to viscous con trol, by the 6
latter to inertia contro!.
5
Parallel-film models
0
The parallel-film model 1'01' fully-mobile interfaces, L
including both viscous and inertial terms (Chesters '7 ),
14
leads lO the drainage relation 3
l1
dH/d/=
2
[a/3/1R x (dH/dt)olexp( - 12/11/pa2 ) - a/3JlR (44a)
where
H = (1/2)1 nh. (44b) r
0 OS 10 1.5 2D
In the viscous limit (/-l .....HX), this becomes
Figllre 4. Inertia-conlrolkd film drainage for defolmable flJlly mohilc
- dh/dt = 2ah/3p..R, (45) interfaces (Che ·ters and Hofman~).

Trans lChemE, Vol 69, Part A, July 1991

 MODELLlNG OF COALESCENCE PROCESSES IN FLUfD-LIQUfD DISPER IONS 265

.dh·.
mon /dt . a disjoining pressure, n (the force per unit area of film
10 required 10 compensate van der Waal attraction),
n = -A/6nh 3 , (53)

o.s or from the thickness dependence of the film lension, 2:E

(Chesters ").
:E=O'-A/8n:h 2 , (54)
0
-.0.) -.0-1 1lT" 10 bath n and :E being derived from the thicknes depen-
den ce of the free energy per unit area of film (Hiemenz' )
Figllre 5. Rale of change of the minimum film lhickness during drainage
bet ween ful1y mobIle II1terfaces al various Reynolds numbers: I inviscid. j=2O'-A/12nh 2 . 55)
x RE= 100, 2 RE= 10, 3 RE= I (Chestcrs and Hofman 9 ).
For a delailed discussion of thin films see, far example,
Teletzke'9.
From the fact tha t the film tension is smaller where the
(= pR cq Vilt) enters as an additional parameter. In terms film is thinner, it is deal' that van der Waals forces will
of astcriskcd varia bles the plane-film inertial and viscous destabilize the film. If the film i truly parallel-sided such
drainage relations (46) and (47) become instabilities take the form of the growth, belo same
critical film thickness, of small perturbations and many
h·=h*oexp(-I·/I·ch), (51) analyses have been devoted la the sludy of uch effects
with (see Jain el al 20 for a relatively recent review). In general,
however, as the discussion of film drainage has indicated,
(/* h),,;SJ.· = 3/2RE. (I· ch);ncrl = 1/8. (46a *). (47b·) the drainage history provides the film with an initial
Film profile and velocities for the inviscid case are thickness variation on which lhe term F w then acts. The
prc ented in Figures 4a and b. The corresponding amplification of this large "perturbation-- under the
thinning rate a a function of h· is shown in Figure 5, influence ofvan der Waals farces is likely to over hadow
together with re ults for various Reynold numbers. It is the growth of mali random disturbances. which can
een that for RE= 100 vi u forc are negligible. at any probably afely be ignored. The ideal approach is tben
rat down to the h*-value inve tigated. For RE= JO. imply to incarporate F... a an additianal term in the
howc cr. thc thinning rate is noticeabl reduced. particu- radial mamentum balance far an el ment of film and
lady in the dimplcd pha e. while for RE= I dimple compute the re uiting drainag. To dat thi appears to
formati n wa no longel' ~ und to occur. have b en done anly b hen 21 • who further included the
ompari n of th invi cid thinningcur c in Figure 5 complication of ad orbed eiectrically charged pecie.
with equations (51) and (47b·) indicates global agreement The anticipated dest bilizing effe 1 f an er a I
a round the point at which flattening occurs. As the dimple forces is depicted in Figure 6: in view of their trong
develops. however, the thinning rate stabilizes at about h-dependence these farces rapidly domina te onee they
one tenth of the initial level (0.1 V in absolute terms), become of comparable magnitude with lhe pressure
whereas the plane-film model predicts continuing expo- gradient driving drainage. A first approximation to the
nential decay. effective rupture thickness, he, as defined by Figure 6,
The thinning curve for RE= I ag rees broadly with should thus be given by
eq ua tions (51) and (47a *). even though inertial forces are làp/àrl~F. . .
nol. y~t negligible; in particular. -dh/dl· becomes
roughly proportional to h*. or
!1p/1 ~ !1(2:E)/lh.
where I denotes a radial length cale eharacteristic of
4. FILM RUPTURE variation in film properties. Since !1p ~ 20'/ Rcq while from
As long as film thicknesses are large in comparisan with equatian (54) !1(2'E.)~ A/4n:h 2 , this leads la
t he range of intermolecular forces, the effect of these
forces is adequately represented by lhe approximation of
an interfacial tension. In th in films. however, an addi-
tional tangential force arises, which affects the drainage h
mechanics. Far pure fluids the anly intcrmolecular farces
concerned are thase of van der Walls and provided the
slope of the film is small (in accardance with equatian 17)
and thl: films sufficiently thin (of order of a few hundred
Angstroms or \ess). the radial force per unit volume of
f11m is given by
(52)
where A. the Hamaker constant, depends upon the fluids
Figllre 6. I nfluence of an der Waals force" n film droinul!. lid lioe:
concerned (A ~ 10- 20 Joules. lypically). actuaJ drainage beha iour. Broken Jin,,: hu\"iour in lhe- a- n f\'lln
Equatian (52) can either be derived li'()n1 the concept of der Waals fOl'ces.

Trans IChemE, Vol 69, Part A, July 1991

266 CHESTERS

he - (AR....'Q/8nu)'O. (56)
Equation (56) indicates that the effective. or critical, or
rupture thickness varies from a few hundred Angstroms P'='='CI (3/4)-1/8FI- e2/8, (60)
for large drops/bubbles to a few tens for small ones.
where the flow number Ft is defined as
5. COALESCENCE PROBABILITY Fl=6npyR J/A (61)
The foregoing considerations provide the basis for a and the constants Cl and Cl, of order unity, take account of
pr liminary estimate of the probability of coalescence the approximate character of the various numerical
during the collision of given particles under the action of estimates in the model (for example, the coefficient ory-I
giv n local flow conditions. The starting point is simply in equation 3).
Ihat oalescence--that is. film rupture--will occur if the Equation (60) is compared in Figure 7 with the exact
interaclion lime, tj. exceeds the time. te, required for numerical solution (Schowalter 24 ) for the capture effi-
drainage t the thickness "e. The expressions for Ij ciency (the fraction of the collisions, predicted by equa-
re iewed in seet.ion 2 represent typical values. For given tion (I), leading to coagulation), taking account of all
10 al flm conditions. individual values will ofcourse vary possible incidences and of van der Waals attraction
con iderabl,. depending on the incidence of the colliding throughout the interaction process. The best-fit va lues of
particl s. turbulent fluctuations. etc. Likewise, the ex- Cl and C2 are indeed of order unity, while the q uality ofthe
pre i n- re iewed in section 4 for te depend upon the description provided by the approximate model is very
colLision force/velocit ,which in turn will vary consider- encouraging.
abl. in a gi en location. In reality therefore, even aside
from the shortcomings ofthe indi idual modeIs. the ratio
I 'Ij provides onl)' a first indication ofwhether coalescence
5.2. Deformable, partially-mobile, drops in viscous
\ ill or will not occur in a gi en location. Ihe coalescence simple shear
probabilit.. P, tending to zero lor large alues ofthi ratio Together with equalions (2) and (3), equation (43b)
and to unit. for small ones. Arelalion sali f ing these leads 10 an expression for Ihe film thickness at the end of
characleri ti hich hould pro ide a first indicalion the collision process. hr, given by
(Ro el 01.]223) i
h r/R-(3/4 x O.66)(Pd/l-t)n 312 ,
P= Xp(-/c'tJ (57)
hrlR-(/ld/p)n 3 -, (62)
Equation (S ) will n be u d. in conjunclion wilh the
rel ant xpressions for te and Ij, to explore the coale -
cence behaviour in three illu trati e cases.
2.0

5.1. Rigid, equal particles in viscous simple shear

While truly rigid particles cannot coalesce they can
" ~

adhere (coagulate) under the action of van der Waals 1.0

attraction. The only addition to the preceding relations 0.8 ~
required to describe this situation is to replace the ~
equation for he by one expressing the separation at which 0.6 ~
the van der Waals attraction becomes comparable with ~
Ihe force exerted by the external flow. At small sepa- ~
0.4
rations, the van der Waals attraction between equal
spheres is given by AR/l2h 2 . Making use ofequation (2) Qo
the expression for he thus becomes
A R/12h e2 - 6npyR 2, 0.2

he~(A/72npYR)I/~. (58)
te now follows from equation (20), if an estimate is
0.1
available of ho-the separation at which the drainage law,
equation (19) first applies. Since at large separations the 0.08

approach velocity of the spheres is of order ~'R, ho

0.06
corresponds to the separation at which
yR- -dh/dl. 0.04

Making use of equations (19) and (2). th is yield~

h o -R/4. (S,}) fl

Equations (20), (58) and (59) now provide the requirl:d Figure 7. Numerical prcdiction of capture eflkiency. 0<0. for equal
expression for Ic. Togethcr with the expression (3) for tj, spheres in viscous shear (solid line: Schowalter 24 ) with capture probabi-
this then leads 10 lity. p. according 10 equation 60 (dolled Iinc. ('I = 1.17. q= 1.80).

Trans TChemE, Vol 69, Part A, July 1991

 MODELLING OF COALESCENCE PROCESSES IN FLUID-LIQUID DISPERSIONS 267

where A typical force per unit volume of film due to gas hear
stress, FG , may now be com pa red with a typical force, F p ,
(63)
due to liquid inertia:
The capillary number, n, is the dimensionless group
controlling drop deformation and break-up in viscous FG = 2Td/h ~ 2IJ.d u/ hl,
shear, drops being nearly spherical for values of n Fp = puau/iJr~ pu 2/1,
considerably smaller"than unity (see, for example Ralli-
FG/Fp~2IJ.d/puh.
50n 25 ). n also determines the magnitude of a/ R, as
combination of equations (3) and (15) shows: The retarding effect of gas shear stre s thus become
a/R~(3n)1/2. (64)
substantial if

The restriction (17) thus requires n to be smalI. h < 2IJ.d/PU

Equation (62) indicates that n must indeed be small for or
coalescence to be possible. Thus, consider the concrete
(68)
example of 100 IJ. water drops in a viscous oil, for which
!J.d/JI.= 10- 2 . Equation (64) indicates that to attain a final For water-air and bubbles of diameter I mm, the term
film thickness of the order of 100 A, n must be of order IJ.d(R/pU)I/2 has a value of about 500 A, while Figure 4b
0.05 or less. For larger tl.,J/IJ., n must be still smaller. In shows that in the final stages of drainage the term 2/u· i
addition to justifying the restriction (17) for collisions considerably Iess than unity in the thinnest zone of the
leading to coalescence·, this example illustrates two film. Gas viscosity may therefore be expected to have a
important points: significant retarding effect on the final stages of drainage
at film thicknesses of a few hundred Angstroms.
• Coalescence is not in general to be expected in zones
To assess the corresponding effect on the drainage time,
where drop break-up occurs (for which n ~ I).
suppose a bubble collision velocity of 10 cmfs
• Coalescence is greatly favoured by a low dispersed-
(WE=0.07). Then in the absence of both retarding ga -
phase viscosity
viscosity farces and accelerating van der Waals forces, the
The Jatter point explains in braad terms why emulsions final value of - dh/dl would be about I cmfs and the last
consisting of a low-viscosity liquid dispersed in a high- few hundred Angstroms of thinning would take a few
vi co ity continuous phase are much less table than the microseconds. Even ifthis final tage were increased bya
inverse emulsions and indeed are likely to "invert" at high factor of ten (which seems unlikely), the total drainage
dispersed-phase fractions (see for example Guilinger el time (2 x 10- 4 s: see equation (70» would be ub tantially
al. 26). unchanged. Ta the first approximation, therefore, oth
Making use of equations (57) and (58) the expression gas-viscosity and van der Waals forces ma be ignored
for the coalescence probability in the present case is found and the required drainage time, te, calculated from the
to be inviscid drainage results.
For the purpose of comparison with Ij·, Ic" should be
(65) taken as the drainage time following the onset of
where C3 is once more an unknown constant of order deformation. In reality deformation, as indicated by the
unity. pressure at the film centre, increases gradually. Somewhat
arbitrarily therefore, "the onset" is taken as the point at
which this pressure is u/ R (half of that required to cause
5.3. Bubbles in turbulent flow complete f1attening), corresponding roughly to /1* = 1/8
Bubbles in turbulent f10ws are almost always much (curve 6, figure 4). The drainage time is then given by
larger than the scale of the Kolmogorov eddies and the (69)
corresponding Reynolds numbers are consequently high.
The drainage model based on full interfacial mobility and In terms of the original varia bles, equation (69) becomes
inertial con trol should therefore be applicable, provided te~0.5pVR2/u. (70)
the shear stress exerted by the gas is truly negligible.
The gas shear stress is given by a similar expression to The coaleseenee probability now follows from Ic and Ij
equation (35) (Chesters and Hofman~): (given by equation (13), with PdlP = 0):
Td ~ Jl.dU/ I, (66) tcili~(WE/2)1/2, (71)

where I is onee again a length scale characteristic of the p- exp[-( W E/2)1/2J,

variation of film properties in the radial direction, for
or
example
(72)
1= u/(Ju/?r). (67)
where C4 is a constant of order unit)".
Equation (72) suggests that for high-Weber-number
collisions the chance of coalescence is smal!. the bubbles
• Equation (62) suggests that for sufficicntly smaJl ~/II·values bouncing apart before film drainage is complete. This is
coalescence lVould be possible at large vallIcs of n. However it wiJl be
found that the appropriate drainage model is then that for fllJly mobile supported by observatiom of bubbles rising in water t
interfaces and that eCjuation (17) is again salisfied (Chesters I I). free SUl' face , where bubbles having an approa h , eber

Trans JChemE, Vol 69, Part A, July 1991

 CHESTERS

number (p V- Reqj(J = 2p V 2R/(J) greater than around 0.5 Given thc local VOllllllC fraction, ex, of the dispersed
are ob erved to bounce one or more times before phase, lhe eorresponding Sauter me;ln particIe diameIer,
coalescing (Kirkpatrick and Lockett 27 . Farooq2~). An dn , follows from thc valuc of S:
extension of the considerations for equal bubbles to this
S = 6ex/ndn- (78)
case (Chesters and Hofman 9) results in
The entire modelling procedure of course requires the
lcjt;-(2H E)I/2 (73)
coupling ofeqllation (76) with numerical Aow simulation.
rather than equation (71). where Additional contributions 10 OSjOt due to particIe break-
up will also have to be modelled in genera\. For eases in
WE=pf -Rcqj(J = 2pV 2 Rj(J, (74)
which the particles follow the eontinllous-phase Aow
impl. ing a critical value of WE of order Ij2. Equation c1osely, a single-phase flow code which takes account of
( 3) is. of course. based on a greally simplified model of the influence of the particles on the effective continuous-
the bouncing process. together with the assumption that phase viscosity will suffice. For bubbles or large drops,
WE I. \ hich is no longer weil satisfied at the Weber however, a two-phase Aow code will in general be
numbers coneerned. Nevertheless. the global agreement required and the flow itself will then be cOllpled with the
with observations is encouraging. The number ofbounees particIe size.
required \ill depend on the initial Weber number.
su ce ive approaches progressi ely redllcing lhe Weber
number due t drag dllring its de cent and re-aseent. 6.2. Transition between regimes
Returning to turbulence-indllced coalescence. if the The preceding discussions have by and large been
bubble are smaller than the size ofthe energy-containing Iimiled to a discussion of collision, film drainage and
eddie a typical relati e approach velocity of adjacent rupture in cerlain weil defined regimes: inerlia or viscous
bubbles may be upp ed to scale with L' (equation (5». collisions, partially or fully mobile interfaces etc. In
E uation ( _ th n become reality, the regime applicable is likely to change smoolhly
from one loealion in lhe Aow to anolher. The simplest
P~e. p[ -c (Wel_)' 2]. (75)
way of coping with th is problem is to apply the model
where c· i another constant of order unity. whieh corresponding 10 lhe regime most c10sely applieable, a
in Iud the ratio I' the fluctuating bubble to conlinous- transilion from one regime to another being indicated
phase velocity. noted in section 2.2, turbulence- wh n, for example, the relation for each regime yield lhe
indu d bubble break-up oc urs at value of f-JI: of order same ailie of lhe quantity being predicted (colli ion rate.
unit)'. Equation (7 ) uggest that under these condition coale-cence probability, 0 lOl, etc.). Thi difficult will
th hance of oale ence i again smalI, though nol as of cour e disappear onee more broadly applicable models
mali a in the ase of panially mobile dr p . become available.

6. THE MATHEMATICAL MODELLING OF 6.3. The modelling of local polydispersity

COALESCENCE
However illuminating the monodisperse approach as a
6.1. The monodisperse approximation first exercise, it is highly unlikely thaI simulations will
The preceding section has indicated the potential ofthe ultimately prove satisfactory unless explicit account is
existing models to predict the coalescence probability in taken of the local distribution of particles sizes. The
pure systems for the case of equal particles, given a extension of the preceding approach to this case involves
knowledge of the local flow conditions. In so far as the the slImmalion of the contributions of coalescence
behaviour ofa dispersed system may be approximated by between particles of all sizes present locally, for exarnple
that of a locally monodisperse one having the same using a population balance approach (Tavlarides and
partiele diameter as some local mean, the path lies open 10 Stamatoudis29 ). Making use of the equivalent radius
quantitative prediction of the contriblltion of coalescence principle, the extension of film drainage and rupture
to the evoJution of particle size in dispersed Aows. For models to the unequal-particle case is straightforward.
example. the rale of change of the local specific interfaeial The corresponding extension of the collision rate, how-
area, S, due to coalescence is given by ever, necessitates explicit consideration of hydrodynarnic
OSjOl = C P/),.s, (76)
interactions, as discussed in section 2.1. Separale con-
sideration is also required of the inAuence of the paniclc
where O/Ol denotes the rate of change when following a radius ratio on interaclion characteristics sllch as colli-
material element of the dispersed phase sion forcejvelocity and duration. Until models for these
effects become available, the formal frameworks pro-
OSjOl= Sj l+~d'VS
posed for coping wilh thc modclling of polydispersity
(lidlocal velocity of the dispersed phase) and /),.S denotes remain lInusable.
the increase in interfacial area due 10 a single coalescence
process:
6.4. The modelling of interfacial-tension gradients
(77)
With the exception of a remark on lhe relevanee or
A first approximation to the equal·particle case is
tn immobile-interfaee models to systems containing surfac-
provided by the expre sions obtained neglecting hydrody- tant in the eOlltinuolls ph ase, the foregoing considera-
namie interaction (section 2. I). tions have been devotcd to pure syslems. Such systems Cl re

Trans IChemE, Vol 69, Part A, Jul)' 1991

 MODELLING OF COALESCENCE PROCESSES IN FLUID-LIQ JD DISPERSJO S 269

of course the exception rather than the rule. Almost all area ofvariable interfacial ten ion i virtually unexplored.
emulsions involve an aqueous phase containing some A IittJe work has still to be done'
surface-active material, either by accident or design, and
many systems contain surface-active ingredients in both
phases. Likewise. many dispersions are created to permit NOMENCLATURE
effeetive mass transfer of a third component between lhe {/ film radiu (Figur land 2)
phases. Jn such cases, the variation of species concentra- A Hamaker constanl
Cl -c~ eonstants of order unity
tion over the interface engenders a corresponding varia- C parlicle collision rale per unit time and volume
lion in the interfacial tension. d particIc diameter
The variation of interfacial tension produces a net dJ2 Sauter mean particIe diameter
tangential force per unit area, 1"a: J free energy per unit area of film
F interaction force excrted by one particle on another
1"a=grad a. (79) Fe.xt force exerted by the external flow on a particle
Fw radial force per unit volume of film due 10 van der Waals
Like the shear stress exerted on the interface by the force
dispersed phase, this small force per unit area translates radial force per unit volume of film due lo gas shear Iress
into a significant force, Fa. per unit volume of the film, radial force per unit volume offilm due lo continuous-phase
inertia
Fa =21"a/h = 2grada/h, (80) F" radial force per unit volume of film due to interfacial-
tension va ria tion
whieh can radically retard or accelerate film drainage. Ft flow number (equalion (61»
The modelling ofsuch effects requires primarily a modifi- g acceleration due 10 gravity
calion of the film drainage modeis, the basic equations h (minimum) film thickness
ho initial film thiekness
de eribing film drainage being extended to include lhe hj initial film thickness used in lhe compulalion of Vian ios
species diffusion equation, an equation relating bulk to and Davis
interface concentralions and an equation relating the
inl rfacial tension to the interfacial concentration of lhe
"e
hniJl
crilical ruplure thickne
film thickness at the onset of f1all ning
pecie . A recent example in the domain of drop deforma- "rH final film thickness at lhe end of a colli ion
(1/2) In"
tion i provided by Stone and Lea1 30 . k olli ion coefficient (equalion (I»
t length scale haracteristic of radial "ariation offilm proper-
tie
L y tem length scale
7. PERSPECTIVES, CHALLENGES 1/1 actual plu virtual ma of a particl
TI number of particl per unil \olum
From a 'helicopter view', the task of implementing the p film pr ure
eheme portra ed in Figllre I compri e threc a p cts: p probability of coalescenee during a collision
r radial di lanee in th draining film
I. The generation of the separale pieces of the pllzzle- R particle radius
the drainage and collision laws for the various regimes. Rcq cquivalent radius (equation (18»
_. Their incorporation in compact relations which can be Re Reynolds numbcr pril /11
RE Reynolds number pR~ V/II
applied locally wilhin a numerical stimulation of the s surface area of a parlicle or parlicle pair
multiphase flow without requiring excessive computation S specific interfacial area
time. time
3. The development of efficient and robust numerical time required for drainage 10 the critica I ruplure lhickness
mc:thods incorporating both flow and local effects. characterislic time seale
interaction time of colliding particles
Until recenlly, the absence ofvarious key pieces ofthe time scale chara teristic of the exlernal flow (equation (7»
interface velocity
puzzle has prevenled any worthwhile work in areas 2 and vclocity of the dispersed phase
3. aside from considerations of global strategy and t' eharacleristic velocity variation over a distanee d in the
progress towards increasingly effective two-phase flow basic flow
simulations bascd on conslant particIe size. The arrival, in V relative velocity of centres of colliding parlicles
particular. of various key drain;.tge modeIs now makes We. WE Weber numbers. defined by equations (11 b) and (14b)
2R minus the distance between particIe ccntres
serious work on areas ~ and :I bath possible and attraclive
for the pure-fluid case and high-quality experimental G,....k fell""s
validalion of sudden urgency. In addition it enables (J. volume fraetion of the dispersed phase
'back-of-the-envelüpe' calculations to be carried Ollt ft coeflicient of virtual mass (equation (10»
shear rate
which may. on a short term basis. be of greater impür- rale ofslrain in the smallest (Kolmogorov) cddies (equation
tanee la those seeking an immediate. if approximak. (4»
answer. dimensionle s gTOUp öpgRJ/uh,
Understanding and model devclopment in area I is of turbulence energy dis ipalion nHe per unit mas-
eontinuous and disperscd-phase viseosilies (respectiv Iy)
course far from complete. The available slIb-modeis
I'/f'
rcmain approximale: the numerical drainage reslilts do n disjoining prcssurc
not incorporate lhe actllal force/velocity varialion p. Pd eontinuous and dispersed-phas densiti (respecli,cl~)
encountered in real collisions nor are van der Waals u inlerfacial tension
2:[ film lension
farces included. while hydrodynamic inlcractions have shear stn:ss excrted on lhe film b~ th di-persed pha-
yet to he satisfaclorily modelled. In addition. gravily- tangential force per unit int rfacial area due t u-\ n:J1i n
induced collisions have still to bc model led and the enlire n capillary numbcr (equati n (63))

Trans IChemE, Vol 69, Part A, Jul)' 1991

 CHESTERS

Superscripts 18. Hiemenz P. C. 1986, Prillciples olcol/oid andsurface chl'lllistry, 2nd

quanlilics Iransformed according 10 Yianlsios and Davis ed. (Marcel Dekker, New Vork).
• quunlities lransfonn d ac ording to the present aulhor 19. Telelzke G. H., 1983, Thin Iiquid films, molecular and hydrodyna-
mic implications. PhO thesis (University of Minnesola).
20. Jain R. K., Ivanov I. B., Maldareli C. and Ruckenstein E., 1979,
REFERENCES Lec\. Noles Phys., no. 105, Dynamics and inslabilily of fluid
inlerfaces, Ed. T. S. Sorensen, Springer, Berlin.
I. Yiantsios S. G. and Davis R. H., 1990, J F/uid ,''''ee'', 217: 547. 21. Chen J. D., 1985, J Col/oid Interface Sci, 107: 209.
Smolu howski M .. 1917. Z P"ys Chelll, 92: 129. 22. Ross S. 1., Verholf F. H. and Curl R. 1., 1977,lnd Ellg Chl'lll Fundi.
3. alfman P. G. and Turner 1. S.. 1956, J Fluid Mee", I: 16. 16: 371.
4. Kub i R .. Komasaw:l I. and Otake T., 1972. J C!w", Eng Jpn, 5: 23. Ross S. 1., VerholfF. H. and Curl R. L 1978, hul Eng C"em Fundi.
42 . 17: 101.
5. &tchelor G, K. and Green J. T .. 1972, J Fluid Meeh, 56: 375. 24. Schowaller W. R .. 1984, Ann Rev Fluid Mee", 16: 245.
6. dier P. M .. 1981. J Col/aid Ifller/aee Sci, 84: 461. 25. Rallison 1. M .. 1984. Anll Rev Fluid Mech. 16: 45.
7. Ro S. L. :md Curl R. L.. 1973. Paper no. 29b, Joint Chl'''' Eng 26. GlIilinger T. R., Grislingas A. K. and Erga 0., 1988,/IId Eng Chem
ConI4th, VaJl oUl·er. Sept. Rcs, 27: 978.
Coulaloglou C. A .. 1975. Dispersed phase interactions in an 27. Kirkpalrick R. D. and Locken M. 1., 1974. Chcm Engng Sci, 29:
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ADDRESS
I: 437. Correspondence concerning Ihis paper should he addressed 10
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Trans JChemE, Vol 69, Part A, July 1991