MAA CORPORATE TRAINING CENTER
1. SQL Fundamentals
SQL is the basic Language used for retrieve and manipulate data from database.
SQL is non procedural Language , does not contains Programming constructs like Loops.
SQL is 4th generation language , request-response kind of language.
ANSI has standards for SQL , Oracle Supports there standards of SQL and extended its SQL to
support it.
2. SQL Statements Categories
1. Data Manipulation Language (DML)
Used to access, create, modify, or delete data in the existing structures of the database.
Statements Include:
INSERT,INSERT,UPDATE,DELETE,MERGE
2. Data Definition Language (DDL)
Used to define, alter, or drop database objects and their privileges.
Statements Include :
CREATE, ALTER,DROP,RENAME,TRUNCATE, GRANT,REVOKE,AUDIT,NOAUDIT
3. Transaction Control
Used to group a set of DML statements as a single transaction.
COMMIT,ROLLBACK,SAVEPOINT,SET TRANSACTION
4. Session Control
Used to control the properties of a user session.
Includes : ALTER SESSION, SET ROLE
5. System Control
Used to Manage the Properties of the Database
ALTER SYSTEM
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MAA CORPORATE TRAINING CENTER
3. Oracle Built-In Data Types
CHAR ( <size> ) : Default 1 , Maximum : 2KB
-Fixed-Length, Alpha Numeric
-Space-padded to fill maximum Length
VARACHAR2(<size>) : Default : NA : Maximum: 4K
: Variable-Length, Alpha Numeric
: ONLY required amount of space is used for columns.
NUMBER((<p>. <s>) : P 1-38 , S -84 – 127
: NUMBER(5,2) : 5-2 = 3 , Integer Part : 3 Decimal Part 2
It can store -999.99 to 999.99
Oracle rounds the values in the scale part is smaller than inserted number.
Ex : NUMBER(4,2) : 12.124 Stored as 12.12
If Scale is Negative, rounded to left of the decimal.
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MAA CORPORATE TRAINING CENTER
Examples
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Date : 7 Bytes
Date stores Date and Time information
Functions are applied to convert this data type.
Occupies 7-Bytes
Century:Year:Month:Day:Hour:Minute:Second
Default Date Format : DD-MON-YY
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MAA CORPORATE TRAINING CENTER
SYSDATE Function returns Current system date in Database server
Arithmetic Operators and Precedence
+ - (Unary)
+, - ,* /
Precedence
1 -+ Unary operators, negation
2 */ Multiplication, division
3 + - || Addition, subtraction, concatenation
Example : 1+2*3 , (1+2) * 3
Concatenation: Joins two Character Strings
‘’ ||’’
SET Operators
UNION Returns all rows from either queries; no duplicate rows
UNION ALL Returns all rows from either query, including duplicates
INTERSECT Returns distinct rows that are returned by both queries
MINUS Returns distinct rows that are returned by the first query
but not returned by the second.
Literals :
Text : ‘I am ‘||name ||’ DBA’
Integer /Numbers : 50 , 43.21
Interval : Specify Period of Times in terms of Years or Months, Days to Seconds
INTERVAL YEAR TO MONTH, INTERVAL DAY TO SECOND
Write Simple Queries
Query is to request Database for Information
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MAA CORPORATE TRAINING CENTER
SELECT Statement
SELECT * FROM <Tables>
“*” represents all columns
Column Alias
SQL> SELECT job_title AS Title,
min_salary AS "Minimum Salary" FROM jobs
SQL> /
DISTINCT /UNIQUE
Uniqueness is verified against complete row.
SQL> SELECT DISTINCT department_id FROM employees;
SQL> SELECT DISTINCT department_id, job_id FROM employees;
DUAL Table
Dummy table available to users in the database.
Contains one row and one column
Used to Select SYSTEM Varibles and evaluate Expressions
Limiting Rows
WHERE Clause is used to limit the number rows retrieved
SQL>SELECT first_name ||''||last_name "Name",
2 department_id
3 FROM employees
4 WHERE department_id =90;
Comparison Operators
=, !=, <,> ,=<,=>
NULL Does not participate in Comparison
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Logical Operators
AND TRUE FLASE NULL
TRUE TRUE FALSE NULL
FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE
NULL NULL FLASE NULL
OR TRUE FLASE NULL
TRUE TRUE TRUE TRUE
FALSE TRUE FALSE NULL
NULL TRUE NULL NULL
NOT
TRUE FALSE
FALSE TRUE
NULL NULL
Examples :
SQL> SELECT first_name, department_id
2 FROM employees
3* WHERE not (department_id >= 30);
SQL> SELECT first_name, salary
2 FROM employees
3 WHERE last_name = 'Smith'
4* AND salary > 7500;
SQL> SELECT first_name, last_name
2 FROM employees
3 WHERE first_name = 'Kelly'
4* OR last_name = 'Smith';
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MAA CORPORATE TRAINING CENTER
Other Operators
IN and NOT IN Operators: Test for membership condition
SQL> SELECT first_name, last_name, department_id
2 FROM employees
3 WHERE department_id IN (10, 20, 90);
SQL> SELECT first_name, last_name, department_id
2 FROM employees
3 WHERE department_id NOT IN
4* (10, 30, 40, 50, 60, 80, 90, 110, 100)
SQL> /
BETWEEN : Used to test a range Inclusively of boundaries
SQL> SELECT first_name, last_name, salary
2 FROM employees
3* WHERE salary BETWEEN 5000 AND 6000;
SQL> SELECT first_name, last_name, salary
2 FROM employees
3* WHERE first_name BETWEEN ‘A’ AND ‘G’;
EXISTS: The EXISTS operator is always followed by a sub query in parenthesis.
EXISTS evaluates to TRUE if sub query returns at least one row
SQL> SELECT last_name, first_name, department_id
2 FROM employees e
3 WHERE EXISTS (select 1 FROM departments d
4 WHERE d.department_id = e.department_id
5* AND d.department_name = 'Administration');
IS NULL and IS NOT NULL
= and != operators does not work with NULL Values.
IS NULL is used evaluate them.
SQL> SELECT last_name, department_id
2 FROM employees
3 WHERE department_id IS NULL;
LAST_NAME DEPARTMENT_ID
------------------------- -------------
Grant
SQL>
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MAA CORPORATE TRAINING CENTER
LIKE
Used for Pattern Matching
% Is used match any character and number of characters
_ used to match any character but one character
Escape : Using ESCAPE Keyword
SQL> SELECT first_name, last_name
2 FROM employees
3 WHERE first_name LIKE 'Su%'
4* AND last_name NOT LIKE 'S%';
SQL> SELECT job_id, job_title
2 FROM jobs
3 WHERE job_id like 'AC\_%' ESCAPE '\';
Sorting Rows
ORDER BY ASC, DESC
NULLS FIRST/LAST
SQL> SELECT first_name, hire_date, salary, manager_id mid
2 FROM employees
3 WHERE department_id IN (110,100)
4* ORDER BY mid ASC, salary DESC, hire_date;
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MAA CORPORATE TRAINING CENTER
SQL> SELECT DISTINCT 'Region ' || region_id
2 FROM countries
3 ORDER BY region_id;
ORDER BY region_id
*
ERROR at line 3:
ORA-01791: not a SELECTed expression
SQL> SELECT DISTINCT 'Region ' || region_id
2 FROM countries
3 ORDER BY 'Region ' || region_id;
SQL> SELECT first_name, hire_date, salary, manager_id mid
2 FROM employees
3 WHERE department_id IN (110,100)
4* ORDER BY 4, 2, 3;
SQL> SELECT last_name, commission_pct
2 FROM employees
3 WHERE last_name LIKE 'R%'
4* ORDER BY commission_pct ASC, last_name DESC;
SQL> SELECT last_name, commission_pct
2 FROM employees
3 WHERE last_name LIKE 'R%'
4* ORDER BY commission_pct ASC NULLS FIRST, last_name
DESC;
CASE Statement
Case statement is used to derive IF-THEN-ELSE Logic
SQL> SELECT country_name, region_id,
2 CASE region_id WHEN 1 THEN 'Europe'
3 WHEN 2 THEN 'America'
4 WHEN 3 THEN 'Asia'
5 ELSE 'Other' END Continent
6 FROM countries
7* WHERE country_name LIKE 'I%';
SQL> SELECT first_name, department_id, salary,
2 CASE WHEN salary < 6000 THEN 'Low'
3 WHEN salary < 10000 THEN 'Medium'
4 WHEN salary >= 10000 THEN 'High' END Category
5 FROM employees
6 WHERE department_id <= 30
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MAA CORPORATE TRAINING CENTER
2. SQL*Plus Overview
SQL*Plus is widely used tool by DBAs and Developers to access database.
SQL*Plus is Installed with Client Software
Automatically installed when Server software is installed.
Connect SQLPlus Session
Sqlplus username/password@connectstring
SQL> connect USERNAME/Password
SQL>DISCONNECT
SQL> Password SCOTT : To Change Scott Password
Entering SQL Statements
Statements can be entered in multiple Lines
End of statements denoted by semicolon
Previously executed Statements are stored SQL Buffer
/ or RUN is used to re execute the statement in the buffer
Edit the Buffer
DEFINE _EDITOR=vi
SQL>LIST (L) : Shows Statements in the buffer
SQL>APPEND (A) WHERE EMPLOYEE_NUMBER=110 : Appends at the end of the line
SQL> CHANGE (C) / <> /= : Changes <> to =
SQL>I
7777 AND
EMP_NO=110
SQL> 3
SQL > DEL Deletes Current Line
SQL> CLEAR BUFFER
SQL>CLEAR SCREEN
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MAA CORPORATE TRAINING CENTER
Using Script Files
SQL> SAVE filename : Saves statement in buffer to file
SQL>@filename : Runs the File , @@ to Run from within a file
SQL>EDIT : Edit the Buffer
SQL>GET filename : Gets file content to buffer
Saving Results to File
SPOOL filename
Comments
“—“ Line Comment
/* */ Single/Multiline Comments
Customize SQL*Plus Environment
SHOW variable/ALL: Shows the environment
SET Command : To Modify the values
Important Variables
SET LINESIZE
SET AUTOCOMMIT OFF
SET SCAN OFF
SET TIME ON
Formatting output
COL colname for a23
COL colname for 999
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MAA CORPORATE TRAINING CENTER
3. Functions
Functions are programs that take zero or more arguments and returns a single value
Types of Functions:
Single Row Functions
Group Functions
Analytics Functions
3.1 Single Row Functions
Single row Functions can be incorporated into SELECT, WHERE, ORDER BY Clauses
NULL and Single Row Functions
NVL , NVL2
SELECT first_name, last_name, salary, bonus
,salary + bonus total_comp
FROM employees;
SELECT first_name, last_name, salary, bonus
,salary + NVL(bonus,0) total_comp
FROM employees;
SELECT first_name, last_name, salary, bonus
,NVL2(bonus,salary + bonus,salary) total_comp
FROM employees;
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MAA CORPORATE TRAINING CENTER
Single Row Character Functions
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INSTR(<c1>,<c2>[,<i>[,<j>]])
I : Starting Position
J : J th Occurance
SELECT INSTR('Mississippi', 'i',3,3) test1
,INSTR('Mississippi', 'i',1,3) test1
,INSTR('Mississippi', 'i',-2,3) test3
FROM dual;
LENGTH
SELECT LENGTH('The Three Musketeers') title_length
FROM dual;
LOWER
SELECT colorname, LOWER(colorname)
FROM itemdetail
WHERE LOWER(colorname) LIKE '%white%';
UPPER
SELECT ename, job, hiredate
FROM emp
WHERE UPPER(ename) LIKE 'KIN%';
LTRIM
SELECT LTRIM('Mississippi','Mis') test1
,LTRIM('Rpadded ') test2
,LTRIM(' Lpadded') test3
,LTRIM(' Lpadded', 'Z') test4
FROM dual;
RTRIM
SELECT RTRIM('Mississippi','ip') test1
,RTRIM('Rpadded ') test2
,RTRIM('Rpadded ', 'Z') test3
,RTRIM(' Lpadded') test4
FROM dual;
LPAD
SELECT LPAD(answer,7,'.') dot_padded
,LPAD(answer,7, ' ') space_padded
,answer unpadded
FROM questions;
RPAD
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SELECT RPAD(table_name,38,'.') table_name
,num_rows
FROM user_tables;
REPLACE
SELECT REPLACE('uptown','up','down') FROM dual;
SUBSTR
SELECT SUBSTR('The Three Musketeers',1,3) Part1
,SUBSTR(‘The Three Musketeers’,5,5) Part2
,SUBSTR(‘The Three Musketeers’,11) Part3
,SUBSTR(‘The Three Musketeers’,-10) Part3a
FROM dual;
Single Row Numeric Functions
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MAA CORPORATE TRAINING CENTER
CEIL
SELECT CEIL(9.8) ,CEIL(-32.85) ,CEIL(0),CEIL(5) FROM dual;
FLOOR
SELECT FLOOR(9.8),FLOOR(-32.85),FLOOR(137) FROM dual;
ROUND
SELECT ROUND(12345,-2) test1 ,ROUND(12345.54321,2) test2 FROM dual;
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MAA CORPORATE TRAINING CENTER
TRUNC
SELECT TRUNC(123.456,2) pos ,TRUNC(123.456,-1) neg FROM dual;
SIGN
SELECT SIGN(-2.3) ,SIGN(0) ,SIGN(47) FROM dual;
Date Functions
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MAA CORPORATE TRAINING CENTER
ADD_MONTHS
SELECT SYSDATE ,ADD_MONTHS(SYSDATE,3) plus_3 ,ADD_MONTHS(SYSDATE,-2) minus_2
FROM dual;
CURRENT_DATE
SELECT SYSDATE ,CURRENT_DATE ,SESSIONTIMEZONE FROM dual;
CURRENT_TIMESTAMP
SELECT CURRENT_TIMESTAMP FROM dual;
DBTIMEZONE
SELECT DBTIMEZONE FROM dual;
ALTER DATABASE SET TIME_ZONE='-06:00';
EXTRACT ( <c> FROM <date> )
Extracts c from date
c Can be YEAR, MONTH, DAY,
HOUR, MIN, SECOND, TIMEZONE_HOUR, TIMEZONE_MINUTE, TIMEZONE_REGION
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MAA CORPORATE TRAINING CENTER
SELECT SYSDATE ,EXTRACT(YEAR FROM SYSDATE ) YEAR
,EXTRACT(MONTH FROM SYSTIMESTAMP) MONTH
,EXTRACT(TIMEZONE_HOUR FROM SYSTIMESTAMP) TZH
FROM dual;
LAST_DAY
SELECT SYSDATE ,LAST_DAY(SYSDATE) END_OF_MONTH ,LAST_DAY(SYSDATE)+1
NEXT_MONTH FROM dual;
MONTHS_BETWEEN
SELECT MONTHS_BETWEEN('19-Dec-2002','19-Mar-2003') test1
,MONTHS_BETWEEN('19-Dec-2002','19-Mar-2002') test2
FROM dual
NEXT_DAY
SELECT NEXT_DAY('01-Jan-2000','Monday') "1st Monday"
,NEXT_DAY('01-Nov-2004','Tuesday')+7 "2nd Tuesday"
FROM dual;
ROUND
SELECT SYSDATE,ROUND(SYSDATE,'HH24') FROM dual;
TRUNC
SELECT TRUNC(last_analyzed,'HH') FROM user_tables
WHERE table_name='TEST_CASE';
SYSTEMTIMESTAMP/SYSDATE
SELECT SYSTIMESTAMP ,SYSDATE from dual;
Conversion Functions
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MAA CORPORATE TRAINING CENTER
TO_CHAR(<x>,[,<frmt>])
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MAA CORPORATE TRAINING CENTER
SELECT SYSDATE
,TO_CHAR(SYSDATE,'Mmspth') Month
,TO_CHAR(SYSDATE,'DDth') Day
,TO_CHAR(SYSDATE,'Yyyysp') Year
FROM dual;
SELECT TO_CHAR(SYSDATE,'MONTH') upperCase
,TO_CHAR(SYSDATE,'Month') mixedCase
,TO_CHAR(SYSDATE,'month') lowerCase
FROM dual;
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MAA CORPORATE TRAINING CENTER
TO_DATE
INSERT INTO demo (demo_key, date_col)
VALUES (1,TO_DATE('04-Oct-1957','DD-Mon-YYYY') );
Other Functions
DECODE
SELECT sid ,serial# ,username
,DECODE(command
,0,'None'
,2,'Insert'
,3,'Select'
,6,'Update'
,7,'Delete'
,8,'Drop'
,'Other') cmd from v$session;
GREATEST
SELECT GREATEST('19','24',9) string FROM dual;
LEAST
SELECT LEAST(SYSDATE,'15-MAR-2002','17-JUN-2002') oldest
FROM dual;
NULLIF(x1,x2)
Returns NULL if x1=x2 otherwise returns x1;
Group Functions
AVG : Returns the statistical mean
COUNT :Returns number of non-NULL rows
MAX : Returns largest Value
MIN : Return smallest value
SUM : Return Sum of all values
AVG([{DISTINCT | ALL}] <n>),
SELECT job_id, AVG(salary)
FROM hr.employees
WHERE job_id like ‘AC%’
GROUP BY job_id;
COUNT
SELECT COUNT(*) emp_count
,COUNT(DISTINCT department_id) dept_count
,COUNT(ALL department_id) non_null_dept_count
FROM hr.employees
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MAA CORPORATE TRAINING CENTER
MIN
SELECT MIN(hire_date)
,MIN(salary)
,MIN(last_name)
FROM hr.employees;
SUM
SELECT SUM(blocks)
FROM user_tables;
GROUP BY
SELECT cust_state_province, count(*) customer_count
FROM sh.customers
GROUP BY cust_state_province;
HAVING
SELECT t.fiscal_month_desc ,s.channel_id
,SUM(s.quantity_sold)
,SUM(s.amount_sold)
FROM sh.times t
,sh.sales s
WHERE t.time_id = s.time_id
AND s.promo_id <> 9999
GROUP BY t.fiscal_month_desc, s.channel_id
HAVING SUM(S.amount_sold) > 2000000;
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