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Argument Forms L-11

The document discusses different argument forms and techniques for analyzing arguments. It introduces refutation by logical analogy, which involves constructing another argument of the same form that has true premises and a false conclusion, showing the original form is invalid. It also discusses representing arguments symbolically using statement variables and defining the specific form of an argument. Validity and invalidity are determined by examining all possible truth assignments using a truth table. Examples of symbolizing arguments and using truth tables to analyze them are also provided.

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Archit Garg
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49 views13 pages

Argument Forms L-11

The document discusses different argument forms and techniques for analyzing arguments. It introduces refutation by logical analogy, which involves constructing another argument of the same form that has true premises and a false conclusion, showing the original form is invalid. It also discusses representing arguments symbolically using statement variables and defining the specific form of an argument. Validity and invalidity are determined by examining all possible truth assignments using a truth table. Examples of symbolizing arguments and using truth tables to analyze them are also provided.

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Archit Garg
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We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
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Argument Forms

BITS Pilani
Pilani Campus
Dr. Anupam Yadav
Refutation by Logical Analogy

• This technique is used to show the invalidity of an argument by


constructing another argument of the same form. For example:

If Bacon wrote the plays attributed to Shakespeare then Bacon


was a great writer.
Bacon was a great writer.
Therefore, Bacon wrote the plays attributed to Shakespeare.

If Washington was assassinated then Washington is dead.


Washington is dead.
Therefore, Washington was assassinated .

Is obviously invalid since its premises are true but its conclusion false. Any
argument is proved to be invalid if another argument of exactly the same
form can be constructed with true premises and a false conclusion. This
reflects that validity and invalidity are purely formal characteristics of
arguments.

BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus


Argument Forms

• In discussing forms of arguments we use small letters ‘p’, ‘q’,


‘r’, ‘s’….as statement variables for which statements may be
substituted.
• An argument form is an array of symbols that contains
statement variables, such that when the same statements are
substituted for every occurrence of the same statement
variables throughout, the result is an argument form.
• In any argument form ‘p’ shall be the first statement, ‘q’ the
second, ‘r’ the third and so on.
• Any argument which results from the substitution of
statements for the statement variables of an argument form is
said to have that form, or to be a substitution instance of that
argument form.

BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus


Argument Forms

• If we symbolize the simple statement “The United Nations


will become more responsible.” as ‘U’ and “There will be a
third world war” as ‘W’ then the disjunctive syllogism can be
symbolized as:
UvW (1)
~U
W
has the form
pvq (2)
~p
q
from which it results by substituting the statements U and W
for the statement variables p and q.

BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus


Specific Forms

But the same argument can be obtained by substituting the


statements U v W, ~U and W for the statement variables p,
q and r respectively in the argument form
p (3)
q
r
The specific form of a given argument is that argument
form from which the argument results by substituting a
different simple statement for each distinct statement
variable.
Thus in the above example the specific form of the
argument (1) is the argument form (2). Although the
argument form (3) is a form of the argument (1), it is not
the specific form of it.
BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus
Specific Forms

• If the specific form of a given argument can be shown to have


any substitution instance with true premises and false
conclusion then the given argument is invalid.
• The terms ‘valid’ and ‘invalid’ applies to argument forms as
well as arguments. An ‘invalid’ argument form is one that has
at least one substitution instance with true premises and a
false conclusion.
• The technique of refutation by logical analogy presupposes
that any argument of which the specific form is an invalid
argument form, is an invalid argument.
• Any argument form is ‘valid’ that is not invalid. So a valid
argument form is one that has no substitution instance with
true premises and false conclusions.

BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus


Validity, Invalidity and Truth
Tables
• To determine the validity and invalidity of an argument form,
we examine all possible substitution instances of it to see if
any of them have true premises and false conclusions.
• We are interested only in the truth-values of premises and
conclusions of truth-functional compound arguments.
• We obtain all possible substitution instances whose
premises and conclusions have different truth-values by
considering all possible arrangements of truth-values for
the statements that are substituted for the distinct
statement variables.
• This can be set forth in a truth table.

BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus


Truth-Table

BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus


Truth-Table

BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus


Truth-Table

BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus


Truth-Table

1. M v (N • ~ N)
M
 ~ (N • ~ N)

2. U  (V v W)
(V • W)  ~ U
~U
3. p~q
~ (p v q) v p
~ (p • q)  ( q v p)
 ~ (p • q)  ~ p

BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus


Symbolization and Truth-table
Method
1. If people are entirely rational, then either all of a person’s
actions can be predicted in advance or the universe is
essentially deterministic. Not all of a person’s actions can be
predicted in advance. Thus, if the universe is not essentially
deterministic, then people are not entirely rational.
2. If oil consumption continues to grow, then oil imports will
increase and domestic oil reserves will be depleted. If either oil
imports increase or domestic oil reserves are depleted, then the
nation will soon be bankrupt. Therefore, if oil consumption
continues to grow, then the nation will soon be bankrupt.
3. The steak is tender only if it is fatty, and if its fatty, it is not good
for me. I won’t eat it unless its is good for me. Therefore, I won’t
eat this steak.

BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus


THANK YOU
BITS Pilani
Pilani Campus

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