EL112 Reviewer
EL112 Reviewer
EL112 Reviewer
NADINE GORDIMER
- was an South African writer, political activist and recipient
of the 1991 Nobel Prize in Literature.
- the Nobel Prize in Literature 1991 was awarded to Nadine
Gordimer "who through her magnificent epic writing has in
words of Alfred Nobel been very great benefit to
humanity".
DORIS LESING
- British Writer whose novels and short stories are largely
concerned with people involved in the social and political
upheavals of the 20th century.
NGUGI WA THIONG'O
- Kenyan writer who has considered East Africas leading
novelist. His popular Weep Not, Child (1964) was the first
major novel in English by an Easy African.
NAGUIB MAHFOUZ
- Egyptian novelist and script play writer who has was
awarded the Novel Prize for Literature in 1988, the first
Arabic to be so honored.
- Naguib began writing when he was seventeen. His first
novel was published in 1939 and 10 more were written
before the Egyptian Revolution of July 1952, when he
stopped writing for several years.
- He is considered as the father of modern Arabic literature
and is popular through-out the Arab world. Many of his
books were about Egyptian Nationalism.
C. African Poems and Short Stories
POEMS
- A poem is a collection of spoken or written words that expresses ideas or
emotions in a powerfully vivid and imaginative style. A poem is
comprised of a particular rhythmic and metrical pattern.
Examples of Poem
Do Not Fear the Past
Zuhura Seng’enge
Do not fear the past. Find the life that was robbed from us.
It is ugly but it is ours, Do not fear the past.
Do not hold on to lies. Embrace it,
That you were fed when you were young. Let it teach you the wisdom of your race,
Take its lessons and live by them.
Learn the history of your people.
Find the truth to free your soul from evil, Own the identity that was erased.
Learn the Qur’an, Do not fear the past,
Learn the bible, Do not hate it.
Find the meaning of life and religion. Do not fear the past,
SHORT STORIES
- A short story is a work of prose fiction that can be read in one sitting.
- A piece of fiction shorter than 1,000 words is considered a “short short
story” or “flash fiction,” and anything less than 300 words is rightfully
called “micro-fiction.”
Nigerian Literature
• Nigerian literature is known through the world.
• Western influences began affecting Nigerian Literature as early as the 18th
century AD when Arabic ideas and culture were introduced to Africa.
• During the 14th century, written and spoken Arabic--- northern Nigeria.
• 17th century, some of the Hausa literature had been translated to Arabic.
• Novels developed around 1930.
D. African Literature Suggested Literary Piece
Africa
David Diop
Africa, my Africa
Africa of proud warriors in ancestral Savannahs
Africa of whom my grandmother sings
On the banks of the distant river
I have never known you
But your blood flows in my veins
Your beautiful black blood that irrigates the fields
The blood of your sweat
The sweat of your work
The work of your slavery
Summary
- It is a patriotic poem that visualizes "The bitter taste of freedom" for
Africa. The poet says proudly that the African blood is circulating through
his veins. He also added and situated the miseries of the Africans by being
enslaved in their own land, the blood and sweat irrigates the field which is
now an enriched land continued to work under the midday sun for fear of
punishment.
- His brief life's work also included his longing for Africa and his concern
for those fighting against the French invasion of the mainland. His work
reveals resentment for the oppressors and the same kind of compassion for
the oppressed.
Historically, the Arabs have been around for quite some time, having a rich, albeit
violent, historical process marked by a transition from obscure tribes in South Arabia
to a sprawling empire (that would have dwarfed in expanse the Roman Empire) in less
than two centuries.
Arabian culture is a branch of Semitic civilization; because of this and because of the
influences of sister Semitic cultures to which it has been subjected at certain epochs, it
is sometimes difficult to determine what is specifically Arabian. Because a great trade
route passed along its flanks, Arabia had contact along its borders with Egyptian,
GrecoRoman, and Indo-Persian civilizations. The Turkish overlords of the Arabic-
speaking countries affected Arabia relatively little, however, and the dominant culture
of western Europe arrived late in the colonial era.
Arab
- Originated in the descendants of indigenous tribes and lived along the Persian
Gulf Coast.
Arabian Peninsula
Islam
Arabian Culture
- Is the title of a group of seven long Arabic odes or qasidas that have come
down from the time before Islam.
Umayyad Empire
Arabic Prose Literature- grammatical treatise, commentaries on the
Quran and compiling of stories about Muhammad.
Ghazals – Love Lyric
Abbasid Empire
“One thousand and One Nights” also called as the Arabian Nights. It
is the collection of Middle Eastern South Asian stories and folk tales.
“Richard Francis Burton” translated the One thousand and One
Night to English Version.
Rawis
- Storytellers
- professional reciter of poetry
The Crusades
- The Crusades were a series of religious wars between Christians and Muslims
started primarily to secure control of holy sites considered sacred by both
groups.
Modern Period
Quran
- Sacred scriptures
- 114 suras or chapters
- 6,236 ayat or verses
Muhammad
- Their prophet
- The central figure of Islam and widely identified as its founder by non-
muslims.
- He is known as the “Holy Prophet” to Muslims, almost all of whom consider
him to be the final prophet of God.
Bayt al – Hikma
- Also known as the Grand Library of Baghdad, refers to either a major Abbasid
public academy and intellectual center in Baghdad or to a large private library
belonging to the Abbasid Caliphs during the Islamic Golden Age.
- Al-Nas (The People) with six verses as the final – 114th – sura.
- Yusuf the 12th sura, the Qur’anic version of the Joseph narrative
• Poetry
During the Islamic centuries, poetry came to occupy a central place within the
courts of the caliph and of the sultans, emirs, governors, and other potentates
who ruled over the various regions of the Islamic world following its breakup
into smaller, more local dominions.
• It is the age-old phrase whereby Arabs have acknowledged the status and
value that poetry has always retained within their cultural heritage. From the
very earliest stages in the Arabic literary tradition, poetry has reflected the
deepest sense of Arab self-identity, of communal history, and of aspirations
for the future.
CLASSIC POETS
- Mu’allaqa
• Al-Khansa (575-645)
- Karkhiyya
• Al-Mutanabbi (915-965)
MODERN POETS
- A Boat to Lesbos
• The various types of poem are marked by particular patterns of rhyme and
syllabic pulse. Each line is divided into two half-lines; the second of the two
ends with a rhyming syllable that is used throughout the poem. In order that
the listening audience may internalize the rhyme that is to be used, the first
line uses the rhyme at the end of both halves of the line; thereafter the rhyme
occurs only at the end of the complete line.
• Poetry in general was referred to as qarīḍ, but within that framework poetry
was subdivided into two types:
• qit’ah
• example: marthiyyah
qaṣīdah
- a polythematic poem that might extend to 100 lines or more and that
constituted an elaborate celebration of the tribe and its way of life.
examples: Ṭarafah’s elaborate description of the camel & Zuhayr ibn Abī Sulmā’s
depictions of tribal wars
Halt, you two companions, and let us weep for the memory of a beloved and an abode
mid the sand-dunes between Al-Dakhūl and Ḥawmal.
• RAJAZ
• SAJ
• URJŪZAH
• ZAJAL
• MUWASHSHAH
Muḥammad al-Jawāhirī
PANEGYRIC (MADH)
- The praise of the tribe and its elders, a genre of poetry that was to become the
primary mode of poetic expression during the Islamic period.
- Panegyric was adopted immediately in the cause of Islam. The 6th and 7th
century poet Ḥassān ibn Thābit, often referred to as “the Prophet’s poet,”
composed panegyrics in praise of Muhammad, recording his victories in
strident tones and initiating a tradition of poems in praise of the Prophet of
Islam that continued throughout the ensuing centuries.
- A short list of other great classical figures would have to include Bashshār ibn
Burd, Abū Tammām, al-Buḥturī, Abū Firās, and Abū Tammām.
Examples
• The great master of the genre, and arguably Arabic’s most illustrious poet, al-
Mutanabbī, is quite unsubtle in making this point in a famous ode in praise of
the great 10th-century ruler of Aleppo, Sayf al-Dawlah:
• The Christian poet al-Akhṭal, for instance, extolled figures who were now not
merely spiritual but also temporal rulers:
When nobility and number are taken into account, you hail from a house that
has no peer.
LAMPOON (HIJĀ’)
- The poet would be expected to take verbal aim at the community’s enemies
and impugn their honor
- The themes of hijāʾ (“lampooning”) and fakhr (“boasting”) thus often occur
together, and poets noted above for their contributions to the panegyric were
equally at home with the lampoon.
- While defeat in battle is, of course, a primary focus of derision in this type of
poetry, the honor of the community and the family has resided to a major
extent in the protection of its women.
Examples
• The ability of words to hurt and to shame is present in the Arabic poetic
tradition from the outset. The pre-Islamic poet ʿAmr ibn Qamīʾah is specific
on the point:
Many’s the tribal bard loaded with hatred whom I have tamed,
So, his folk have felt belittled and ashamed.
• Al-Ḥārith ibn Ḥillizah’s contribution to the tribal and poetic joust between
himself and ʿAmr ibn Kulthūm, recorded in Al-Muʿallaqāt, demonstrates one
form of insult within such a context:
We turned our attention to the Banū Tamīm tribe. As we marked the truce
month, Their daughters were our maidservants.
• The great poet Abū Nuwās seems to be aware of the risk he can take when he
even teases the caliph Hārūn al-Rashīd over a scandal concerning the caliph’s
sister:
If you get some pleasure from the removal of some rascal’s head,
Do not kill him by sword; marry him to ʿAbbāsah!
ELEGY (RITHĀ’)
- The celebration of the life and courage of a tribal comrade fallen in battle is
the occasion for the earliest elegies in Arabic.
- Like panegyrics and lampoons, the elegy was adaptable to the expectations of
the ever-expanding Muslim community and itself became a further means of
public affirmation—mourning the dead, to be sure, but also finding solace in
the strength of Islam and its rulers. Poetic divans of all eras are filled with
elegies of rulers and important figures.
- As human conflicts continued unabated through the 20th century and into the
21st, so the elegy continued to fulfill its generic purposes as an expression of
personal sorrow and broader communal grief and steadfastness.
On that day when I was forever parted from Ṣakhr, Ḥassān’s father,
I bade farewell to all pleasure and converse.
Ah, my grief for him, and my mother’s grief!
Is he really consigned to the tomb morning and night?
• A 7th-century Khārijite poet, for instance, laments Zayd, one of the group’s
fallen heroes:
To God I protest that, from every tribe, battle has destroyed the cream of men.
So long as the sun shines to the East, may God quench Zayd’s thirst,
And grant him a haven in the gardens of Paradise.
• The great philosopher-poet Abū al-ʿAlaʾ al-Maʿarrī combines his grief over
the loss of a relative with observations on the ephemerality of this life:
Soften your tread. Methinks the earth’s surface is but bodies of the dead,
Walk slowly in the air, so you do not trample on the remains of God’s
servants.
Later Genres
• WINE POETRY
• HUNT POETRY
• ASCETIC POETRY
• LOVE POETRY
- With Abū Nuwās, the wine poem acquires a set of actors—the publican, the
companions, the wine pourer (sāqī), the curvaceous wine bottle—all of whom
tilt against the fates.
Example
• One of the Umayyad caliphs, al-Walīd ibn Yazīd, was a notable wine poet,
and the spirit of challenge to orthodoxy reached its height with Abū Nuwās,
who, far from concealing his bibulousness, was determined to flaunt it:
Ho, pour me a glass of wine, and confirm that it’s wine!
Do not do it in secret, when it can be done in the open.
• The opening line of his mystical khamriyyah mentions not only wine but also
the ancient theme of the absent beloved.
- The many hunt scenes to be found in the earliest Arabic poetry—one of the
most notable is in Imruʾ al-Qays’s muʿallaqah—illustrate the love of this
sport among the Arabs of the desert, one that continues to the present day.
- In these poems the scene of the morning departure is still present, having been
carried over from the opening section of the qaṣīdah, and the speaker’s
companions are the saker falcon and the hunting dog. Both are often portrayed
in luxuriant detail and often become the poem’s heroes.
Examples
Examples
• The pre-Islamic muʿallaqah poet Zuhayr finishes his long poem recounting
tribal warfare and attempts at reconciliation with a series of reflections and
maxims:
Life’s experience has taught me the happenings of yesterday and
today;
As for the morrow, I admit to being totally blind.
• In one of al-Maʿarrī most famous lines he states:
Would that a babe could die at the hour of its birth
And never suckle from its mother in her confinement.
Before it can even utter a word, it says to her: All you will
Glean from me is grief and trouble.
• The modern Egyptian poet Ṣalāḥ ʿAbd al-Ṣabūr, for instance, depicts a rural
preacher in his “Al-Nās fī bilādī”:
So-and-so constructed palaces for himself and raised them up…
But one weak-echoed evening arrived the Angel of Death…
And down into Hell rolled the soul of So-and-so.
Examples
• The Syrian diplomat and poet Nizār Qabbānī managed in a single career to
become the Arab world’s primary love poet and a commentator on political
controversies:
Ah, my love!
What is this nation of ours that can treat love like a policeman?
• The Kuwaiti poet Suʿād al-Ṣabāḥ expresses her frustration with the continued
echoes of the earlier tradition:
I’m bored by ghazal of the dead…
Sitting down for dinner each night…
With Jamīl Buthaynah…
Please try to deviate from the text just a little
And invent me
• The 1950s in the cosmopolitan city of Beirut witnessed the creation of the
poetry group Shiʿr, whose magazine of the same name was an influential
organ of change. At the core of this group were Yūsuf al-Khāl and Adonis,
arguably the most influential figure in modern Arabic poetry. In its radical
approach to poetic form and its experiments with language and imagery, this
group was emblematic of the many new directions that Arabic poetry was to
follow in the latter half of the 20th century.
• Poets such as the Lebanese Khalīl Ḥawī and the Egyptian Ṣalāḥ ʿAbd al-
Ṣabūr, both as well acquainted with the classical canon of Arabic poetry as
they were with recent trends in the West, left behind them divans that, like that
of al-Sayyāb, are already acknowledged as 20th-century classics of Arabic
poetry.
• While Adonis continued with his experiments in every aspect of his art, an
entire generation of poets across the Arabic-speaking world at the turn of the
21st century were taking poetry in a variety of new directions. Among the
notable poets were the Syrian Muḥammad al-Māghūṭ, the Moroccan
Muḥammad Bannīs, the Iraqi Saʿdī Yūsuf, and the Egyptians Muḥammad
ʿAfīfī Maṭar and Amal Dunqul.
• In the 21st-century world of global communication and of television, video,
and the Internet, Arabic poetry struggled to find a place within the public
domain, but, when political crises loomed, it was the voice of the poet that
continued to express the conscience, the agony, and the aspirations of the Arab
people.
PROSE
• As has been the case with many world cultures, the emergence of a tradition of
belles lettres in Arabic is closely linked to the bureaucratic class and its quest
for professional identity.
• The most authentic reports were gathered into collections of Ḥadīth, accounts
of the Prophet’s sayings and actions. The best-authenticated reports became
part of two collections, both called the Ṣaḥīḥ, compiled by al-Bukhārī and
Muslim ibn al-Ḥajjāj, which together are the second most important source of
Islamic law and practice after the Qurʾān itself. These reports also became part
of the collections of maghāzī and sīrah.
POPULAR NARRATIVES
• To a Western world for which The Thousand and One Nights has long since
become a classic of world narrative, it is something of a surprise to learn that
attitudes within Arab societies toward appropriateness of language use and
performance mode have excluded that collection and a host of other huge
compilations of narrative from the Arabic literary canon.
• Intense Western interest in the collection followed its translation into French
by Antoine Galland and resulted in the addition of numerous tales to the
original collection, which includes fewer than 170, and in the subsequent
publication of “complete” versions. But it was only in the late 20th century
that the advent of social-scientific modes of research moved beyond questions
of “sources” and engaged in serious investigation of the narrative features of
these collections.
• Until the advent of broadcast media, the ḥakawātī remained a major fixture of
Arabic-speaking countries, choosing a select spot either in the open air of
evening or in a café from which to recite episodes from some of the great
sagas of Arab lore.
• These include the exploits of the legendary poet-cavalier ʿAntar, the much-
traveled tribal confederacy of the Banū Hilāl, the warrior princess Dhāt al-
Himmah, and the wily ʿAlī Zaybaq.
MODERN FICTION
• The development of modern Arabic fiction took place within a cultural context
in which two major forces were in play and sometimes in confrontation.
• During the earliest phases, the influence of Europe and its literary heritage was
very strong, with Arab writers impelled by the need to address the realities of
European colonization in large portions of the Middle East.
• Inhabitants of the region initiated or renewed contacts with the countries to the
north and west: Italy first and then France.
• The process of introducing these new genres to an Arab world readership from
the outset relied to a substantial extent on publication opportunities afforded
by the press: daily newspapers and specialized weekly and monthly journals.
• The pages of the press permitted early Egyptian pioneers in short narrative
such as ʿAbd Allāh Nadīm and Muṣṭafā Luṭfī al-Manfalūṭī to publish vignettes
in which they cast a critical eye on the habits and foibles of their fellow
countrymen, while in Lebanon Khalīl Jubrān and later Mīkhāʾīl Nuʿaymah
analyzed the problems of family life and broader societal issues—the role of
the clergy, problems of emigration, the crushing effects of city life, and so on.
• At the beginning of the 21st century, the short story was by far the most
popular literary genre in the Arab world; for nonprofessional writers it was a
relatively short-term project with the prospect of many publication outlets, and
for readers it provided an opportunity to interpret a brief expression of
contemporary concerns, both social and political. The short story was also on
frequent occasions readily adaptable to the more lucrative and increasingly
available alternatives of film and television.
• Muḥammad al-Bisāṭī
• Salwā Bakr
THE NOVEL
• Among the earliest examples of the novel in Arabic were Ghābat al-ḥaqq
(1865; “Forest of Truth”), an idealistic allegory about freedom that was
published in Syria by Fransīs Marrāsh, and Al-Huyām fī jinān alshām (1870;
“Passion in Syrian Gardens”), a work set during the 7th-century Islamic
conquest of Syria, by Salīm al-Bustānī.
• The latter work appeared in serial form in the Bustānī family’s journal, Al-
Jinān, and this publication mode established a pattern that was to be followed
by writers of Arabic fiction for many subsequent decades.
• Nāṣīf al-Yāzijī’s Majmaʿ al-Baḥrayn (1856; “The Meeting Place of the Two
Seas”) is a conscious revival of the style and generic purpose of earlier
examples, but Aḥmad Fāris al-Shidyāq’s Al-Sāq ʿalā al-sāq fī mā huwa al-
Fāryāq (1855; title translatable as “One Leg over Another [or The Pigeon on
the Tree Branch], Concerning al-Fāryāq [Fāris al-Shidyāq]”), which contains a
set of maqāmāt, looks to the future in its use of the autobiographical travel
narrative (and its incorporation of a female voice) as a means to compare and
criticize contemporary societies. Those critical features are even more marked
in another neoclassical and transitional narrative, Muḥammad alMuwayliḥī’s
Ḥadīth ʿĪsā ibn Hishām (1907; “Īsā ibn Hishām’s Tale”), a highly sarcastic
account of turn-of-the-century Egypt under British occupation.
• Mahfouz, who in 1988 became the first Arab writer to win the Nobel Prize
for Literature, is acknowledged as the writer who brought the Arabic
novel to a stage of complete maturity and acceptance within the Arabic-
speaking world. Over his lengthy career he experimented with technique in a
variety of ways. He started with the social realism of his “quarters” novels,
each one set in a different section (quarter) of the old city of Cairo, which
culminated in the justly famous Cairo Trilogy (1956–57). He then turned to a
more symbolic mode in his novels of the 1960s (with examples such as Al-
Liṣṣ wa al-kilāb [1961; The Thief and The Dogs] and Thartharah fawq al-Nīl
[1966; “Chatter on the Nile”]). Thereafter he participated with the members of
a younger novelistic generation in a variety of explorations of newer modes
and styles while still casting a critical eye on developments in his own
homeland and reflecting on the major issues confronting the citizens of the
Third World.
• Like the short story, the novel genre now flourishes throughout the Arab
world; the demands of time and expense in both creation and publication may
make the novel somewhat less plentiful than the short story, but to the
Egyptian critic Jābir ʿUṣfur, the beginning of the 21st century marked “the era
of the novel,” to cite the title of his book Zamān al-riwāyah (1999).
Drama
• As the most public of genres, drama always presents the literary historian with
a rich blend of exemplars and issues. When the textual forms, language levels,
and publics are as varied as those of the Arabic-speaking world, the topic
becomes particularly complex. One might begin by pointing out that, in the
first decade of the 21st century, theatre was not present in some Arab-world
countries governed by conservative regimes, such as Saudi Arabia, and was a
new phenomenon in others, such as the countries of the Persian Gulf.
• Drama and its practitioners also found themselves confronted with the
popularity and global reach of rival media—film, television, and video, all of
which tended to have recourse to the same set of performers. If drama in the
West found itself similarly challenged, this was much more the case in a
number of Arabic-speaking regions where a tradition of literary drama was
barely a century old.
Beginnings
• Within this more comprehensive view of the history of drama, the premodern
era offers many examples of similar public performance genres in Arabic.
• During the Shīʿite holy month of Muharram, Muslims processed through the
streets, reenacting the events of the Battle of Karbalāʾ (680 CE), during which
the Prophet Muhammad’s grandson al-Ḥusayn ibn ʿAlī was killed.
• Cafés and other public places also provided venues for shadow plays (khayāl
al-ẓill), which regularly poked fun at the foibles of politicians and bureaucrats.
Especially during the period of Ottoman control over large portions of the
Arabic-speaking world, the Karagöz puppet show was a prevalent popular
source of public entertainment, much like its Western analogue, the Punch-
and-Judy play. All these different types of public dramatic events retained
their popularity throughout the premodern era and remained a source of
inspiration for playwrights into the modern period, particularly for those who
endeavored to combine some of the effects of Brechtian dramatic theory with
a search into the heritage of the Arab past for inspiration.
Literary Drama
• In 1847 Mārūn al-Naqqāsh, who had recently returned from a stay in Italy,
obtained permission from the Ottoman authorities in Syria to produce in his
house Al- Bakhīl, a play inspired by Molière’s drama L’Avare. Most of the
actors involved either were members of his family or were friends. While
there are reports of earlier performances by visiting European theatre troupes,
this performance is generally regarded as the beginning of the modern Arabic
tradition of staged performance of text-based drama. These early beginnings in
Syria were among the many social and cultural phenomena in that region that
were disrupted by the civil war that erupted in the 1860s.
• Prominent among the other troupes was that of Abū Khalīl al-Qabbānī, whose
performances in Damascus had been censored and even canceled after
complaints from the conservative Islamic establishment. The theatrical scene
that these Syrian émigrés encountered in Egypt was both lively and varied. To
perform his dramas in the colloquial dialect, the Egyptian Jewish playwright
Yaʿqūb Ṣannūʿ had assembled a troupe that attracted the attention of the
khedive of Egypt, Ismāʿil, who encouraged Ṣannūʿ to produce more—until,
that is, he discovered that he himself was the butt of some of the humour.
ARABIAN NIGHTS
The Arabian Nights, also known as A/The Thousand and One Nights is one of the
world’s most famous and beloved collections of legends and folktales. The stories, most of
which are believed to be Persian, Indian, or Arabian in origin, probably evolved over many
centuries of storytelling before they were written down. The earliest known collection was
Persian; this collection was translated into Arabic during the 800s.
Antoine Galland’s
During the early 1700s, Antoine Galland’s translated the Story into French and
introduced Europeans to the tales. He added numerous stories including the famous Aladdin
and Alibaba.
The Prophet begins with a man named Almustafa who has been living in Orphalese for twelve
years. He has been chosen as the townspeople's prophet and sage while he waits for the right
ship to come along which will take him back to his homeland.
When he sees his ship arrive, Almustafa is happy but feels a sense of sadness at leaving the
people he has come to care for behind. He leaves the hills and returns to the temple in the city.
There, he is asked by the elders not to leave, but they ask him—if he must go—to tell them
about his philosophy on life and death.
The seer Almitra encourages Almustafa to answer the townspeople's questions, and she
herself opens with a question of her own. This encourages the townspeople to ask for counsel
on many issues that affect them, including food, drink, clothes, crime, religion, marriage,
children, love, death, good, evil, beauty, property, and friendship.
As the day draws to a close, Almitra blesses the day and the city and she, Almustafa, and the
townspeople move down to the pier towards the waiting ship. Almustafa offers one more
speech to the townspeople, thanking them and telling them that they have given him more
than he has returned to
them. He asks them to be patient in waiting for all that life has to offer and promises to return
to them in another incarnation.
BY KAHLIL GIBRAN
On Marriage
Love one another, but make not a bond
of love:
Let it rather be a moving sea between
the shores of your souls.
Fill each other’s cup but drink not from
one cup.
Give one another of your bread but eat
not from the same loaf.
Sing and dance together and be joyous,
but let each one of you be alone,
Even as the strings of a lute are alone
though they quiver with the same music.
On Children
You may give them your love but not your thoughts
for they have their own thoughts
You may house their bodies but not their souls,
for their souls dwell in the house of tomorrow, which you cannot visit, not even in your
dreams.
B. Medieval Period
- 3rd century to late 12th century
- China suffered invasions by Tatar tribes
- Barren of Literary production
- Spread of Buddhism from India
- Flowering of Poetry and Prose
- Invention of Printing
a) The T’ang dynasty is considered by scholars as the “Golden Age of
Chinese Poetry.” It produced a star-studded list of poets who
composed to perfection Lu-Shieh (regulated poems), a stanza of
eight lines with five words or seven-word lines and an intricate
pattern of tonal contrasts.
b) Great literary achievements came; literary developments were
associated with religious freedom and goodwill.
c) The t’zu is a form of Chinese poetry, which became widely spread
during the latter part of the T’ang dynasty—from the eighth to the
tenth century. Usually sang to the tune of popular songs, the t’zu
has a folk song quality and is marked by lines of varying lengths.
The length of each line is dictated by the tune that the lyric is trying
to fit.
C. Early Modern Period
- 13th Century to the end of 19th century
- Written in vernacular language
- Yuan Dynasty (1279- 1368)
- Growth of Chinese Fiction and drama
D. Modern Period
- Started at the beginning of 20th century
- Age of Prose
- New fictions in the form of short stories
- Gao Xingjian (1940) won the Nobel Prize for Literature in the
year 2000
Splendor of Chinese Literature
a) Chinese literature can be used as an escape into a beautiful world and
time, a guide to virtuous living, and a historical map through images
and philosophy.
B. The Five Classics of Confucianism
Confucius
He is also known as "Kong Qiu" or "K’ung Fu-tzu". He is a Chinese
philosopher, teacher and political figure. His teachings, preserved in the
Analects, focused on creating ethical models of family and public
interaction and setting educational standards. After his death, Confucius
became the official imperial philosophy of China, which was extremely
influential during the Han, Tang and Song dynasties.
Confucianism
Confucianism is the worldview on politics, education and ethics taught by
Confucius and his followers in the fifth and sixth centuries B.C. Although
Confucianism is not an organized religion, it does provide rules for
thinking and living that focus on love for humanity, worship of ancestors,
respect for elders, self-discipline and conformity to rituals.
Chun Tzu
- “gentleman” (junzi)
- denoting “the man with a cultivated moral character”
Fundamental Principles of Confucianism
Li
a) it is the principle of self-restraint and sense of propriety that should be
inculcated in a person. A person should always act in a honorable way
and respect his elders, his ancestors, and his family members.
Hsiao
b) It is love for the immediate family and then society. It’s the principle of
love of parents for their children and of children for their parents.
Yi
c) It is the principle of righteousness. It is upholding what is right above
everything else and sacrificing oneself for it, if need be.
Xin
d) It is the principle of honesty in life. Being honest with oneself and
being honest with the people around you build trust and confidence.
Ren (Jen)
e) It is the most important of all principles. It means being kind and
humane to your fellow beings. Sharing and understanding each other
without being overtly judgmental.
Chung
f) It is loyalty to one’s family and to one’s country. It is a quality which
binds a country strongly together.
The Five Important Relationships
a) Ruler-Subject
b) Parent-child
c) Husband-wife
d) Elder sibling- younger sibling
e) Elder friend-younger friend (or friend to friend)
Examples of Confucius Philosophies
The Golden Rule
a) Confucius’ social philosophy was based primarily on the principle
of "ren" or "loving others" while exercising self-discipline. He
believed that ren could be put into action using the Golden Rule,
"What you do not wish for yourself, do not do to others." (Lunyu
12.2, 6.30).
On Politics
b) Confucius’ political beliefs were likewise based on the concept of
self-discipline. He believed that a leader needed to exercise self-
discipline in order to remain humble and treat his followers with
compassion.
c) In doing so, leaders would lead by positive example. According to
Confucius, leaders could motivate their subjects to follow the law
by teaching them virtue and the unifying force of ritual propriety.
The characteristics of a good ruler (or civil servant):
- moral goodness (virtue and propriety)
- rationality
- moderation
- benevolence
On Education
d) Confucius’ philosophy of education focused on the "Six Arts":
archery, calligraphy, computation, music, chariot-driving and
ritual. To Confucius, the main objective of being an educator was
to teach people to live with integrity.
e) Through his teachings, he strove to resurrect the traditional values
of benevolence, propriety and ritual in Chinese society.
On Wit and Wisdom (Quotes)
f) “To know what you know and know what you don’t know is the
characteristic of one who knows.”
g) “A man who has committed a mistake and doesn’t correct it is
committing another mistake.”
h) “A man who has a beautiful soul always has some beautiful things
to say, but a man who says beautiful things does not necessarily
have a beautiful soul.”
i) “A man who brags without shame will find great difficulty in living
up his bragging.”
j) “A man who does not think and plan long head will find trouble by
his door.”
The Five Classics of Confucianism
Book of Changes or Book of Divinations or Oracles (I-Ching)
a) The Book of Changes contains a system of divination, which is
centered largely around the principles of yin and yang. The Book of
Changes has also been translated as I Ching or Classic of Changes.
Some of the divination practices are still used today.
Book of Rites or Book of Rituals (Li-Ching)
b) The Book of Rites described the social norms, governmental
organization, and the ritual conduct during the Zhou dynasty.
Believed to have been compiled by Kongzi, the Book of Rites is
the foundation of many ritual principles that arise in later imperial
China. According to the Book of Rites, proper ritual conduct would
maintain harmony in the empire, as well as emphasize the virtue of
piety.
Book of Historical Documents (Shu-Ching)
c) The Book of Documents is a compilation of 58 chapters detailing
the events of ancient China. The Book of Documents tells the deeds
of the early sage-kings Yao and Shun.
d) These narratives are influential in the development of the
understanding of a sage. The compilation also includes the history
of the Xia, Shang, and Zhou dynasties. The Book of Documents is
often considered the first narrative history of ancient China.
Book of Poetry (Shih-Ching)
e) The Book of Odes (Book of Poetry) is also translated as the Book
of Songs or Book of Poetry. The Book of Odes is comprised of 305
poems dealing with a range of issues, including love and marriage,
agricultural concerns, daily lives, and war.
f) The Book of Odes contains different categories of poems, including
folk songs and hymns used in sacrifice. Kongzi is believed to have
selected the 305 poems in this collection from a much wider
collection.
Spring and Autumn Annals (Ch’un Ch’iu)
g) As the longest of the Five Classics, the Spring and Autumn Annals
is a historical chronicle of the State of Lu. Unlike the Book of
Documents, the Spring and Autumn Annals appear to have been
created specifically for annalistic purposes.
h) The Spring and Autumn Annals was traditionally understood as
being written by Confucius, but modern scholars believe the text
was actually written by various chroniclers from the State of Lu.
The Analects
Confucius
Section 3 Part 12
Yen Yuan asked about perfect virtue. The Master said, “To subdue one’s
self and return
to propriety, is perfect virtue. If a man can for one day subdue himself
and return to propriety,
an under heaven will ascribe perfect virtue to him. Is the practice of
perfect virtue from a man
himself, or is it from others?”
Yen Yuan said, “I beg to ask the steps of that process” The Master
replied, “Look not
what is contrary to propriety; listen not at what is contrary to propriety;
speak not what is
contrary to propriety; make no movement which is contrary to propriety.
“Yen Yuan then said,
“Though I am deficient in intelligence and vigor, I will make it my
business to practice this
lesson.”
d) The analects have been one of the most widely read and studied
books in china for the last 2000 years and continues to have a
substantial influence on Chinese and East Asian thought and values
today.
Lao Tzu
IV
How does the sea become the king of all streams?
Because it lies lower than they!
Hence it is the king of all streams.
Therefore, to rise above people, you must humble yourself in
your speech;
To be a leader of the people, you must put yourself behind them.
Thus, it is that when a Sage stands above all people, they do not
feel the heaviness of his
weight;
And when he stands in front of the people, they do not get hurt.
Therefore, all the world is glad to push him forward without
being tired of him.
V
Difficult thing in the world
Can only be tackled when they are easy.
Big things in the world
Can only be achieved by attending to their small beginnings.
Thus, the Sage never has to grapple with big things,
Yet, he, alone is capable of achieving them!
He who promises lightly must be lacking in faith.
He who thinks everything easy will end by finding everything
difficult.
Therefore, the Sage, who regards everything as difficult, meets
with no difficulties in the
end.
The Art of the War
a) It is an ancient Chinese Military Treatise from late Spring and
Autumn Period. The work, which is attributed to the ancient
Chinese Military strategist Sun Tzu, is composed of 13
chapters.
b) The book contained a detailed explanation and analysis of the
Chinese military, from weapons and strategy to rank and
discipline. Sun also stressed the importance of intelligence
operatives and espionage to the war effort. Because Sun has
long been considered to be one of history's finest military
tacticians and analysts, his teachings and strategies formed
the basis of advanced military training for millennia to come.
c) Beginning around the 12th century, some Chinese scholars
began to doubt the historical existence of Sun Tzu, primarily
on the grounds that he is not mentioned in the historical
classic The Commentary of Zuo (Zuo zhuan), which
mentions most of the notable figures from the Spring and
Autumn period.
Sun Tzu
- General, Military strategist, writer and philosopher
- Lived in Eastern Zhou period of Ancient China
- The Art of War is traditionally attributed to an ancient
Chinese military general known as Sun Tzu (now
romanized "Sunzi"), meaning "Master Sun". Sun Tzu was
traditionally said to have lived in the 6th century BC, but
The Art of War's earliest parts probably date to at least
100 years later.
One of the 13 Chapters by: Lionel Giles (1910)
1. Sun Tzu said: The art of war is of vital importance to the
State.
2. It is a matter of life and death, a road either to safety or to
ruin. Hence it is a subject of inquiry which can on no account
be neglected.
3. The art of war, then, is governed by five constant factors, to
be taken into account in one's deliberations, when seeking to
determine the conditions obtaining in the field.
4. These are: (1) The Moral Law; (2) Heaven; (3) Earth; (4) The
Commander; (5) Method and discipline.
5. The Moral Law causes the people to be in complete accord
with their ruler, so that they will follow him regardless of
their lives, undismayed by any danger.
6. Heaven signifies night and day, cold and heat, times and
seasons.
7. Earth comprises distances, great and small; danger and
security; open ground and narrow passes; the chances of life
and death.
8. The Commander stands for the virtues of wisdom, sincerely,
benevolence, courage and strictness.
9. By method and discipline are to be understood the marshaling
of the army in its proper subdivisions, the graduations of rank
among the officers, the maintenance of roads by which
supplies may reach the army, and the control of military
expenditure.
10. These five heads should be familiar to every general: he who
knows them will be victorious; he who knows them not will
fail.
13 chapters of The Art of War Translated by Lionel Giles (1910)
1. Laying plans
2. Waging War
3. Attack by Strategem
4. Tactical Disposition
5. Use of Energy
6. Weak Points and strong
7. Maneuvering an Army.
8. Variation of Tactics
9. The army on the March
10. Classification of Terrian
11. The Nine Situation
12. Attack by Fire
13. Use of Spies
Example
- Now, when your weapons are dulled, your ardor damped,
your strength exhausted, and your treasure spent, other
chieftains will spring up to take advantage of your
extremity. To no man, however wise, will be able to avert
the consequences that must ensue"- Sun Tzu
Tang Poems
a) Tang poetry (pinyin: Táng shī) refers to poetry written in or around the time of
or in the characteristic style of China's Tang dynasty, (June 18, 618 – June 4,
907, including the 690–705 reign of Wu Zetian) and/or follows a certain style,
often considered as the Golden Age of Chinese poetry. The Quantangshi
includes over 48,900 poems written by over 2,200 authors.
b) During the Tang dynasty, poetry continued to be an important part of social
life at all levels of society. Scholars were required to master poetry for the
civil service exams, but the art was theoretically available to everyone. This
led to a large record of poetry and poets, a partial record of which survives
today. The two most famous poets of the period were Li Bai and Du Fu. Tang
poetry has had an ongoing influence on world literature in modern times.
c) Li Bai , also known as Li Bo, courtesy name Taibai, art name Qinglian Jushi,
was a Chinese poet acclaimed from his own day to the present as a genius and
a romantic figure who took traditional poetic forms to new heights. He and his
friend Du Fu (712–770) were the two most prominent figures in the
flourishing of Chinese poetry in the Tang dynasty, which is often called the
"Golden Age of Chinese Poetry". The expression "Three Wonders" denote Li
Bai's poetry, Pei Min's swordplay, and Zhang Xu's calligraphy.
Du Fu
- was a Chinese poet and politician of the Tang dynasty
- Along with his elder contemporary and friend Li Bai (Li Bo), he is
frequently called the greatest of the Chinese poets.
- His greatest ambition was to serve his country as a successful civil
servant, but he proved unable to make the necessary accommodations.
- His life, like the whole country, was devastated by the An Lushan
Rebellion of 755, and his last 15 years were a time of almost constant
unrest.
Example
Tang Poems
“How beautiful she looks,
Opening the pearly casement
And how quiet she leans,
And how troubled her blow is!
You may see her tears now,
Bright on her cheek,
But not the man he bitterly loves”.
Li Bai, A Bitter Love.
The Republic of India is a South Asian country which is known as the seventh
largest country in the world by its geographical area and the second most populous
country with over 1.2 billion people. India was derived from Indus which originated
from the Old Persian word Hindu. The word Hindu came from the Sanskrit word
Sindhu which was the historical name of the Indus River.
The four of the world’s major religions originated in India which influenced the
Indian writing. These Indian religions are Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism, and Sikhism
which are also known as Dharmic religions. India is one of the most religiously
diverse countries in the world and its religions play an important part in the lives of
the Indians.
INDIAN CULTURE
Hinduism is more than a religion. Hinduism is a way of life for many people
around the world. The Hindu philosophy comes from a wide range of beliefs from
scriptures and many other varied religious literatures. The Hindu culture is one that
revolves around love and respect for others. For example, respect for elders is a
foundation of Hindu culture. This acknowledgement of seniority is shown by sitting
to the left of elders, never sitting while they are standing, bringing gifts on special
occasions, not challenging or arguing, and by serving their food first. Hindus also
show respect in the way that they address each other. Someone who is younger never
addresses an elder by his or her given name. Even a younger brother will not address
an older brother by name, but instead as periannan (peh-ree-uh-NON), or annan (uh-
NON, older brother). A Hindu wife will only refer to her husband as “my husband” or
“him” and never by his given name. In order to show respect to holy men and
women, one will touch their feet in reverence of their humility (Subramuniyaswami,
2002).
Purity is another vitally important trait in Hindu culture. Hindus believe that
one must reach purity of three forms; mind, speech, and body or sometimes referred
to as thought, word, and deed. Hindus reach purity of the mind through meditation,
good company, and clearing the subconscious. Never using harsh, aggravated, or
crude language attains purity of speech. Keeping a clean and healthy physical body is
needed to attain purity physically and one must also only consume pure foods. One
must never touch food that one does not intend to buy and no one should offer
something to someone of which they had taken a bite or sip from.
The Hindu have many values and beliefs that make up their culture and help
guide them through life. These values usually aren't explicitly written out, but are
more subtle and are often shown through behavior and religious stories and practices.
There are many variations to Hindu values with the following common threads, truth,
dharma (DAR-muh), karma (KAR-muh) and the belief in a supreme being.
One of the main values of the Hindu culture is known as Dharma. Dharma
means striving for righteousness and upholding moral laws. The Hindu believe it is
important to make Dharma central to life and to live up to one's duties and abilities.
Dharma is often taught through stories and scripture where there are difficulties in
deciding what is right or wrong and how it is important to execute Dharma and
respond to situations righteously. The value of Satyam (SUT-yum) states that Hindus
believe they should speak the truth. If truth causes harm it is better not to say it. They
also have a strong belief in the law of Karma, which is the law of cause and effect
that states a person reaps what they sow. The way that a person conducts themselves
in life, whether positively or negatively, will determine their destiny. They believe
that no soul is eternally damned, but instead everyone has the ability to make choices
that will determine the form in which they will be reincarnated. If a person does not
live up to their Dharma and choose righteousness, they may be reincarnated to a state
that is lower than what they are presently at.
Religion
The Hinduism religion is one of the oldest living religions to date; it can be
traced back to 4,000 years ago and originated in India. It is now the 3rd largest
religion with more than 1 billion followers. The Hindu religion is also known as
Sanatan Dharma (SAN-uh-tan DAR-muh), which translates to Eternal Spiritual Path.
The sacred text that Hinduism bases many of its beliefs from is called the Vedas (vei-
duhs). The fundamental teaching found in the Vedas, also known as the Vedanta
(VEI-dawn-ta), is a human’s basic nature isn’t confined to the body or mind; there is a
spirit or spark of God in the soul. They see all things as a piece of God. For many
Hindu, this is not just a just a theory, but it’s something that can be experienced
through the practice of yoga. The four main types of yoga are Karma (car-ma), Bhakti
(BAK-ti), Jnana (juh-naw-naw), and Raja (ra-ja). Each type of yoga is practiced for a
different reason regarding your temperament.
The name for God in Hinduism is Brahman (bra-men). There are many
manifestations of Brahman and therefore many Gods and Goddesses that can be
worshipped. For example, a man can be known as a father, a brother, a husband, an
uncle, a grandfather, a cousin, a friend, and so on. This is the same for God. If there is
one manifestation of God that is preferred, then often times a Sect is created within
Hinduism to worship that manifestation of Him. All sects follow the teachings of the
Vedas/Vedanta regardless of which manifestation of God they choose. Many time
Hindus worship God in the form of an idol, which is why nature and animals are
sacred. The cow is the most sacred animal, which explains why vegetarianism is
strongly encouraged in the religion.
The three main deities, or forms of god, in Hinduism are Lord Brahma (bra-ma)
(the creator), Lord Vishnu (vish-nu) (the protector), and Lord Shiva (shee-va) (the
destroyer). These along with Lord Ganesha (gih-nai-shaa), Lord Krishna (krihsh-naa),
Lord Hanuman (huh-noo-mahn), Lord Rama (rAA-muh), and Goddess Parvati (paar-
vuh-tee) are the most popular deities (Hinduism Facts, n.d.).
Reincarnation plays a big role in the Hindu religion and it is the effect of all the
actions taken in this world. For example, a person born into a very privileged family
and has a “good” life is reaping the benefits from their actions in a previous life.
Rebirth will continue until the desires of the mind no longer exist and Maya (my-uh)
is overcome (Hinduism: background, basic beliefs, and sacred texts, 2002).
Maya is the struggle of having great ideas and solutions to the world’s
problems, but our actions not living up to that. It’s seeing the world full of injustice
and misery. The way out of Maya is to see the world correctly, for God is in all things
and through spiritual enlightenment and the practice of yoga a person may see that the
world is God alone. This is what defines Moksha (mohk-shuh), also known as,
spiritual freedom. When Moksha is achieved there are no desires and a deep
satisfaction, thus no longer a purpose for rebirth.
Hinduism communication style and language is varied due to where the Hindu
person lives and what sect they are apart of. Since Hinduism is such a large culture
and religion, there are many different types of people that belong to it. For example,
some are born in India and some are born in the UK; this will have a huge impact on
communication styles.
Hindus greet each other by placing palms together in front of them, also known
as Namaskar (NOHM-es-kar), while they bow their heads. This shows respect to the
belief that God exists in everyone. Children, in more traditional families, greet their
parents by touching their feet.
INDIAN TRADITIONS AND BELIEFS
The culture of india is an amalgamation of sub cultures spread all over the
indian sub continent and traditions
They are several millennia old.
Several elements of india diverse culture- such as indian religions, yoga,
cuisine, clothing, festivals, languages and etc..
Namaskar
Common spoken greeting
Salutation
Religions & spirituality
India is birth place of many religions
Like Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism and etc
Hinduism and Buddhism are the world’s 3rd
and 4rth largest religion
Language and literature
There are many languages as india
being the multi religious society
Sanskrit, telugu, hindi, Malaya
lam, kannada
Marriage
For centuries, arranged marriages
have been the tradition in indian society
They also demand dowry
It has been outlawted by the Indian government
Festival
India is multi religious society
Celebrates festivals of various religions
Many states and religions have different festivals depending on the religions.
INDIAN LITERATURE
Indian Literature is one of the oldest and richest literatures around the because
it has the largest collection of manuscripts.
It is also known as one of the most complex because it started during the times
when India was struggling with the creation of its official language.
Indian Literature is poetic in nature and written in verses.
MAHABHARATA
The Mahabharata is one of the two major Sanskrit epics of ancient India, the
other being the Ramayana. It narrates the struggle between two groups of cousins in
the Kurukshetra War and the fates of the Kaurava and the Pandava princes and their
successors.
Mahabharata is name of the book in Sanskrit language
Composed B/W 300 B.C & 300 A.D
Has the honor of being the longest epic in world literature
Works are divided into 18 books
SUMMARY OF MAHABHARATA
KALIDASA- was a Brahman's child. At the age of six months he was left an orphan and
was adopted by an ox-driver. He grew to manhood without formal education, yet with
remarkable beauty and grace of manner.Scholars have speculated that Kalidasa may have
lived near Himalayas, in the vicinity of Ujjain, and in Kalinga
PLAYS OF KALIDASA
Abhijnanashakuntala is the most famous and is usually judged the best India
literary effort of any period, the work tells of the seduction of nymph
Shakuntala by King Dushyanta, his rejection of the girl and his child, and their
subsequent reunion in heaven.
Vikramorvashi tells a legend as old as the Vedas, though very differently. Its
theme is the love of a mortal for a divine maiden; it is well known for the mad
scene (Act IV) in which the king, griefstricken, wanders through a lovely
forest apostrophizing various flowers and trees as though they were his love.
PANCHATANTRA
The Panchatantra is a collection of folktales and fables that were believed to
have been originally written in Sanskrit by Vishnu Sharma more than 2500 years ago.
This collection of stories features animal characters which are stereotyped to
associate certain qualities with them.
The word Panchatantra is the combinations of the words Pancha –meaning
five in Sanskrit, and Tantra – meaning weave. Literally translated, it means
interweaving five skeins of traditions and teaching into a text.
3. Kákolùkïyam (Crows and Owls- This volume has stories on rules and strategies
of war and peace. Kákolùkïyam (Crows and owls) can be a good training ground
for young minds to understand the value of peace over war.
Maharishi Valmiki
One of the writer of Indian Literature, he is the author of one of the main
epics In India which is the Ramayana. he is called the Adikavi or First
Poet - the Poet of Poets of India.
Vishnu Sharma
Was an Indian scholar and author who is believes to have written the
Panchatantra collection of fables.
Vishnu Sharma chose the fable as his medium because he understood that
humans can accept their own foibles if they are presented entertainingly,
narrating as stories about beasts which we think inferior to humans in many
ways.
Example of Panchatantra he made is THE FOUR FRIENDS AND THE
HUNTER
Rabindranath Tagore
He was highly influential in introducing Indian culture to the West and vice
versa, and he is generally regarded as the outstanding creative artist of early
20th-century India.
Tagore was a Nobel Laureate for Literature (1913) as well as one of India's
greatest poets and the composer of independent India's national anthem, as
well as that of Bangladesh. He wrote successfully in all literary genres, but
was first and foremost a poet, publishing more than 50 volumes of poetry.
The Works of Rabindranath Tagore consist of poems, novels, short stories,
dramas, and essays that Bengali poet and Brahmo philosopher Rabindranath
Tagore created over his lifetime.
Example of his work is the Gitanjali collection.
Kalidasa
Kalidasa was the greatest of the Sanskrit dramatists, and the first great name in
Sanskrit literature after Ashvaghoshha
(Sanskrit is the liturgical language of Hinduism and the main literary
language in Buddhism and Jainism, and has an important position in the
Indo-European studies.)
In the field of drama, his work named Abhijananasakuntalam is quite famous,
and it is usually considered as one of the best literary efforts of all time
After the epic drama like Ramayana and Mahabaharata it’s the work of
Kalidasa that is set before any. It’s the grace and genius of his astonishing
words that gave him the title of Aadi kavi which means the first and of its own
kind.
Kalidasa is known for his Mythological stories woven in beautiful masterpiece
in form of poems and plays. Kalidasa is influencing hundreds of poets and
play writer since 2000 years and this influence can be seen reflecting the
beauty not only in literature but also in art like drawings, music, sculpture etc.
Abhijnanashakuntala (Recognition of Shakuntala) is his world famous and the
most popular drama in seven acts about the love and marriage of Dushyant
and Shakuntala. This is the first Indian drama to be translated into a Western
language.
Ashvaghoshha
Philosopher and poet who is considered India’s greatest poet before Kalidasa
(5th century) and the father of Sanskrit drama; he popularized the style of
Sanskrit poetry known as kavya.
His fame lay largely in his ability to explain the intricate concepts of
Mahayana Buddhism. Among the works attributed to him are the Mahayana-
shraddhotpada-shastra (“The Awakening of Faith in the Mahayana”), the
Buddhacarita (“The Life of Buddha”), in verse, and the Mahalankara (“Book
of Glory”).
Ruskin Bond
Ashwin Sanghi
Ashwin Sanghi is an Indian writer who usually writes about thriller and
suspense. Despite writing in the present era of uncertainty among a certain
trend, Ashwin holds different themes than ordinary romance. He keeps things
good and polishes them to be better with his conventional style of writing.
Basically, he tries to present theological, mythological and historical concepts
in a contemporary context.
His style, composition and narration style take a rather classical approach in
describing every possible detail. That’s why he is regarded as Indian Dan
Brown by many critics and the media. His novels are inspired by the high
values of mythology and theology.
His novels are not written in any kind of hurry for giving a romantic solution
to any and every possible problem of life.
Ashwin is not called the modern tale-teller of India without substantial
reasons. He is famous across the reading audience, in India as well as outside
India. His works offer the readers more than mere entertainment that most of
the novelists tend to offer these days.
Example of his works is The Vault of Vishnu, Keepers of the Kalachakra,
The Sialkot Saga, and a lot more.
Sudha Murthy
Her books have been translated into all the major Indian languages.
She is a writer who perfectly describes human emotions and behaviour in her
writings. Her books based on real life experiences are truly inspiring and give
you a larger perspective of life.
Her writings mostly comprise of stories of common people and their
uncommon struggles, deeds and thoughts which give you lessons for a life
time.
Sudha Murthy always inspired everyone to lead a simple life and listen to their
conscience. She believes the beauty of a person lies in simplicity and
confidence; so she says live life for you and not for others.
Example of his works is The Serpent’s Revenge, The Bird with the Golden Wings,
etc.
INTRODUCTION
Ancient Egyptian Literature was written in the Egyptian language from
ancient Egypt's pharaonic period until the end of roman domination. It represents the
oldest corpus of Egyptian literature along with Sumerian literature. It is considered
the world's earliest literature.
Egyptian literature traces its beginnings to ancient Egypt and in some of the
earliest known literature. The Egyptians were the first culture to developed literature.
They use Hieroglyphs meaning sacred carving. Hieroglyphs writing system were in
the form of pictures. It can be read as picture, symbol for object or as a symbol for
sounds.
HISTORICAL BACKGROUND
Old Kingdom
Egypt's old kingdom was one of the most dynamic periods in the development
of Egyptian art. During this period artist learned to express their thoughts and
perspective or their culture worldview through images and forms. Architects during
this time mastered the techniques on monumental structures in stone, as a result
sculptor have created the earliest portraits in wood, copper, and stone. They are able
to produce detailed images on their carvings through their careful and sharp
observation of the natural world.
When Egyptian mastered the art, they used it to record important elements of
their world, they painted and carved on the walls of temples and tombs. This is the
time where pyramid text and carving on the tombs started.
Middle Kingdom
It is considered ancient Egypt's classical age during which the culture
produced its greatest works of art and literature. During the old kingdom most of
Egyptian literature was all about kings and Gods but during the middle kingdom,
literature about the common people and the human experiences arose such as Tale of
Nefertiti, Tale of Sinuhe, The Tale of Shipwrecked Sailor, the story of Eloquent
Peasant, the tale of Two Brothers, A Dialogue between a man weary of life and his
soul.
New Kingdom
New kingdom literature developed in a period when Egypt had founded an
empire more cosmopolitan approach. Because of many invasions, wars and attacked
the Egyptian had faced, the early pharaohs of the new kingdom dedicated themselves
to prevent this kind of situation. As a result, Egyptian expresses their continuous
support pharaoh through monumental inscription. Stories and poems during new
kingdom were all about the conflict people faced in their lives such as dealing with
injustice, an unfaithful spouse and trying to live one's life fully even in the face of
death.
FORMS OF EGYPTIAN LITERATURE
Tombs
A tomb is a place in which Egyptian buried when they die. The ancient
Egyptian believed that life did not stop when you died. What they believe is you
moved away to another place called afterlife. The ancient Egyptian wrote stories and
poems on the walls of the tombs sometimes with pictures that said nice things about
themselves because the wanted the Gods to know that they had done a lot of good
things in their lifetime, and that is because they believed that in order for them to
reach the afterlife, they had to do good things while they are alive.
Stele
A wooden slab that is erected for honorary purposes it is decorated with the
name of the person they shall remind of this. It also serves as territorial markers or
boundary to commemorate military victories. The dead were also represented on the
stele as they were in life commonly men as warriors or athletes and women
surrounded by their children.
Obelisk
A stone rectangular pillar with tapered top forming a pyramidion, set on a
base, erected to commemorated as individual or an event to honor the God. Was
decorated by hieroglyphs that includes religious dedication usually to the sun God.
Temples
This were built for the official worship of Gods and in commemoration of the
pharaohs in ancient Egypt, and Egyptian control. Temples were seen as houses for the
Gods or kings. They perform rituals there and giving offering to the God. The most
important part of the temple was the sanctuary which typically contain cult image and
statue of its God.
Papyrus
Writing material of ancient times and also the plant from which it was derived,
Cyperus papyrus, also called paper plant.
TYPES OF EGYPTIAN LITERATURE
Mythology
Egyptian mythology is the collection of myths from ancient Egypt which
describe the action of the Egyptian Gods as a means of understanding the world
around them. The Egyptian myths express their religious beliefs. Myth appears
frequently in Egyptian writings and art. Every aspect of life in ancient Egyptian
mythology was about the creation of the world.
Hymns and Prayers
Egyptians produced numerous prayers and hymns, written in the form of
poetry. It is written to praise particular deities, and they were recited as part of the
Egyptian rituals, in the other hand prayers is a more personal way for Egyptians to ask
God for blessings, help or forgiveness for wrongdoings.
Autobiographies
It started to appear in 2500 BCE, constitute the earliest, simplest, and most
significant genre of Egyptian literature. Egyptian autobiographies were usually
written on tombs and stele by high-ranking priest and officials for themselves or
family member as a part of burial equipment.
Funerary text
Among the most significant and extensively preserved Egyptian writing are
funerary text designed to ensure that deceased should reached a pleasant afterlife.
Three Different Types of Funerary Text:
Pyramid Text
The pyramid texts they are a loose collection of hundreds of spells inscribed
on the walls of royal pyramids during the Old Kingdom. The purpose of Pyramid Text
is to transform the deceased into an AKH or those judge worthy to be in the afterlife.
Pyramid texts consist of offering spells and transformation spells recited during
rituals.
Coffin Text
Coffin text was also a collection of ancient Egyptian funerary spells. The only
difference is that Pyramid text are written directly on walls while Coffin text was
written directly on the coffin of the dead. Coffin Text purpose is to guide the soul of
the dead to the afterlife. It also provides maps of the afterlife and information.
Book of the Dead
The Book of the Dead was also ancient Egypt funerary text that generally
written on papyrus. It consists of number of magic spells intended also to assist a
person's journey through the afterlife.
EGYPTIAN TALES
Like most of Egyptian Literature, Tales can be divided into the three
kingdoms of Egypt, depending on when they were written. With the Old Kingdom
dating as far back as 3,000 B.C. and beyond, the Middle Kingdom, from 3,000 B.C. to
1,600 B.C., and the New Kingdom, from 1,600 B.C. to 322 B.C.
Narrative work from the Middle Kingdome includes, but not limited to, the
following tales:
The Eloquent Peasant.
Also known as “The Tale of the Peasant and the Workman”, this is a tale
about a man made an eloquent plea for the return of his stolen donkey. The peasant
takes his complaint to the chief steward, presenting his case quite eloquently. The
steward reports the plea to the pharaoh (king) who is intrigued. The pharaoh asks the
steward to ignore the peasant, requiring him to keep returning and making more of
these wonderful pleas.
The Story of Sinuhe
A historical text that was written by an unknown author in the 1800s.
Originally published in the Egyptian Ancient language, the text has since been
translated and incorporated into other publications. The text tells the story of Sinuhe
and includes the Pharaohs of Egypt; Senworset I and Amenemhat throughout their life
and afterlife. The text is regarded as one of the greatest works of literature in Ancient
Egyptian history.
The Tale of the Shipwrecked Sailor
In the story, there is no death and resurrection but the theme of an individual
becoming lost in a strange and frightening land and then returning home is central and
this would have resonated with an ancient Egyptian audience.
The New Kingdom’s corpus of tales includes, but not limited to, the following
tales:
The Tale of the Doomed Prince
Also known as the “The Prince who was Threatened by Three Fates”, this is
an ancient Egyptian story that tells the story of a prince who was destined to die by a
crocodile, a snake, or a dog. The story follows the prince as he is kept safe during his
childhood only to leave the stone house his father built him to face his fate, whatever
that might be. The prince meets and falls in love with princess of Mitanni, who
insisted to be wed. The princess defeats the serpent by killing it, then came the
crocodile… The conclusion is left unknown due to the destruction of the original text.
The Tale of the Two Brothers
Also known as the “The Fate of an Unfaithful Wife”, is a story that centers
around two brothers: Anpu (Anubis), who was married, and his younger brother, Bata.
The conflict arose when Anpu’s wife attempted to seduce the younger brother.
EGYPTIAN LOVE SONGS
Those parts of Egyptian poems that have survived are primarily praise of the
lover or poems of longing. Although they appear to be spontaneous outbursts of
young people, they are thought to be the deliberate works of literary artists.
As in parts of South East Asia, the Chester Beatty cycle of poems shows a
regular alternation of male and female speakers. Similarly, the convention of lovers
addressing each other as brother and sister appears here also, as normal terms of
endearment.
Perhaps the most elaborate series of songs is the cycle of seven stanza on the
back of a papyrus roll now preserved in the Chester Beatty Library and Gallery.
1. the man sings of her beauty, and his wish to approach her.
2. the woman, separated, in the house of her mother, sings of her longing for
his arrival.
3. the man abandons hope of reaching her.
4. the woman struggles with her desires.
5. after seeing her, the man rejoices but is still separated.
6. after seeing him, the woman sings of her hope that her mother might share
her sentiment.
7. seven days of separation have left the man sick: only she can cure him.