.

IC ENGINE AND TURBOMACHINERY

PART ONE
1. Introduction

Definition of Engine
Engine (power plant): An Engine is a mechanical machine that converts the chemical energy of
the fuel into heat energy and then to mechanical energy. It is usually called a Heat Engine.
Engine- is a device which transforms one form of energy in to another form. Most of the engines
convert Thermal Energy into Mechanical Work and therefore they are called Heat Engine.

A Heat Engine: - is a machine or a system which combines mechanisms and various systems. It is used
to convert the chemical energy of a fuel, first into thermal (heat) energy and then to
mechanical energy.
energy. The mechanical energy is then used to drive a vehicle, a generator,
etc.

What is Heat engine?

 Any device that is capable of converting thermal energy (heating) into mechanical energy
(work).
 Heat is generally generated by chemical reaction, typically from combustion of all sorts
of fuels
1
.

 Work can be completely converted into

i heat, but the inverse is not true
 The transfer of energy by heating is accompanied with the entropy transfer

Classification of Heat Engines

Heat Engine can be broadly classified in to two categories
1. Internal Combustion Engine (IC Engine)
2. External Combustion Engine (EC Engine)

Detail Classification of Heat Engine

An IC Engine: - is one kind of Heat Engine, where combustion is taking place within the engine
engine.

(Example: - Reciprocating IC Engines).

2
.

Internal combustion (IC) engines are thermal engines. They convert the chemical energy
contained in the fuel into mechanical energy. The mechanical energy then becomes available as
the rotating movement of a shaft (the crankshaft).
In the case of piston engines, the combustion process takes place only during certain operating
cycles, defined by the oscillating movement of the pistons. The engines used on motor vehicles
are almost without exception reciprocating engines. Such engines convert the up and-down
movement of the pistons into a rotating movement via the crank drive
1.1. Historical Developments of Automobiles and IC Engines
The history of Automobiles and IC Engines dated back as far as 17th century. Most of these early engines were
steam-driven prototypes which never became a practically operating vehicle engines. Major development of
modern engine and railroad locomotives appeared in the middle of 19th century. Accordingly,

 In 1860,J.J.E. Lenoir (a French engineer) was built the first fairly practical engine. The mechanical
efficiency of this engine was about 5 %.
 In 1867, E.Langen and N.A.Otto (German engineers) were built an atmospheric engine with the power
stroke propelled by atmospheric pressure acting against a vacuum. The mechanical efficiency of this engine
was about 11 %.
 In 1876, N.A.Otto (a German engineer) was built a four-stroke engine known as “Otto cycle”. The
mechanical efficiency of this engine was about 14 %.
 In 1866, D.Clerk was built the first two-stroke engine.
 In 1885, Bery was built a one cycle, four-stroke engine and fitted onto a vehicle.
 In 1885, G.Daimler was built a vertical cylinder engine with a carburetor.
 In 1890, W.Maybach was built the first four-cylinder, four-stroke engine.
 In 1892, Rudolf Diesel (a German engineer) was built the first four-stroke compression ignition engine
known as “Diesel cycle”.
 In 1957, Wankel was built the first rotary engine

Physical principle
When air trapped inside a sealed container is compressed, it becomes hotter: its pressure and
temperature rise. The combustion process is induced by injecting the fuel (diesel) or generating
an ignition spark (spark-ignition engine). The abrupt temperature increase causes the volume to
increase. The thermal energy released in the combustion process (and therefore the resulting
pressure energy) forces the piston downwards, and is thus converted into mechanical energy. The
crankshaft generates a rotating movement from the downwards movement of the piston. The
torque of this movement is now available for propelling a vehicle or driving any other item of
machinery.

3
.

Classification of Reciprocating IC Engines

Reciprocating IC engines can be classified in a number of different ways

1. by the Type of Ignition (TOI)

a) Spark Ignition (SI); An SI engine starts the combustion process in each cycle by use of a
spark plug. The spark plug gives a high-voltage electrical discharge between two electrodes
which ignites the air-fuel mixture in the combustion chamber surrounding the plug. In early
engine development, before the invention of the electric spark plug, many forms of torch
holes were used to initiate combustion from an external flame.

b) Compression Ignition (CI); The combustion process in a CI engine starts when the air-fuel
mixture self-ignites due to high temperature in the combustion chamber caused by high
compression.

2. by the Type of Stroke (TOS)

a) Four-stroke (4-S): A four-stroke cycle experience four piston movements over two engine
crankshaft revolutions per cycle.

b) Two-stroke (2-S): A two-stroke cycle has two piston movements over one revolution for
each cycle.

4
.

3. by the Valve Train Arrangement (VTA)

a) Over Head Valve (OHV)

b) Over Head Camshaft (OHC)

4. By the Number of Cylinders (z)

a) Single cylinder: one cylinder

b) Multi-cylinder: 1, 2, 3, 4…..cylinder

5. by the Cylinder Arrangement (CA): There are various forms of engine, according to the pattern
of the cylinders. The most common forms of commercial vehicle engines are: Inline engine, and V-
engine. Depending on application, engines with 4, 6, 8 and 10 cylinders are used. Cylinder 1 is
usually opposite the output end. An engine which rotates counterclockwise when seen from the
output end is referred to as a right-hand running engine.

a) In-Line Engine: The cylinders are in a row. They are positioned in a straight line, one
behind the other along the length of the crankshaft. They can consist of 2 to 11 cylinders or
possibly more. In-line four cylinder engines are very common for automobile and other
applications. In-line six and eight cylinders are historically common automobile engines. In-line
engines are sometimes called straight (e.g., straight six or straight eight). The advantage of inline
engines compared with V and horizontally opposed engines is their compactness (in terms of
width).

b) V- Engine: Two banks of cylinders at an angle with each other along a single crankshaft. The
cylinders are arranged in two banks which are joined to form a V pattern, often at an angle of 90°.
The angle between the banks of cylinders can be anywhere from 15° to 120°, with 60°-90° being
common. V engines have even numbers of cylinders from 2 to 20 or more since this form of engine

5
.

is shorter. V6s and V8s are common automobile engines, with V12s and V16s (historic) found in
some luxury and high performance vehicles. V-engines tend to be short and flat, but wide. The
auxiliary assemblies are less readily accessible than on inline engines.

c) Opposed Cylinder Engine: The cylinders are arranged lying flat, opposite each other.
Horizontally opposed engines are very short and flat, but are consequently extremely wide. The
pistons move in opposite directions Two banks of cylinders opposite each other on a single
crankshaft (a V engine with a 180°V). These are common on small aircraft and some automobiles
with an even number of cylinders from two to eight or more. These engines are often called flat
engines (e.g., flat four.

d) Opposed Piston Engine: Same as a V engine except with three banks of cylinders on the
same crankshaft. Not common, but some have been developed for racing automobiles, both modern
and historic.

e) Radial Engine: Engine with pistons positioned in a circular plane around the central
crankshaft. The connecting rods of the pistons are connected to a master rod which, in turn, is
connected to the crankshaft. A bank of cylinders on a radial engine always has an odd number of
cylinders ranging from3 to 13 or more. Operating on a four-stroke cycle, every other cylinder fires
and has a power stroke as the crankshaft rotates, giving a smooth operation. Many medium- and
large-size propeller-driven air craft use radial engines. For large aircraft, two or more banks of
cylinders are mounted together, one behind the other on a single crankshaft, making one powerful,
smooth engine. Very large ship engines exist with up to 54 cylinders, six banks of 9 cylinders each.

6
.

7
.

6. by the Type of Intake Process (TOIP)

a) Naturally Aspirated (NA): No intake air pressure boost system.

b) Supercharged (Sup.) Intake air pressure increased with the compressor driven off of the
engine crankshaft

c) Turbocharged (Turbo.) Intake air pressure increased with the turbine-compressor driven by
the engine exhaust gases.

7. by the Type of Fuel System (TOFS)

a) Carburetor

b) Injection

8. by the Type of Fuel (TOF)

a) Gasoline

b) Diesel

c) LPG, Natural Gas, Methane, etc.

d) Alcohol (Ethyl, Methyl)

e) Dual (Mixed or Blend) fuel

f) Biodiesel (Vegetable Oil)

9. by the Type of Cooling (TOC)

a) Air Cooled

b) Liquid (Water) Cooled

10. by Basic Design

(a) Reciprocating. Engine has one or more cylinders in which pistons reciprocate back
and forth. The combustion chamber is located in the closed end of each cylinder. Power
is delivered to a rotating output crankshaft by mechanical linkage with the pistons.
(b) Rotary. Engine is made of a block (stator) built around a large non-concentric rotor
and crankshaft. The combustion chambers are built into the non rotating block.

8
 .

1.5.IC
IC Engine Mechanisms, Systems

IC Engine Mechanisms

The mechanisms of an IC engine are: Crank gear and Valve gear.

• The Crank gear Mechanism

The main function of the ‘Crank gear Mechanism’ of a reciprocating IC Engine is, to convert the
Indicated Power (Pi) available on the piston head (Thermal Energy) into Brake Power ((Pb) at the
flywheel (Mechanical Energy). It consists of: the Cylinder, Cylinder Head, Piston, Piston Rings
(Compression and Oil Control Rings), Piston Pin, Connecting Rod, Crankshaft, Bearings (Journal and
Thrust), Flywheel, and Vibration Damper.

• The Valve gear Mechanism

The main function of the ‘Valve gear Mechanism’ of a reciprocating IC Engine is, to actuate (open and
close) the inlet and exhaust valves at the required time with respect to the position of the crankshaft (
). It consists of: the Camshaft, Cam, Follower, Push Rod, Rocker assembly, Valve assembly.

The two mechanisms are connected by means of a Timing Gear or TimingChain or Timing Belt drive.
As a result, power is transmitted from the crankshaft to the camshaft to actuate (open and close) the
valves.

9
.

3.1 Engine Components and Systems

Major Components of engines are
 Cylinder Block  Timing Chain
 Bearing shell
 Oil pump
 Water pump
 Fly wheel
 Valves
 Valve Springs
 Pistons
 Connecting Rod
 Piston Ring
 Cylinder sleeve
 Cylinder Head  Inlet manifold
 Crankshaft  Exhaust manifold
 Camshaft  Rocker Arm
4. Piston rings

5. Piston

6. Connecting rod

7. Flywheel

8. Cylinder block

9. Crankshaft

10. Main journal bearings

1. Valve
11. Timing gear
2. Cylinder

3. Cylinder head

Cylinder
The core chamber of the engine where the piston moves up and down and combustion takes
place. The cylinder is an enclosed space, sealed at one end and contained by the piston on the
other. Most car engines have four, six, or eight cylinders in all.

10
.

Piston
The cylindrical is piece of metal that moves up and down inside the cylinder. When the engine is
operating, each piston makes many cycles each second. The cylindrical-shaped mass that
reciprocates back and forth in the cylinder, transmitting the pressure forces in the combustion
chamber to the rotating crankshaft. The top of the piston is called the crown and the sides are
called the skirt. The face on the crown makes up one wall of the combustion chamber and may
be a flat or highly contoured surface.

Combustion chamber
It is the area where compression and combustion take place. The difference between the
maximum area (when the piston is at the bottom of the chamber) and minimum (when the piston
is at the top of the cylinder) is called the displacement. It is usually measured in liters. Generally,
the displacement determines how much power an engine can produce.

Valves
The intake and exhaust valves open at specified times to let in air and fuel and to let out exhaust.
The valves remain closed during compression and combustion so that the combustion chamber is
sealed.

Piston rings
Piston rings provide a seal between the outer edge of the piston and the inner edge of the
cylinder. The rings prevent the fuel/air mixture and exhaust in the combustion chamber from
leaking into the sump during compression and combustion. They also keep the oil in the sump
from leaking into the combustion area, where it would be burned and lost.

Connecting rod
The connecting rod connects the piston to the crankshaft. It rotates as the piston moves and the
crankshaft turns.

Crank shaft
The crank shaft converts the piston's up and down motion into circular motion, powering the car.

Sump
The sump, or oil pan, surrounds the crankshaft. It contains oil which is used to lubricate the
engine parts and keep them running smoothly. The oil collects in the bottom of the sump.

3.2 Working Principles

3.2.1 Four Stroke SI Engines
In a four-stroke engine, the cycle of operations is completed in four strokes of the piston or two
revolutions of the crankshaft. During the four strokes, there are 5 events to completed, Viz
A. Suction
B. Compression
C. Combustion
D. Expansion
E. Exhaust

11
.

BASIC ENGINE CYCLES

Most internal combustion engines both spark ignition and compression ignition; operate on either
a four-stroke cycle or a two-stroke cycle. These basic cycles are fairly standard for all engines,
with only slight variations found in individual designs

Four-Stroke SI Engine Cycle

1. First Stroke: Intake Stroke or Induction The piston travels from TDC to BDC with the intake
valve open and exhaust valve closed. This creates an increasing volume in the combustion
chamber, which in turn creates a vacuum. The resulting pressure differential through the intake
system from atmospheric pressure on the outside to the vacuum on the inside causes air to be
pushed into the cylinder. As the air passes through the intake system, fuel is added to it in the
desired amount by means of fuel injectors or a carburetor.

2. Second Stroke: Compression Stroke when the piston reaches BDC, the intake valve closes and
the piston travels back to TDC with all valves closed. This compresses the air-fuel mixture,
raising both the pressure and temperature in the cylinder. The finite time required to close the
intake valve means that actual compression doesn't start until sometime aBDC. Near the end of
the compression stroke, the spark plug is fired and combustion is initiated.

3. Combustion: Combustion of the air-fuel mixture occurs in a very short but finite length of
time with the piston near TDC (i.e., nearly constant-volume combustion). It starts near the end of
the compression stroke slightly bTDC and lasts into the power stroke slightly aTDC. Combustion
changes the composition of the gas mixture to that of exhaust products and increases the
temperature in the cylinder to a very high peak value. This, in turn, raises the pressure in the
cylinder to a very high peak value.

12
.

4. Third Stroke: Expansion Stroke or Power Stroke With all valves closed, the high pressure
created by the combustion process pushes the piston away from TDC. This is the stroke which
produces the work output of the engine cycle. As the piston travels from TDC to BDC, cylinder
volume is increased, causing pressure and temperature to drop.

5. Exhaust Blow down Late in the power stroke, the exhaust valve is opened and exhaust blow
down occurs. Pressure and temperature in the cylinder are still high relative to the surroundings
at this point, and a pressure differential is created through the exhaust system which is open to
atmospheric pressure. This pressure differential causes much of the hot exhaust gas to be pushed
out of the cylinder and through the exhaust system when the piston is near BDC. This exhaust
gas carries away a high amount of enthalpy, which lowers the cycle thermal efficiency. Opening
the exhaust valve before BDC reduces the work obtained during the power stroke but is required
because of the finite time needed for exhaust blow down.

6. Fourth Stroke: Exhaust Stroke By the time the piston reaches BDC, exhaust blow down is
complete, but the cylinder is still full of exhaust gases at approximately atmospheric pressure.
With the exhaust valve remaining open, the piston now travels from BDC to TDC in the exhaust
stroke. This pushes most of the remaining exhaust gases out of the cylinder into the exhaust
system at about atmospheric pressure, leaving only that trapped in the clearance volume when
the piston reaches TDC. Near the end of the exhaust stroke bTDC, the intake valve starts to open,
so that it is fully open by TDC when the new intake stroke starts the next cycle. Near TDC the
exhaust valve starts to close and finally is fully closed sometime aTDC. This period when both
the intake valve and exhaust valve are open is called valve overlap.

13
.

14
.

Four-Stroke CI Engine Cycle

1. First Stroke: Intake Stroke The same as the intake stroke in an SI engine with one major
difference: no fuel is added to the incoming air.

2. Second Stroke: Compression Stroke the same as in an SI engine except that only air is
compressed and compression is to higher pressures and temperature. Late in the compression
stroke fuel is injected directly into the combustion chamber, where it mixes with the very hot air.
This causes the fuel to evaporate and self-ignite, causing combustion to start.

3. Combustion is fully developed by TDC and continues at about constant pressure until fuel
injection is complete and the piston has started towards BDC.

4. Third Stroke: Power Stroke the power stroke continues as combustion ends and the piston
travels towards BDC.

5. Exhaust Blow down Same as with an SI engine.

6. Fourth Stroke: Exhaust Stroke same as with an SI engine.

Properties of fuel
The properties of diesel fuel which control safety and convenience in handling are flash and fire points, viscosity,
cloud and pour points.
(a) Flash point. Flash point is the temperature at which a flammable liquid will produce, with a standardized
apparatus and procedure, a mixture of its vapour and air which will ignite to give a visible flash by contact with an
open flame.
(b) Fire point. Fire point is the temperature at which the flash will sustain itself as a steady flame for at least
five seconds.
The flash and fire points indicate the temperature below which oil can be handled without danger of fire, otherwise
they are of little consequence.
(c) Viscosity.
 Viscosity of a fuel is a measure of its resistance to flow. Viscosity is important in lubrication and in
pumping flow and spraying of liquids. Hence it is quite significant for diesel fuels.
 Liquid fuel is injected into combustion space of the diesel cylinder by a high pressure pump and this pump
must overcome the resistance of the liquid to flow and the friction which resists the motion of the pump.
 Viscosity should be low to permit bulk flow in pumping and high enough to do necessary lubrication.
 Very high viscosity can render starting from cold difficult and produce undesirable high pressure on pump
and fuel lines.
 Too low a viscosity can cause undue wear of pump and increased maintenance. Table 8.14 gives the
viscosity of diesel fuels used in various applications.
(d) Cloud point.
 The temperature below which the wax content of the petroleum oil separates out in the form of a solid is
called cloud point. Such waxy solid can clog fuel lines and fuel filters.

15
.

(e) Pourpoint
. Pour point is the temperature below which the entire mass of the fuel, solid and liquid together, freeze and thus
cause flow of fuel impossible. Pour point is usually 5 to 10°C below the cloud point.

 Specific gravity of the fuel is related to the energy content of the fuel and greatly affects the specific as well
as volumetric fuel consumption of a diesel engine.

PART TWO
TURBO MACHINERY
I.C Engine test stand
An engine test stand is a facility used to develop, characterize and test engines. The facility,
often offered as a product to automotive , allows engine operation in different operating
regimes and offers measurement of several physical variables associated with the engine
operation. Engine testing for research and development

Engine Testing
In order to determine the performance characteristics of a motor vehicle engine it is
necessary to conduct a series of tests on that engine. In factories and workshops,
these tests are usually carried out with the engine running on a test bed. The
characteristics so determined are tabulated and, where possible, suitable
performance curves are plotted. These curves are of utmost value to the engineer
and the technician, especially when the engine is being developed and malfunctioned.

1.1. Brake power and brake torque

Torque is a measure of an engine's ability to do work. Power is the rate at which
work is done. The moment of a force about a given point is the product of the force
and the perpendicular distance from the line of action of the force to that point.
When the moment has a tendency to twist or rotate a body, such as turning a shaft
in its bearings, it is usually called a
torque T or turning moment

16
.

1.2. Engine Performance Curves

An engine performance testing is the major work performed on an engine for its
production, repair and adjustment. It can be done by fitting the engine to a vehicle
and trying it out on the road. But the engine road testing is quite difficult and
expensive. Therefore, it is convenient and economical performing the test in the
laboratory by mounting the engine on a test bed with a controlled load. In order to
check the performance and behavior; the engine speed, load, fuel consumption,
temperature of engine oil and working parts, heat given off by the cooling system,
exhaust temperature, nature of the exhaust gases etc. are checked and recorded.
For testing and recording, different types of devices used are engine indicators (to
record the working pressure in the cylinder during a complete cycle of strokes and
determine the indicated horse power IHP ), dynamometers ( to measure the force or
torque and the brake horse power BHP ).
The characteristics so determined are tabulated and, a suitable performance curves
are plotted.

Fig. Brake horse power, Torque and Specific fuel consumption characteristics
of an engine

The curves of engine brake power, torque and fuel consumption plotted on a base
of engine speed are called engine performance curves. These curves are obtained
17
.

from an engine performance test. The curves can be obtained at full-load or partload
engine operation.
These curves are used:-
to verify the validity of data used in design
to obtain information which cannot be determined by calculations
to specify the customer regarding the engine rated power in comparison
to guaranteed fuel consumption
to check, adjust and repair engine parts

1.3 Dynamometers
A dynamometer is an instrument used to measure force or torque T and hence the
engine brake power Pb. The brake power of an engine is the useful power available
at the crankshaft. It is measured by running the engine against some form of
absorption brake, hence its name. The engine is clamped on a test bed and the shaft
is connected to the dynamometer rotor. The rotor is coupled mechanically,
hydraulically or electro magnetically to a stator. The value of engine power so
determined is called the brake power Pb. It is this power delivered by the engine to
the load . There are different types of dynamometers; rope brake, prony brake,
hydraulic brake, etc.
mechanically operated dynamometers
a) a rope brake dynamometer:-

18
.

Fig. 3.1. A rope brake arrangement

The engine is mounted and clamped on a test bed. The shaft is then coupled
to the dynamometer rotor. The rotor in turn is connected to the rope brake.
Tb = ( W-S ) D/2
Pb = ( 2NTb ) / 60
Where,
N is the engine speed in RPM

b) a prony brake dynamometer:-

19
.

Fig. a prony brake arrangement

T=WL
Pb = ( 2NT ) / 60
As it is shown, it consists of brake shoes made of wood and are damped on to the
rim of the brake wheel by means of the bolts. The pressure on the rim is adjusted
with the help of nuts and springs. A load bar extends from the top of the brake and a
load carrier attached to the end of the load bar. Weight kept on this load carrier is
balanced by the torque reaction in the shoes. The load arm is kept horizontal to
keep the arm length constant. The energy supplied by the engine to the brake is
eventually dissipated as heat. Therefore, most of the brakes are provided with a
means of supply of cooling water to the inside rim of the brake drum.

c) hydraulically operated dynamometers

A hydraulic type dynamometer is generally used for high speed engines. It consists of a
rotor running in a casing through which water flows steadily via the inlet and outlet
pipes. The rotor is coupled to the engine output shaft, and the casing is freely mounted
on bearings fitted to the trunnion brackets. At the periphery of the rotor there is a
series of semi-elliptic pockets or cups and at the inside of the casing there is an
identical set of pockets, so that, when the rotor is driven by the engine, the water is
flung out of its pockets by centrifugal action and transferred to the pockets in the
casing. This result in a tendency to turn the casing with the rotor. But the casing is
prevented from rotating by the resistance of a spring and a static (dead ) load to the
torque arm which projects from the casing. A hand wheel is provided on the top of the

20
.

balance frame to adjust the torque arm to a horizontal position. The amount of load
and, hence, the torque absorbed by the dynamometer can be varied by controlling the
flow of water. As the length of the torque arm, together with the static load and spring
balance reading, is known, the torque on the casing can be determined. This is
balanced by the torque transmitted by the engine.

Fig. A hydraulic brake arrangement

21
.

1.4 Francis turbine

Main Components
The Various main components of francis turbine are:
1. Spiral casing
It is a spiral casing, with uniformly decreasing cross- section area, along the
circumference.
Its decreasing cross-section area makes sure that we have a uniform velocity of the
water striking the runner blades, as we have openings for water flow in-to the runner
blades from the very starting of the casing, so flow rate would decrease as it travels
along the casing. So we reduce its cross-section area along its circumference to make
pressure uniform, thus uniform momentum or velocity striking the runner blades.
2. Stay vanes
Stay vanes and guide vanes guides the water to the runner blades. Stay vanes remain
stationary at their position and reduces the swirling of water due to radial flow, as it
enters the runner blades. Thus making turbine more efficient.
3. Guide vanes
Water after passing through stay vanes, glides through guide vanes to enter the runner
blades. Guide vanes can change their angle thus can control the angle of attack of water

22
.

to the runner blades, making them work more efficiently. Moreover they also regulate
the flow rate of water into the runner blades thus controlling the power output of a
turbine according to the load on the turbine.
4. Runner blades
Design of the runner blades decides how well a turbine is going to perform. So runner
blades of mixed flow turbine can be divided into two parts, the upper part of the blades
use the reaction force of water flowing through it and the lower half is in the shape of a
small bucket using the impulse action of water flowing through it. These two forces
together makes the runner to rotate.
5. Draft tube
Draft tube connects the runner exit to the tail race. Its cross-section area increases
along its length, as the water coming out of runner blades is at considerably low
pressure, so its expanding cross-section area help it to recover the pressure as it flows
towards tail race.
Working of Francis Turbine
Water enters the turbine through spiral casing, and starts entering the runner blades,
passing through stay vanes and guide vanes, as it moves along the length of casing the
decreasing cross-section area of the spiral casing makes sure that the pressure energy
of water would remain uniform along its length, as a portion of water is also entering
the runner blades, which would reduce its flow rate along the length of the casing. The
stay vanes being stationary at their place, removes the swirls from the water, which
are generated due to flow through spiral casing and tries it to make the flow of water
more linear to be deflected by adjustable guide vanes. The angle of guide vanes decides
the angle of attack of water at the runner blades thus make sure the output of the
turbine. Guide vanes also controls the flow rate of water in-to the runner blades thus
acting according the load on the turbine. The runner blades are stationary and can-not
pitch or change their angle so it’s all about the guide vanes which controls the power
output of a turbine.
Further-more the upper part of runner blades are designed in such a way that they use
the pressure difference between the opposite faces of a blade created by water flowing
through it, same as the air-foil uses the pressure difference to generate lift force. And
the remaining part of the blade is designed like a small bucket, which makes use of
water’s kinetic energy.
Thus runner blades make use of both pressure energy and kinetic energy of water and
rotates the runner in most efficient way.
The water coming out of runner blades would lack both the kinetic energy and
pressure energy, so we use the draft tube to recover the pressure as it advances
towards tail race, but still we cannot recover the pressure to that extent that we can
stop air to enter into the runner housing thus causing cavitation.

23
.

1.5 Pumps
The purpose of a hydraulic pump is to supply a flow of fluid to a hydraulic system.
The pump draws in oil and displaces it, converting mechanical force into fluid force.
The pump does not create system pressure, since only a resistance to the flow can
create pressure. As the pump provides flow, it transmits a force to the fluid. As the
fluid flow encounters resistance, this force is changed into pressure.
all pumps are either non-positive displacement or positive displacement.
Positive displacement pump

These pumps deliver a constant volume of fluid in a cycle. The discharge quantity per
revolution is fixed in these pumps and they produce fluid flow proportional to their
displacement and rotor speed. These pumps are used in most of the industrial fluid
power applications.

 The important advantages of positive displacement pumps over non-positive

displacement pumps include capability to generate high pressures, high volumetric
efficiency, high power to weight ratio, change in efficiency throughout the pressure
range is small and wider operating range pressure and speed.

Types of positive displacement pumps

Gear pump
Vane pump
Screw pump

Non-Positive Displacement Pumps

These pumps are also known as hydro-dynamic pumps. In these pumps the fluid is
pressurized by the rotation of the propeller and the fluid pressure is proportional to
the rotor speed. These pumps can not withstanding high pressures and generally
used for low-pressure and high-volume flow applications
The important advantages of non-positive displacement pumps are lower initial
cost, less operating maintenance because of less moving parts, simplicity of
operation, higher reliability and suitability with wide range of fluid etc.
These pumps are primarily used for transporting fluids and find little use in the
hydraulic or fluid power industries. Centrifugal and propeller pumps are examples
of non-positive-displacement pumps.
1 Centrifugal pump:-can be defined as mechanical device used to transfer liquid of various
types. It relies on the principal of centrifugal force. it converts the energy provided by a
prime mover.

24
.

Acts as a reversed turbine except that in this device special modifications are made to
increase the efficiency

1.6 Blower
Blower is a plumbing equipment that rotates the fan with the force it receives from the
engine, which transfers the air in the emitted environment at high flow or low
pressure. The fan in the blowers rotates and vacuum the air in the suction section. The
trapped air is then pushed into the outlet side.

25