INTRODUCTION TO PHILOSOPHY OF THE HUMAN PERSON

Doing Philosophy
INTRODUCTION
Most of us have questions in our head but cannot find answers for those. Our minds
undertake such activities when we seek to understand fundamental truths about ourselves, the
world in which we live in, and our relationships to the world and to each other. Philosophy
begins with a sense of wonder. Human being wonders at God, the world and his/her very being.
This module is all about your everyday life encounters, how you see things in a general point of
view. You may wonder about many things that lead you to ask a lot of questions. By nature,
human beings are inquisitive. You asked questions to try and make sense of your world and
experiences. As you grow older, your questions are influenced by your experiences and
circumstances.

I. TOPIC: Introduction to Philosophy

DISCUSSION:

What is Philosophy?
Philosophy is the study of general and fundamental problems, such as those connected with
existence, knowledge, values, reason, mind, and language. It is the rational attempt to formulate,
understand, and answer fundamental questions.

“Philosophy” came from two Greek words:

 Philo which means “to love”
 Sophia which means “wisdom”

 Philosophy originally meant “love of wisdom.”

 Philosophy is also defined as the science that by natural light of reason studies the first
causes or highest principles of all things.

Doing Philosophy
The key elements in many educational reforms are diversity, difference, and
choice or other proposals that establish separate curricular routes for different groups or
individuals. Diversity in values, beliefs, background, and experiences make each person unique
{i.e., biology, ethnicity and culture, family life, beliefs, geography, experiences, and religion).
Sometimes, we have difficulty in accepting others because they are different from us. Yet, such
behavior can limit a person's opportunities or can make the person feel excluded or aggrieved.
Educational challenge in the twenty-first century entails how to deal appropriately with cultural
and racial differences where one does not need to engage in harassment and discrimination of
any form {Kurcinka, 2006).

The Meaning of Philosophy

Etymologically, the word "philosophy" comes from two Greek words, phi/o,meaning "to
loye," and sophia, meaning "wisdom." Philosophy originally meant, "love of wisdom," and in a.
broad sense, wisdom is still the goal of philosophy. Philosophy is also defined as the attitude of
the mind that by natural light of reason studies the first causes or the highest principles of all
things. Under this definition, four things are to be considered:
1. Scientific Approach
It uses scientific approach because the investigation is systematic. It follows certain steps or
it employs certain procedures. In other words, it is an organized body of knowledge just like any
other sciences.

2. Natural Light of Reason

Philosophy investigates things, neither by using any laboratory instruments or investigative
tools, nor on the basis of supernatural revelation, otherwise it becomes theology. Instead, the
philosopher uses his natural capacity to think or observe the world and people.

3. Study of All Things

This sets the distinction between philosophy and other sciences. All other sciences
concern themselves with a particular object of investigation. For example, anthropologists study
human beings in relation to the society; sociologists study society, its form, structures, and
functions; botanists focus their attention to plants; linguists limit themselves to language;
theologians investigate God; whereas, a philosopher studies human beings, society, religion,
language, God, and plants, among other concerns.

The reason is that philosophy is not one-dimensional or partial. Rather, philosophy is

multidimensional or holistic. In short, a philosopher does not limit himself to a particular object
of inquiry. He questions almost anything, if not, everything.

4. First Cause or the Highest Principle

An idea which means something is the main and first cause why an event or situation
took place. It is a principle because everything in the world and every situation has a starting
point or a beginning.

The first principles are:

 Principle of Identity - whatever is is; and whatever is not is not; everything is what it
is. Everything is its own being, and not being is not being. It means a thing, idea, or
person always has a name, a concept, and a characteristic for that thing to exist.

 Principle of Noncontradiction -it is impossible for a thing to be and not to be at the

same time, and at the same respect.

 Principle of Excluded Middle - a thing is either is or is not; everything must be either

be or not be; between being and not being, there is no middle ground possible.

 Principle of Sufficient Reason -nothing exists without a sufficient reason for its being
and existence.

Since its beginnings, however, the focus and scope of philosophy have changed. Early Greek
philosophers studied aspects of the natural world and human civilizations that later became
separate sciences – astronomy, physics, psychology, and sociology. On the other hand, certain
basic problems – the nature of the universe, the standard of justice, the validity of knowledge, the
correct application of reason, and the criteria of beauty and truth – have been the domains of
philosophy from its beginnings to the present.

Universal and fundamental problems are the subject matter of the five branches of
philosophy – metaphysics, ethics, epistemology, logic, and aesthetics. There are also special
branches of philosophy like philosophy of science, philosophy of state, philosophy of politics,
philosophy of mathematics, philosophy of education, philosophy of law, philosophy of language,
and others.
 Finally, in attaining wisdom, there is a need for emptying. Emptying is suspending one's
judgment and conclusion about a matter and mentally exploring the pros and cons, the
characteristics, and the purpose of an idea or situation. This means pushing ourselves not to be
affected by our personal biases and stereotypes so we can make an objective and fair assessment
of things. Emptying can be intellectual. For instance, Taoists consider an empty cup more useful
than a full one. This means simplicity and humility. Emptying can be also spiritual. For Christian
philosophy, poor in spirit means compassion. Emptying is also physical. The Buddhists refrain
from misuse of the senses, thereby emphasizing a unified whole (Elgin, 2009). Without ·the
virtue of emptying, students will only learn partial philosophy that is knowledge-based without
becoming holistic (i.e., acquiring wisdom through various dimensions of being human including
the psychological, social, emotional, and moral aspects).

The Branches of Philosophy

After examining the definitions of philosophy, this section will distinguish its most
commonly known branches where recognition of various human activities emanated from
deliberate reflection and dialogues. Many of the most vital issues of philosophy are still disputed
and have unsettled questions at present. Nevertheless, one of the greatest needs of anyone
seeking “wisdom” is a genuine sympathy or an understanding of all the most diverse points of
view (holistic point of view).

1. Metaphysics
Metaphysics is only an extension of the fundamental and necessary drive in every
human being to know what is real. What is reality, why does reality exist, and how does it
exist are just some of the questioned pursued by metaphysics. The question is how to
account for this unreal thing in terms of what you can accept as real. Thus, a very big part
of a metaphysician’s task is to explain that part of our experience, which we call unreal in
terms of what we call real. This means the concept of thought, idea, existence, reality,
being, and other abstract ideas of life are understood and analyzed using what is
physically seen in the world and vice versa.

In our everyday attempts to understand the world in. terms of appearance and
reality, we try to make things comprehensible and sensible in the ordinary way of
understanding the world by simplifying or reducing the mass of things we call
appearance to a relatively fewer number of things we call reality. Reality here is referred
to in metaphysics as "true reality," meaning, it is the fundamental source and basis of all
reality in the world and in existence. Metaphysics assumes that the reality we see with
our eyes is Just a temporary cover of the true reality that exists beyond what our senses
could perceive.

For instance, for Thales, a Greek philosopher, everything is water. He claimed

that everything we experience is water – which we call “reality.” Everything else is
“appearance”. Thales believed that the principle beyond all existence and reality can be
best explained by the analogy of water. In fact, water for Thales is the fundamental shape
and movement of all things in the universe.

Plato, Socrates's most famous student, is a good example of a metaphysician who

drew the sharpest possible contrast and division between reality and appearance. Nothing
we experience in the physical world with our five senses is real, according to Plato.
Reality, in fact, is just the opposite. It means that reality is an invisible but concrete true
representation of all physical reality that the eye can see. It is unchanging, eternal,
immaterial, and can be detected only by the intellect. Plato called these realities as ideas
of forms. These are meanings which universal general terms refer to, and they are also
those things we talk about when we discuss moral, mathematical, and scientific ideals.
2. Ethics
Is honor with deceit worth attaining? How do we distinguish good from evil or
right from wrong?

Ethics is the branch of philosophy that explores the nature of moral virtue and
evaluates the morality and virtue of human actions. Ethicists who study morality from the
perspective of philosophy appeal to logical arguments to justify claims and positions
involving morality. They use ethical theory in the analysis and deliberation of issues.

Whereas religion has often helped motivate individuals to obey the laws and
moral code of their society, philosophy is not content with traditional or habitual ethics
but adapts a critical perspective. It insists that obedience to moral law be given a rational
foundation. In the thought of Socrates, we see the beginning of a transition from a
traditional, religion-based morality to philosophical ethics (Landsburg,2009).

Ethics has five main frameworks:

a. Divine command – What does God ordain us to do? In this framework, a strong sense
of individualism does not exist, but rather, the collective is emphasized. The actions and
moral reasoning of St. Teresa of Calcutta and St. Lorenzo Ruiz are exemplars of this
theory.

b. Consequentialism or Utilitarianism – What has the most desirable consequences?

Jeremy Bentham, Stoics, and Epicureans are the authors of this ethical theory. In others,
what is good for the greatest number of people is the best choice and the moral choice.
For example, if killing a cow is the only way to save seven children from starvation,
killing the cow is moral.

c. Deontological ethics - Whatever is my moral duty to do. This means that a person has a
moral duty to do what is right regardless of what the person thinks or feels about that
situation. For example, when a person sees Hitler drowning, he must save him because
letting a person die without helping is wrong. The act of saving Hitler is a moral duty, or
in Kant’s words, a “moral imperative” and is not dependent on a person’s opinions of
 Hitler’s past criminal acts. This does not mean Hitler is innocent. It only means he must
be helped despite his evilness because saving is a moral duty every human being has an
obligation to do. Emmanuel Kant is the author of this ethical theory that may also be
known as “duty ethics” or Kantianism.

d. Virtue ethics – What kind of person I ought.to be. Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle are
some examples. This ethical theory ignores the consequences, duties, and social
contracts. Instead, it focuses on character development of individuals and their
acquisition of good virtue ethics (Tavani,2011).

e. Relativism – What does my culture or society think I ought to do? The divine
command discusses how personal religious beliefs and spiritual attitudes are especially
important personal commitments that are relevant to personal ·and professional lives
(Martin & Schinzinger,2005). “When in Rome, do as the Romans do” is a view of ethical
relativism that actions are morally right within a particular society when they are
approved by law, custom, or other conventions of the society.

3. Epistemology
Specifically, epistemology deals with the nature, sources, limitations, and validity
of knowledge (Soccio, 2007). Epistemological questions are basic to all other
philosophical inquiries. Epistemology explains: (1 how we know what we claim to know;
(2) how we can find out what we wish to know; and (3) how we can differentiate truth
from falsehood. Epistemology addresses varied problems: the reliability, extent, and
kinds of knowledge; truth; language; and science and scientific knowledge. How do we
acquire reliable knowledge? Human knowledge may be regarded as having two parts.

On the one hand, he sees, hears, and touches; on the other hand, he organizes in
his mind what he learns through the senses. Philosophers have given considerable
attention to questions about the sources of knowledge. Some philosophers think· that the
particular things seen, heard, and touched are more important. They believe that general
ideas are formed from the examination of particular facts. This method is called
induction, and philosophers who feel that knowledge is acquired in this way are called
empiricists (e.g., John Locke). Empiricism is the view that knowledge can be attained
only through sense experience. According to empiricists, real knowledge is based on
 what our sight, hearing, smell, and other senses tell us is really out there, not what people
make up in their heads. Knowledge for empiricists is based on facts and evidence that we
can see and perceive in the world.

Other philosophers think it is more important to find a general law according to

which particular facts can be understood or judged. This method is called deduction; its
advocates are called rationalists (e.g., Rene Descartes). For instance, what distinguishes
real knowledge from mere opinion, in the rationalist view, is that real knowledge is based
on logic, laws, and methods that reason develops. The best example of real knowledge,
the rationalist holds, is mathematics, a realm of knowledge that is obtained entirely by
reason that we use to understand the universe (Soccio, 2007).

4. Logic
Reasoning is the concern of the logician. This could be reasoning in science and
medicine, in ethics and law, in politics and commerce, in sports and games, and in the
mundane affairs of everyday living. Varied kinds of reasoning may be used, and all are of
interest to the logician.

The term “logic” comes from the Greek word logike and was coined by Zeno the
Stoic. Etymologically, it means a treatise on matters pertaining to the human thought. It is
important to underpin that logic does not provide us knowledge of the world directly, for
logic is considered as a tool, and, therefore, does not contribute directly to the content of
or thoughts. Logic is not interested in what we know regarding certain subjects. Its
concern, rather, is the truth or the validity of our arguments regarding such objects.

Aristotle was the first philosopher to devise a logical method. He drew upon the
emphasis on the "universal" in Socrates, negation in Parmenides and Plato, and the
reduction to the absurd of Zeno of Elea. His philosophy is also based on claims about
propositional structure and the body of argumentative techniques (e.g., legal reasoning
and geometrical proof).

Aristotle understood truth to mean the agreement of knowledge with reality; truth
exists when the mind's mental representations, otherwise known as ideas, correspond
with things in the objective world. Logical reasoning makes us certain that our
conclusions are true, and this provides us with accepted scientific proofs of universal ly
 valid propositions or statements. Since the time of Aristotle, the study of lies or fallacies
has been considered an integral part of logic.

Zeno of Citium was one of the successors of Aristotle. He was also the founder of
a movement known as Stoicism, derived from the Greek Stoa Poikile (Painted Porch).
The Painted Porch referred to the portico in Athens where the early adherents held their
regular meetings. Other more influential authors of logic then are Cicero, Porphyry, and
Boethius in the later. Roman Empire; the Byzantine scholar, Philoponus; and Alfarabi,
Avicenna, and Averroes in the Arab world.

Even before the time of Aristotle down to the time of Turing, the study of logic
has remained important. We are human beings possessed with reason. We use it when we
make decisions or when we try to influence the decisions of others or when we are
engaged in argumentation and debate. Indeed, a person who has studied logic is more
likely to reason correctly than another, who has never thought about the general

principles involved in reasoning.

5. Aesthetics
When humanity has learned to make something that is useful to them, they
begin to plan and dream how to make it beautiful. What therefore is beauty? The
establishment of criteria of beauty is the function of aesthetics.

Aesthetics is the science of the beautiful in its various manifestations – including

the sublime, comic, tragic, pathetic, and ugly. To experience aesthetics, therefore, means
whatever experience has relevance to art, whether the experience be that of the creative
artist or of appreciation. As a branch of philosophy, students should consider the
importance of aesthetics because of the following:

A. It vitalizes our knowledge. It makes our knowledge of the world alive and
useful.

B. It helps us live more deeply and richly. A work of art-whether a book, a piece
of music, painting, or a television show-helps us rise from purely physical
existence into the realm of intellect and the spirit. As a being of body and
soul, a human being needs nourishment for his higher life as well as his lower.
 Art, therefore, is not something merely like craft or applied arts, but
something of weight and significance to humankind. It is what Schopenhauer
meant when he said, “You must treat a work of art like a great man. Stand
before it and wait patiently until it deigns to speak.”

C. It brings us in touch with our culture. Things about us change so rapidly

nowadays that we forget how much we owe to the past. It is difficult that the
great problems of human life have occur over and over again for thousands of
years. The answers of great minds in the past to these problems are part of our
culture.

Hans-Georg Gadamer, a German philosopher, argued that our tastes and

judgments regarding beauty work in connection with one's own personal experience and
culture. Gadamer believed that our culture consists of the values and beliefs of our time
and our society. That is why a "dialogue" or conversation is important in interpreting
works of art (Ramiscal,2012).·

Check Your Understanding

Answer the given questions.

FORUM:
1. How do you think personal questions differ from philosophical questions? Explain
your answer.

2. If you are to choose from among the different branches of philosophy, what would
you consider as the one which weigh more than the others? Why?

Reflection

How do you define “happiness”? Do you support the view of Socrates: “To become
happy, a person must live a virtuous life”? Why or Why not?

Application
(this portion is to be integrated to part III of this module as this is one of the scopes in
coming up with the output)

II. TOPIC: Holistic and Partial Thinking

Motivation: Take a closer look on the image.

What do you think is the message conveyed in the

given picture?
DISCUSSION:

Is holistic and partial thinking the same?

Partial thinking is a way of thinking that focuses on the specific aspects of the situation. The
partial view is an important component of analytical thinking, on certain areas or aspects of the
problem in order to understand it.

Holistic thinking refers to a perspective that considers large-scale patterns in systems. This is
often described as looking at the “big picture” when describing and analyzing a situation or a
problem. A holistic perspective requires an individual to have an open mindset and an ability to
get a general sense or impression regarding a situation.

Look at how these two concepts are differentiated.

a. Partial Perspective

People tend to apply a partial perspective when looking at

problems or situation. For instance, doctors often focus on a
specific set of symptoms to determine the cause of the patient’s
illness. Once a particular cause has been identified, the doctor then
prescribes the appropriate medicine and other treatments to address
the illness. In case of a person who experiences a stomachache, a
doctor may prescribe the appropriate medicine that will address the
physical causes of the problem.

b. Holistic Perspective
Looking the same picture in the partial perspective, a holistic
thinking can be shown in this manner. In this view, the doctor
will be able to identify the underlying causes of the illness by
digging into the patient’s habits and lifestyle, which would lead
to the discovery of fatigue and stress as factors that cause the
illness. Hence, the doctor can advise the patient to make changes
in his or her habits to reduce stress and eventually improve his or
her well-being.

In addition, a holistic perspective also enables a person to

step back and consider the general aspects of a certain
problem. It gives rise to a more appreciative aspect about
life, as we are able to look at life in its totality. This means
that we try to understand a situation from different advantage
points so we can see it more clearly. Just as we savor food in
its entirety and not to pick out each ingredient and taste it.
We experience and appreciate life in its entirety and not just
its specific “flavors” of happiness, sadness, sorrows, etc. We
learn to value and recognize our individual experiences as
important aspects of a larger and more meaningful life.
Check Your Understanding
Read and analyze each statement below. Determine whether the statement is true or false. If
true, write PHILO, otherwise, write SOPHIA.

1. Holistic Perspective looks at a limited number of aspects of the given problem or

situation.
2. In partial perspective, conclusions are made based on considering some, but not all, sides
of the problem or situation.
3. When all aspects are tied-in together, to form a general overview of the situation, the
person’s point of view/perspective is holistic.
4. Partial perspective is a means of trying to look at a bigger picture of things.
5. A holistic perspective requires an individual to have an open mindset and an ability to get
a general sense or impression regarding a situation.

Reflection

Reflect on this one:

How can holistic view help us become a better person?

Application

Create a poster that will show the difference between holistic and partial point-of-view/
perspective. Put a 2-3 sentence explanation of your work at the LOWEST PART of it. Make sure
that is could be read easily and clearly. If you choose to do your work digitally, you may.
Rubrics for grading your output will be as follows:

   
CRITERIA VERY GOOD GOOD FAIR POOR
4 3 2 1
 
 
The poster All required Only few required Several required
includes all elements are elements are missing elements are missing
Required
required elements included on the on the poster. on the poster.
Elements
as well as poster.
additional
information.
   
The poster is The poster is The poster is The poster is
exceptionally attractive in acceptably attractive distractingly messy
Attractiveness
attractive in terms terms of design, though it may be a or very poorly
of design, layout, layout and bit messy. designed. It is not
and neatness. neatness. attractive.
The slogan has the The slogan has The slogan does not The slogan does not
required number the required follow the required follow the required
of words. It is number of number of words. number of words. It
Slogan original and words. It is However, it is is not original and
catchy. original but not catchy but not catchy.
 catchy. original.
  All graphics are
related to the
All graphics are
topic and most
related to the topic
Graphic make it easier to All graphics relate Graphics do not
and make it easier
Relevance understand. to the topic. One or relate to the topic or
to understand. All
Some graphics two borrowed several borrowed
borrowed graphics
have a note graphics have graphics do not have
have note about
about their sources noted. a source citation.
their source.
source.
 
There are no There are 1-2 There are 3-4 There are more than
grammatical/ grammatically/ grammatical/ 4 grammatical/
Mechanics
spelling mistakes spelling spelling mistakes on spelling mistakes on
on the poster. mistakes on the the poster. the poster.
poster.

III. TOPIC: Philosophical Reflection

The statement “life is not a bed of roses” implies that as human beings we live life
confronted with issues, challenges, problems and concerns, big or small, that affects our way of
thinking. It is in this premise that men are seeking ways on how to deal with life situations. In
this lesson, you will be enlightened with the ways on how to view the issues, challenges,
problems and concerns that is pressing on you.

What is Philosophical Reflection?

Philosophical Reflection refers to the careful examination of life situation. This involves the
weighing of alternatives and using specific standards to evaluate one’s action. An individual
reflects philosophically when he builds on previous actions, events and or decisions. According
to the words of Socrates, the great Greek philosopher,” the unexamined life is not worth living.”
One of the major things that distinguishes man from other animals is his ability to think, use his
creativity and his critical thinking.

Reflection
It requires a person to be willing to examine one’s thought, feelings and actions and learn
more about one’s life and experiences. One can reflect on almost any subject. For instance, the
moment you go to bed, you can already reflect upon the things that you plan to do for the next
day. Reflection helps you sort your priorities in life.

Simple actions take a whole new meaning when one engages in reflection.

When buying clothes, for example, think of the questions that you ask yourself as you
consider buying the t-shirt or blouse you are holding. You may start with simple questions:
“Will these fit me?”, “Do I look good in these colors? Can I afford to buy these stuffs?” Any
buyer would ask these usual questions himself or herself.
 However, since we are in a reflective and philosophizing mood, let us now try to think of
“deeper” questions and reflect on the situations. You may find yourself asking the following
questions.

 “Why will I buy this shirt?”

 “Is it reasonable to buy this shirt?”

Notice the difference when you engage in reflection. The simple task of buying new shirt
becomes something much more. If you concentrate only on the simple questions, you would
just buy that shirt immediately. But, your reflection allows you an opportunity to think
deeply about your action, your motivations for doing such an action, and even its possible
consequence.

Reflection is vital in ensuring that our actions and decisions are well thought out and are
done with due regard for their implications and consequences on others, our surroundings,
and ourselves.

Reflection

If one of these malfunctioned, do you think you will still appreciate the entire “YOU” as a
person? Why or why not?

Application

Output: Philosophical Paper

Remember, your reflection allows you to have an opportunity to think deeply about your
action, your motivations for doing such an action, and even its possible consequence.

Listed below are some “deeper” questions that people used to encounter whenever they
are in a situation. Each question could fall under a certain branch of philosophy. Choose one
(1) from among these and begin writing your paper. Think carefully as you write. Do not
forget to state your position.

1. What is the best way to live?

2. How do we know what we know?
3. What is reality like?
4. Arts and beauty, are they essentially related?
5. Is life meaningless if we can live forever?
6. Can our senses be trusted?
 Note: Your paper should have an intro (3 sentences), body (5 sentences), and conclusion (3
sentences). Use the font style/size – Arial 11.

Rubrics for grading your output will be as follows:

CRITERIA MET TARGET NEAR TARGET GETTING THERE MORE WORK

GOAL NEEDED
4 2
3 1
Response is well Responses are The response is not The output is
thought out and well adequate. There is a focused. There is no completely off topic.
prepared. There is a little personal personal connection. No personal connection
personal connection connection. The The topic is not clear. was made. The topic is
to the content. The topic is somewhat No descriptive not clear. No detail or
Quality topic is focused and focused and language or detail was thought was put into
clear. You have somewhat clear. used. content. The reader is
x2 used vivid, Some, not a lot of confused.
descriptive details descriptive language,
when necessary to or detail. Some
capture the reader’s details are explained
attention. Details at length.
are well thought out
and explained.
The output is well The output is The output is not The output is not
organized. There is organized. The start organized. The start organized. There is no
a clear start and and/or finish to your and/or finish to your start or finish to your
finish to your entry. entry is somewhat entry is not clear. Your entry. Your
Explanations or clear. Most explanations are explanations are unclear
Organization events are explanations or unclear and illogical. and do not make sense.
sequenced in a events are sequenced You have used 1 or 2 You have not used
logical way. in a logical way. transition words. transition words. Events
Explanations and Explanations are Events are not are not in any sequential
details and show adequate. The sequenced in a logical order. The reader
time and effort. You organization has way. The reader has a cannot understand your
have used transition some glitches but difficult time entry.
words and other overall the reader can understanding your
necessary writing understand your entry.
elements that add to entry.
your writing.
The output is at the The output is almost The output is short and The output is only 1-3
required length. the required length. shows little effort put sentences long and does
You have given Entry shows some into it. not show any effort.
Length more than the effort put into it.
required length but
maintained high
quality. The journal
reflects time and
effort put into it.
Grammar and You had no error in You had a couple of You had some errors in You had numerous
Mechanics spelling, errors in spelling, spelling, capitalization, errors in spelling,
capitalization, and capitalization, and and punctuation. capitalization, and
punctuation. punctuation. punctuation.