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A.

Characteristics of African Literature


The literature of Africa seemed to be more popular in the 1950s,
however its history goes back thousands of years. Learn to discover the rich
history and features of African literature.
Africa is composed of 54 nations. Even though divided territorially,
each has own history, customs, tribes and traditions that are represented
uniquely. That said, literature that comes from the continent as a whole shares
such commonalities. Questions subjecting and concerning human rights
violation such as exploitation, slavery, colorism, etc. are mainly revealed in
Africa’s Literary Writings. The following are related features in African
Literature;

a. African literature reflects the struggles of the African people. When


the European colonial powers conquered Africa, the Africans faced the
dilemma of drastic or gradual modernization and transformation of
their social systems.

b. Shed light on controversial issues such as racial discrimination,


political conflicts, civil war, gender sensitivity, and human rights
issues.

c. The oral literature of Africa may be in prose or poetry.

d. Myth and Trickster tales explains the activities of gods, creation of


universe, human and nature relationship, etc. The common type of
African folktale tells us about a very human-acting animal who uses
his wit and cunning to take advantage of bigger and stronger animals.
Sometimes this animal will help others, but it will always take care of
itself first. These animal creatures are relatively insignificant and
powerless in themselves, but often use their cunning to outwit more
powerful beasts
Example of Literary Piece: Anansi the Spider originated from West
Africa
e. Use of Call-and-response technique. Call and Response is an
advanced anthology of African-American literature that puts equal
focus on the written and oral elements of black culture. It tracks the
centuries-long development in African proverbs, folk tales and singing
of this distinctive literary tradition. The overall aim is to increase
mutual understanding of interactive performance as practised in the
various countries of Africa and the UK, and to showcase and thus
stimulate both artistic and technological development across these
nations. At the same time, we aim to increase audience exposure to
new performances and generate public debate about the topics they are
concerned with. Commercial development is also an objective for both
the technologists and arts groups involved.

f. The literary tradition of Africa became richer than ever. It gained


artistic and sophisticated expression in English, Portuguese, and
French. The Africa’s written literature is in European. Literary
works are published in European language mainly because of
colonization.
Examples
- French- “Coup de Pilon”- David Diop
- Portuguese- “O Segredo da Morta” (The Secret of the
Dead) (1934)- Antonio de Assis Junior
B. African Poets and Writers
WOLE SOYINKA
- He won the nobel prize for literature in 1986
- Is best known as a playwright. Alongside his literary career,
he also worked as an actor and in theaters in Nigeria and
Great Britain.
- His works also include poetry, novels and essays.
- He was the first Black American to receive the award.
- His most famous works include A Dance of the Forest, The
Swamp Dwellers and Lion and the Jewel.
CHINUA ACHEBE
- A Nigerian Novelist
- Chinua Achebe is most famous for his novel Things Fall
Apart, published in 1958, which tells the story of an Igbo
village's reaction to British missionaries and colonial
authorities. In 1960, Achebe published a sequel called No
longer at Ease. He also published several other novels, short
stories, children's book and essays.
CHRISTINA AMA ATA AIDOO
- Ghanaian author
- Christiana Ama Ata Aidoo is Ghanaian author, poet,
playwright, and academics She was the Minister of
Education under the Jerry Rawlings administration in 2000,
she established the Mba asem foundation to promote and
support the work of African women writers.
GLADYS CASEY-HEYFORD
- Was an African poet who wrote in English.
- Gladys is an influential poet during the Harlem Renaissance
because she was not afraid to be herself and express herself
through her writing. Creating something new and
innovative became an important theme that was shown
throughout the Roaring 20s.
- Gladys was a lesbian and she expressed her feelings
through her poems, which in many cases made the public
see her differently, it just brought more trouble and racism
to her. Nevertheless, her poems became well known by
millions because of her honesty and willingness to break
the status quo, her poems are still remembered today.
Poems such as Creation (1926) Nativity (1927) Rainy
Season Love Song (1927) and The Serving Girl (1941).
AIME CESAIRE
- was a Francophone and Martinican poet, an Afro-Carribean
author and politician form the region of Martinique.
- His works have been translated into many languages.

NADINE GORDIMER
- was an South African writer, political activist and recipient
of the 1991 Nobel Prize in Literature.
- the Nobel Prize in Literature 1991 was awarded to Nadine
Gordimer "who through her magnificent epic writing has in
words of Alfred Nobel been very great benefit to
humanity".

DORIS LESING
- British Writer whose novels and short stories are largely
concerned with people involved in the social and political
upheavals of the 20th century.

NGUGI WA THIONG'O
- Kenyan writer who has considered East Africas leading
novelist. His popular Weep Not, Child (1964) was the first
major novel in English by an Easy African.

NAGUIB MAHFOUZ
- Egyptian novelist and script play writer who has was
awarded the Novel Prize for Literature in 1988, the first
Arabic to be so honored.
- Naguib began writing when he was seventeen. His first
novel was published in 1939 and 10 more were written
before the Egyptian Revolution of July 1952, when he
stopped writing for several years.
- He is considered as the father of modern Arabic literature
and is popular through-out the Arab world. Many of his
books were about Egyptian Nationalism.
C. African Poems and Short Stories
POEMS
- A poem is a collection of spoken or written words that expresses ideas or
emotions in a powerfully vivid and imaginative style. A poem is
comprised of a particular rhythmic and metrical pattern.

Examples of Poem
Do Not Fear the Past
Zuhura Seng’enge

Do not fear the past. Find the life that was robbed from us.
It is ugly but it is ours, Do not fear the past.
Do not hold on to lies. Embrace it,
That you were fed when you were young. Let it teach you the wisdom of your race,
Take its lessons and live by them.
Learn the history of your people.
Find the truth to free your soul from evil, Own the identity that was erased.
Learn the Qur’an, Do not fear the past,
Learn the bible, Do not hate it.
Find the meaning of life and religion. Do not fear the past,

Do not fear the past. Learn about it.


It is painful but it is real. Let it teach you
Blood was spilt and people died, Let it nurture you
but love and unity had survived. Let it remind you of who you are.

Learn the tongue of your ancestors.


Reconnect with the roots of your blood.
Find the knowledge,
That was stolen.

We Have Come Home


Lenrie Peters
We have come home We have come home
From the bloodless wars When the dawn falters
With sunken hearts Singing songs of other lands
Our booths full of pride- The death march
From the true massacre of the soul Violating our ears
When we have asked Knowing all our loves and tears
‘What does it cost Determined by the spinning coin
To be loved and left alone’ We have come home
To the green foothills
We have come home To drink from the cup
Bringing the pledge Of warm and mellow birdsong
Which is written in rainbow colours ‘To the hot beaches
Across the sky-for burial Where the boats go out to sea
But is not the time Threshing the ocean’s harvest
To lay wreaths And the hovering, plunging
For yesterday’s crimes, Gliding gulls shower kisses on the waves
Night threatens
Time dissolves We have come home
And there is no acquaintance Where through the lighting flash
With tomorrow And the thundering rain
The gurgling drums The famine the drought,
Echo the stars The sudden spirit
The forest howls Lingers on the road
And between the trees Supporting the tortured remnants
The dark sun appears. of the flesh
That spirit which asks no favour
of the world
But to have dignity.

SHORT STORIES
- A short story is a work of prose fiction that can be read in one sitting.
- A piece of fiction shorter than 1,000 words is considered a “short short
story” or “flash fiction,” and anything less than 300 words is rightfully
called “micro-fiction.”

Example of a Short story


THE FALSE PROPHET
By Sembene Ousmane
- Mahmoud Fall – main character
Summary
He used to travel between Senegalese villages changing his name from Mahmoud Fall
to Aidra in order hide his origins and true identity. People were astonished by his fake
identity and his knowledge of the Quran. He managed to deceive those Senegalese
villagers. Working as an Imam, Mahmoud was well respected among those people.
After months of accumulating small coins, he decided to leave the villages returning
back with his heavy booty. On his way, he decided to take a rest under a tamarind tree
in the middle of the desert burying his booty deep.  In the end of the story,
Mahmoud’s treasure disappeared while he overslept, believing that he was robbed by
a thin, half naked black. After that, Mahmoud ran in the desert searching for his
booty.

Nigerian Literature
• Nigerian literature is known through the world.
• Western influences began affecting Nigerian Literature as early as the 18th
century AD when Arabic ideas and culture were introduced to Africa.
• During the 14th century, written and spoken Arabic--- northern Nigeria.
• 17th century, some of the Hausa literature had been translated to Arabic.
• Novels developed around 1930.
D. African Literature Suggested Literary Piece
Africa
David Diop

Africa, my Africa
Africa of proud warriors in ancestral Savannahs
Africa of whom my grandmother sings
On the banks of the distant river
I have never known you
But your blood flows in my veins
Your beautiful black blood that irrigates the fields
The blood of your sweat
The sweat of your work
The work of your slavery

Africa, tell me Africa


Is this your back that is unbent
This back that never breaks the weight of humiliation
This back trembling with red scars
And saying no to the whip under the midday sun?
But a grave voice answer me
Impetuous child that tree, young and strong
That tree over there
Splendidly alone amidst white and faded flowers
That is your Africa springing up anew
Springing up patiently, obstinately
Whose fruit bit by bit acquires
The bitter taste of liberty.

Summary
- It is a patriotic poem that visualizes "The bitter taste of freedom" for
Africa. The poet says proudly that the African blood is circulating through
his veins. He also added and situated the miseries of the Africans by being
enslaved in their own land, the blood and sweat irrigates the field which is
now an enriched land continued to work under the midday sun for fear of
punishment.
- His brief life's work also included his longing for Africa and his concern
for those fighting against the French invasion of the mainland. His work
reveals resentment for the oppressors and the same kind of compassion for
the oppressed.

The Literary Work suggests the following;


a) Cultural Oppression
b) Torture and Exploitation of the Africans from the European Colonizers
c) Impact of Colonial Oppression
d) The author proudly introduce the identity of Africans and used the
literary piece to make them aware
of what is really happening.
David Leon Mandessi Diop (David Diop)
David Diop (born 1927-1960) is one of
the most promising French Western African
poets. Diop was born on Bordeaux, France. His
brief life's work always included his longing for
Africa and his sympathy for those fighting the
French continental colonization. His job reflects
a hate for the oppressors and love for the poor.

Major Literary Work/s


In his only collection surviving, Diop's works in Coups de Pilon (1956) are furious,
pro-European-cultural poems that list his people's miseries first under the slave
trading system but subsequently under dominion of colonial rule to call for the
Revolution that will lead to Africa's glorious future. It can be seen in his rejection of
the idea that any good could have come to Africa through colonial experience and in
his belief that political freedom should exist, that he was the most extreme of
Negritude writers who reacted against the assumption underlying the French policy of
"assimilation" that Africa was a land without culture and history.

Characteristics of Arabian Literature

Historically, the Arabs have been around for quite some time, having a rich, albeit
violent, historical process marked by a transition from obscure tribes in South Arabia
to a sprawling empire (that would have dwarfed in expanse the Roman Empire) in less
than two centuries.
Arabian culture is a branch of Semitic civilization; because of this and because of the
influences of sister Semitic cultures to which it has been subjected at certain epochs, it
is sometimes difficult to determine what is specifically Arabian. Because a great trade
route passed along its flanks, Arabia had contact along its borders with Egyptian,
GrecoRoman, and Indo-Persian civilizations. The Turkish overlords of the Arabic-
speaking countries affected Arabia relatively little, however, and the dominant culture
of western Europe arrived late in the colonial era.

Arab

- Originated in the descendants of indigenous tribes and lived along the Persian
Gulf Coast.

Arabian Peninsula

- Is also the homeland of Islam.

Islam

- Is an Abrahamic religion teaching that there is only one God, taking


Muhammad as a messenger of God.
- It is the world’s second-largest religion with 1.9 billion followers or 24.9% of
the world’s population, known as Muslims.

Arabian Culture

- Is a branch of Semitic civilization; because of the influences of sisters Semitic


cultures to which it has been subjected at certain epochs,  it is sometimes
difficult to determine what is specifically Arabian.

The Golden Odes (Mu’Ilaqat)

- Is the title of a group of seven long Arabic odes or qasidas that have come
down from the time before Islam.

Sasanian Empire (present-day Iran)

- The Sasanian or Sassanid Empire, officially known as the Empire of


Iranians (Middle Persian and called the Neo-Persian Empire by historians.

Umayyad Empire
 Arabic Prose Literature- grammatical treatise, commentaries on the
Quran and compiling of stories about Muhammad.
 Ghazals – Love Lyric

Abbasid Empire

 “One thousand and One Nights” also called as the Arabian Nights. It
is the collection of Middle Eastern South Asian stories and folk tales.
 “Richard Francis Burton” translated the One thousand and One
Night to English Version.

Rawis

- Storytellers
- professional reciter of poetry

The Crusades

- The Crusades were a series of religious wars between Christians and Muslims
started primarily to secure control of holy sites considered sacred by both
groups.

Modern Period

 Nahdah – means “reawakening”


 Saj or Rhyme Prose- most striking characteristics feature of Arabic prose.

Quran

- Sacred scriptures
- 114 suras or chapters
- 6,236 ayat or verses

Muhammad

- Their prophet
- The central figure of Islam and widely identified as its founder by non-
muslims.
- He is known as the “Holy Prophet” to Muslims, almost all of whom consider
him to be the final prophet of God.

Bayt al – Hikma
- Also known as the Grand Library of Baghdad, refers to either a major Abbasid
public academy and intellectual center in Baghdad or to a large private library
belonging to the Abbasid Caliphs during the Islamic Golden Age.

Al-Fatihah (The Opening)

- Which is regularly used by Muslims as a prayer and at the conclusion of


contracts

The suras of the Qur’an are arranged in order of length:


- Baqarah (The Cow) with 286 verses

- Al-Nas (The People) with six verses as the final – 114th – sura.

- Yusuf the 12th sura, the Qur’anic version of the Joseph narrative

The Primary Message of the Quran


- Is the absolute and indivisible oneness of God

PROSE AND POETRY OF ARABIAN LITERATURE

• Poetry

During the Islamic centuries, poetry came to occupy a central place within the
courts of the caliph and of the sultans, emirs, governors, and other potentates
who ruled over the various regions of the Islamic world following its breakup
into smaller, more local dominions.

A large percentage of poetry was inspired and often commissioned by the


ruling authorities for public recitation on many sorts of “state occasions,” and
the poet would expect to be rewarded for such celebrations of the glories of
Islam and its rulers.

Furthermore, a number of prominent figures—caliphs, ministers, philosophers,


and theologians—were prominent contributors to the poetic tradition.
However, the variety of other genres and subthemes that have been preserved
in collections of poetry make it clear that there were other occasions that were
less public and more informal at which poetry of a less official stamp would
be recited.

THE REGISTER OF THE ARABS (dīwān al-ʿArab)

• It is the age-old phrase whereby Arabs have acknowledged the status and
value that poetry has always retained within their cultural heritage. From the
very earliest stages in the Arabic literary tradition, poetry has reflected the
deepest sense of Arab self-identity, of communal history, and of aspirations
for the future.

FAMOUS ARABIC POETS

CLASSIC POETS

• Imru’ al-Qais (501-565)

- Mu’allaqa

• Al-Khansa (575-645)

- Elegy for Sakhr

• Abu Nuwas (756-814)

- Karkhiyya

• Al-Mutanabbi (915-965)

- Sayf Al-Dawlah’s Recapture of the Fortress al-Hadath

• Abu al-Alaa al-Maarri (973-1057)

- The Luzumiyat and the Resalat Al-Ghufran

MODERN POETS

Mahmoud Darwish (1941-2008)

- The Eternity of Cactus

Iman Mersal (1966-Present)

- These are Not Oranges, My Love


Nouri al-Jarrah (1956-Present)

- A Boat to Lesbos

Mohammed Abdel Bari (1985-Present)

- What Has Not Been Told by Zarqa’ al-Yamam

Maram al-Masri (1962-Present)

- A Red Cherry on a White-Tiled Floor

METER AND RHYME

• The various types of poem are marked by particular patterns of rhyme and
syllabic pulse. Each line is divided into two half-lines; the second of the two
ends with a rhyming syllable that is used throughout the poem. In order that
the listening audience may internalize the rhyme that is to be used, the first
line uses the rhyme at the end of both halves of the line; thereafter the rhyme
occurs only at the end of the complete line.

CATEGORIES AND FORMS

RHYMING SYLLABLE – one of the earliest methods by which poems were


categorized

• Poetry in general was referred to as qarīḍ, but within that framework poetry
was subdivided into two types:

• qit’ah

• consisting of a relatively short poem devoted to a single theme or else


composed and performed for a particular occasion

• example: marthiyyah

qaṣīdah

- a polythematic poem that might extend to 100 lines or more and that
constituted an elaborate celebration of the tribe and its way of life.

- The critical tradition—exemplified most famously by the 9th-century writer


Ibn Qutaybah—analyzed such long poems within a tripartite structure: naṣīb,
raḥīl, madīḥ.

examples: Ṭarafah’s elaborate description of the camel & Zuhayr ibn Abī Sulmā’s
depictions of tribal wars

Al-Muʿallaqāt – a collection of 7 or 10 longer examples of qaṣīdah


The opening of the muʿallaqah of 6th-century poet Imruʾ al-Qays is probably the
most famous line of poetry in Arabic:

Halt, you two companions, and let us weep for the memory of a beloved and an abode
mid the sand-dunes between Al-Dakhūl and Ḥawmal.

Al-Mufaḍḍaliyyāt – a collection of shorter ancient poems, initially for pedagogical


purposes, compiled by philologist al-Mufaḍḍal al-Ḍabbī during 9th-century.

OTHER FORMS OF QARĪD

• RAJAZ

• SAJ

• URJŪZAH

• ZAJAL

• MUWASHSHAH

NOTABLE QASĪDAH POETS

 Al-Akhṭal al-Ṣaghīr (Bishārā al-Khūrī)


 Badawī al-Jabal (Muḥammad al-Aḥmad)

 Muḥammad al-Jawāhirī

GENRES AND THEMES

THREE PRINCIPAL PURPOSES FOR THE PUBLIC


PERFORMANCE OF POETRY:
1. PANEGYRIC (MADH)
2. LAMPOON (HIJĀ’)
3. ELEGY (RITHĀ’)

PANEGYRIC (MADH)

- The praise of the tribe and its elders, a genre of poetry that was to become the
primary mode of poetic expression during the Islamic period.

- Panegyric was adopted immediately in the cause of Islam. The 6th and 7th
century poet Ḥassān ibn Thābit, often referred to as “the Prophet’s poet,”
composed panegyrics in praise of Muhammad, recording his victories in
strident tones and initiating a tradition of poems in praise of the Prophet of
Islam that continued throughout the ensuing centuries.

- As an important source of patronage, the panegyric became the major mode of


expression in qaṣīdah form until the 20th century.

- A short list of other great classical figures would have to include Bashshār ibn
Burd, Abū Tammām, al-Buḥturī, Abū Firās, and Abū Tammām.

Examples

• The great master of the genre, and arguably Arabic’s most illustrious poet, al-
Mutanabbī, is quite unsubtle in making this point in a famous ode in praise of
the great 10th-century ruler of Aleppo, Sayf al-Dawlah:

To you belongs the praise regarding the pearls that I pronounce;


You are the giver, but I am the arranger.

• The pre-Islamic poet al-Nābighah addressing his ruler:

You are the sun itself; other monarchs are stars.


When your light shines bright, the other stars vanish.

• The Christian poet al-Akhṭal, for instance, extolled figures who were now not
merely spiritual but also temporal rulers:

When nobility and number are taken into account, you hail from a house that
has no peer.

LAMPOON (HIJĀ’)

- The poet would be expected to take verbal aim at the community’s enemies
and impugn their honor

- The themes of hijāʾ (“lampooning”) and fakhr (“boasting”) thus often occur
together, and poets noted above for their contributions to the panegyric were
equally at home with the lampoon.

- While defeat in battle is, of course, a primary focus of derision in this type of
poetry, the honor of the community and the family has resided to a major
extent in the protection of its women.

Examples

• The ability of words to hurt and to shame is present in the Arabic poetic
tradition from the outset. The pre-Islamic poet ʿAmr ibn Qamīʾah is specific
on the point:
Many’s the tribal bard loaded with hatred whom I have tamed,
So, his folk have felt belittled and ashamed.

• Al-Ḥārith ibn Ḥillizah’s contribution to the tribal and poetic joust between
himself and ʿAmr ibn Kulthūm, recorded in Al-Muʿallaqāt, demonstrates one
form of insult within such a context:

We turned our attention to the Banū Tamīm tribe. As we marked the truce
month, Their daughters were our maidservants.

• The great poet Abū Nuwās seems to be aware of the risk he can take when he
even teases the caliph Hārūn al-Rashīd over a scandal concerning the caliph’s
sister:

If you get some pleasure from the removal of some rascal’s head,
Do not kill him by sword; marry him to ʿAbbāsah!

ELEGY (RITHĀ’)

- The celebration of the life and courage of a tribal comrade fallen in battle is
the occasion for the earliest elegies in Arabic.

- Like panegyrics and lampoons, the elegy was adaptable to the expectations of
the ever-expanding Muslim community and itself became a further means of
public affirmation—mourning the dead, to be sure, but also finding solace in
the strength of Islam and its rulers. Poetic divans of all eras are filled with
elegies of rulers and important figures.

- As human conflicts continued unabated through the 20th century and into the
21st, so the elegy continued to fulfill its generic purposes as an expression of
personal sorrow and broader communal grief and steadfastness.

• In her contributions to the genre, al-Khansāʾ mourns the loss of two of her


brothers, one named Ṣakhr:

On that day when I was forever parted from Ṣakhr, Ḥassān’s father,
I bade farewell to all pleasure and converse.
Ah, my grief for him, and my mother’s grief!
Is he really consigned to the tomb morning and night?

• A 7th-century Khārijite poet, for instance, laments Zayd, one of the group’s
fallen heroes:

To God I protest that, from every tribe, battle has destroyed the cream of men.
So long as the sun shines to the East, may God quench Zayd’s thirst,
And grant him a haven in the gardens of Paradise.
• The great philosopher-poet Abū al-ʿAlaʾ al-Maʿarrī combines his grief over
the loss of a relative with observations on the ephemerality of this life:

Soften your tread. Methinks the earth’s surface is but bodies of the dead,
Walk slowly in the air, so you do not trample on the remains of God’s
servants.

Later Genres

• WINE POETRY

• HUNT POETRY

• ASCETIC POETRY

• LOVE POETRY

WINE POETRY (KHAMRIYYAT)

- The earliest poetry in Arabic contains much description of wine and


revelry.

- The pre-Islamic poet al-Aʿshā was especially recognized for his wine


poetry. As such, he became a focus of special attention in a famous work
composed by al-Maʿarrī in the 11th century, Risālat al-ghufrān (A Divine
Comedy)

- The Qurʾān’s injunctions against wine drinking provide the context of such


discussions. These firm injunctions are an expression of Islamic orthodoxy,
but the very number of poetic divans that contain sections devoted to wine
poetry illustrates the extent to which poetry could be used to confront such
religious attitudes.

- With Abū Nuwās, the wine poem acquires a set of actors—the publican, the
companions, the wine pourer (sāqī), the curvaceous wine bottle—all of whom
tilt against the fates.

Example

• The opening lines of the muʿallaqah of ʿAmr ibn Kulthūm are a famous


instance:

Up there, maiden, and bring us a morning draught in a goblet;


Do not hold back on the prize vintages of ʿAndarīn!

• One of the Umayyad caliphs, al-Walīd ibn Yazīd, was a notable wine poet,
and the spirit of challenge to orthodoxy reached its height with Abū Nuwās,
who, far from concealing his bibulousness, was determined to flaunt it:
Ho, pour me a glass of wine, and confirm that it’s wine!
Do not do it in secret, when it can be done in the open.

• The opening line of his mystical khamriyyah mentions not only wine but also
the ancient theme of the absent beloved.

In remembrance of the beloved, we drank a wine,


Through which we were drunk before the vine was ever created.

HUNT POETRY (TARDIYYAT)

- The many hunt scenes to be found in the earliest Arabic poetry—one of the
most notable is in Imruʾ al-Qays’s muʿallaqah—illustrate the love of this
sport among the Arabs of the desert, one that continues to the present day.

- In these poems the scene of the morning departure is still present, having been
carried over from the opening section of the qaṣīdah, and the speaker’s
companions are the saker falcon and the hunting dog. Both are often portrayed
in luxuriant detail and often become the poem’s heroes. 

Examples

• Abū Nuwās’s divan contains many examples of this category:

When a fox emerges at the foot of the mountain,


“Up!” I yell to my hound, and he rushes away like a hero.
Brave-hearted he is, a splendid worker, well trained,
And perfect in every way.

• The caliph, poet, and critic Ibn al-Muʿtazz clearly reflects his personal


interests and experience in his own contributions to the hunt poem:

The trainer brought out a lithe saluki-hound


that he had often used…,
She snatches her prey without hesitation,
Just as a mother hugs her children.

ASCETIC POETRY (ZUHDIYYAT)


- The proclivity, often indulged in by the Arab poet, for homiletic advice and
contemplation found a fruitful source in not only the Qurʾān’s pointed
comments on the ephemerality of this life in comparison with the next but also
the Islamic community’s quest for a more individual mode of access to the
transcendent.
- As is the case with other religions, the latter is closely linked to
the advocacy of an ascetic life, a call in which the Qurʾānic message is
proclaimed by the life and sayings of a figure such as al-Ḥasan al-Baṣrī.
- While many poets contributed to the repertoire of the ascetic poem, it is Abū
al-ʿAtāhiyah whose name is most closely associated with the genre.
- With al-Maʿarrī these expressions of asceticism and rejection of this world and
its values were coupled with a vigorously iconoclastic attitude toward Islamic
orthodoxy of his time and toward those who advocated its tenets.

Examples
• The pre-Islamic muʿallaqah poet Zuhayr finishes his long poem recounting
tribal warfare and attempts at reconciliation with a series of reflections and
maxims:
Life’s experience has taught me the happenings of yesterday and
today;
As for the morrow, I admit to being totally blind.
• In one of al-Maʿarrī most famous lines he states:
Would that a babe could die at the hour of its birth
And never suckle from its mother in her confinement.
Before it can even utter a word, it says to her: All you will
Glean from me is grief and trouble.
• The modern Egyptian poet Ṣalāḥ ʿAbd al-Ṣabūr, for instance, depicts a rural
preacher in his “Al-Nās fī bilādī”:
So-and-so constructed palaces for himself and raised them up…
But one weak-echoed evening arrived the Angel of Death…
And down into Hell rolled the soul of So-and-so.

LOVE POETRY (GHAZAL)


- The theme of love has been present in the Arabic poetic tradition since the
earliest poems committed to written form. The bulk of the love poetry that has
been preserved was composed by male poets and expresses love and
admiration for women .
- The earliest Arabic poems reveal distinctly different attitudes to the theme of
love. The desert environment, the nomadic lifestyle, and the need for constant
travel all contribute to a poetic vision that focuses on absence, departure, lack,
and nostalgia. In the majority of poems, the beloved is absent; memories of
her belong to the past, and future encounters are dependent on the dictates of
fate.
- During the Islamic period, this desert-inspired approach to love was adapted
and transformed into a strand of love poetry called ʿUdhrī, named for the tribe
to which the poet Jamīl, one of its best-known practitioners, belonged. In these
poems the lover spends a lifetime of absence and longing, pining for the
beloved who is tyrannical and cruel and yet remains the object of worship and
adoration.
- Imruʾ al-Qays poem is a clear precedent to another strand of love poetry that
emerged in Arabia’s urban centres early in the Islamic era. It is termed
ʿUmarī, named for the poet ʿUmar ibn Abī Rabīʿah, whose poems reveal much
closer contact with the beloved and reflect a strongly narcissistic attitude on
the part of the poem’s speaker.
- The genres of zajal and muwashshaḥ that originated in Muslim Spain had love
as their primary theme. Often blending both ʿUmarī and ʿUdhrī themes with
songs and popular poems in Romance dialects, they present a blend of images
and motifs that is representative of the cultural environment in which they
were created.

Examples
• The Syrian diplomat and poet Nizār Qabbānī managed in a single career to
become the Arab world’s primary love poet and a commentator on political
controversies:
Ah, my love!
What is this nation of ours that can treat love like a policeman?
• The Kuwaiti poet Suʿād al-Ṣabāḥ expresses her frustration with the continued
echoes of the earlier tradition:
I’m bored by ghazal of the dead…
Sitting down for dinner each night…
With Jamīl Buthaynah…
Please try to deviate from the text just a little
And invent me

MODERN ARABIC POETRY


• The penetration of poetry into the fabric of Arab-Islamic society in the
premodern era was a major factor in the continuing vigor that the neoclassical
school was to display well into the 20th century.
• The major break with tradition and, many critics would maintain, the onset of
a genuine sense of modernity came in the aftermath of World War II. The
quest for independence and the creation of the State of Israel were two
political factors that, along with many others, stimulated a cry for a more
“committed” approach to literature, with poetry fulfilling a central social
function in such a context.
• The Palestinian people were a continuing source of inspiration for politically
committed poets across the Arab world during the second half of the 20th
century, especially for Palestinian poets. Tawfīq Zayyād, Fadwā Ṭūqān, Samīḥ
al-Qāsim, and Rāshid Ḥusayn all addressed themselves to the injustices they
saw in Palestinian daily life. But Maḥmūd Darwīsh’s poetry, penned during a
lengthy career that continued into the 21st century, best encapsulates the fate
of his fellow Palestinians through vivid depictions of their losses, their
defiance, and their aspirations.

• The 1950s in the cosmopolitan city of Beirut witnessed the creation of the
poetry group Shiʿr, whose magazine of the same name was an influential
organ of change. At the core of this group were Yūsuf al-Khāl and Adonis,
arguably the most influential figure in modern Arabic poetry. In its radical
approach to poetic form and its experiments with language and imagery, this
group was emblematic of the many new directions that Arabic poetry was to
follow in the latter half of the 20th century.
• Poets such as the Lebanese Khalīl Ḥawī and the Egyptian Ṣalāḥ ʿAbd al-
Ṣabūr, both as well acquainted with the classical canon of Arabic poetry as
they were with recent trends in the West, left behind them divans that, like that
of al-Sayyāb, are already acknowledged as 20th-century classics of Arabic
poetry.
• While Adonis continued with his experiments in every aspect of his art, an
entire generation of poets across the Arabic-speaking world at the turn of the
21st century were taking poetry in a variety of new directions. Among the
notable poets were the Syrian Muḥammad al-Māghūṭ, the Moroccan
Muḥammad Bannīs, the Iraqi Saʿdī Yūsuf, and the Egyptians Muḥammad
ʿAfīfī Maṭar and Amal Dunqul.
• In the 21st-century world of global communication and of television, video,
and the Internet, Arabic poetry struggled to find a place within the public
domain, but, when political crises loomed, it was the voice of the poet that
continued to express the conscience, the agony, and the aspirations of the Arab
people.

PROSE

BELLES LETTRES AND NARRATIVE PROSE

• As has been the case with many world cultures, the emergence of a tradition of
belles lettres in Arabic is closely linked to the bureaucratic class and its quest
for professional identity.

• Alongside these earliest examples of “prose,” a number of official documents


have also survived in the form of treaties and the like. Also recorded were
accounts of the pre-Islamic peninsular tribes and especially of their great
battles.

• These latter accounts, the so-called Ayyām al-ʿArab, were couched in a


particular format that was an indigenous characteristic of the anecdote, the
generic title of which is khabar. The first segment in this format consisted of
the isnad. This initial segment was then followed by the matn.

• The most authentic reports were gathered into collections of Ḥadīth, accounts
of the Prophet’s sayings and actions. The best-authenticated reports became
part of two collections, both called the Ṣaḥīḥ, compiled by al-Bukhārī and
Muslim ibn al-Ḥajjāj, which together are the second most important source of
Islamic law and practice after the Qurʾān itself. These reports also became part
of the collections of maghāzī and sīrah.

POPULAR NARRATIVES

• To a Western world for which The Thousand and One Nights has long since
become a classic of world narrative, it is something of a surprise to learn that
attitudes within Arab societies toward appropriateness of language use and
performance mode have excluded that collection and a host of other huge
compilations of narrative from the Arabic literary canon.

• Intense Western interest in the collection followed its translation into French
by Antoine Galland and resulted in the addition of numerous tales to the
original collection, which includes fewer than 170, and in the subsequent
publication of “complete” versions. But it was only in the late 20th century
that the advent of social-scientific modes of research moved beyond questions
of “sources” and engaged in serious investigation of the narrative features of
these collections.

• Until the advent of broadcast media, the ḥakawātī remained a major fixture of
Arabic-speaking countries, choosing a select spot either in the open air of
evening or in a café from which to recite episodes from some of the great
sagas of Arab lore.

• These include the exploits of the legendary poet-cavalier ʿAntar, the much-
traveled tribal confederacy of the Banū Hilāl, the warrior princess Dhāt al-
Himmah, and the wily ʿAlī Zaybaq.

MODERN FICTION

• The development of modern Arabic fiction took place within a cultural context
in which two major forces were in play and sometimes in confrontation.

First: “the rediscovery of the West”

Second: “a search for inspiration in the Arabic literary heritage”

• During the earliest phases, the influence of Europe and its literary heritage was
very strong, with Arab writers impelled by the need to address the realities of
European colonization in large portions of the Middle East.
• Inhabitants of the region initiated or renewed contacts with the countries to the
north and west: Italy first and then France.

• Missions of students sent to study language and technology returned and


commenced the process of translating texts into Arabic. At first those texts
were mostly of a practical nature, but the proclivities of many of the
translators insured that works of literature were soon added to the repertoire of
available texts.

• The process of introducing these new genres to an Arab world readership from
the outset relied to a substantial extent on publication opportunities afforded
by the press: daily newspapers and specialized weekly and monthly journals.

THE SHORT STORY

• It is certainly the first to adapt itself to a new cultural environment, as writers


set about using it as a means of illustrating social problems.

• The pages of the press permitted early Egyptian pioneers in short narrative
such as ʿAbd Allāh Nadīm and Muṣṭafā Luṭfī al-Manfalūṭī to publish vignettes
in which they cast a critical eye on the habits and foibles of their fellow
countrymen, while in Lebanon Khalīl Jubrān and later Mīkhāʾīl Nuʿaymah
analyzed the problems of family life and broader societal issues—the role of
the clergy, problems of emigration, the crushing effects of city life, and so on.

• A major advance in short-story writing occurred in the early and mid-20th


century with a group of Egyptian writers who became known as Jamāʿat al-
Madrasah Ḥadīthah (“New School Group

• While Egyptian writers continued to advance the generic prominence of the


short story, writers in other regions—albeit with differing chronologies—
developed their own local traditions; these include the Palestinian Khalīl
Baydas, the Tunisian ʿAlī al-Duʿājī, the Iraqi Dhū al-Nūn Ayyūb, and the
Lebanese Tawfīq Yūsuf ʿAwwād. With the increasing emergence of women
into the public domain (once again a variable phenomenon across countries),
women writers began to contribute short stories that provided new insights
into issues of family and society; among such pioneers are Suhayr al-
Qalamāwī of Egypt, Ulfat Idilbī of Syria, and Samīrah ʿAzzām of Palestine.

• Yūsuf Idrīs of Egypt - Beginning a writing career in the 1950s with an


outpouring of story collections, Idrīs—who wrote plays and novels, as well as
publishing many more story collections in the last half of the 20th century—
managed to recount in his vignettes the realities of the life of the poor,
primarily in the Egyptian countryside but also in the ancient quarters of Cairo.
As political oppression began to impinge upon the daily life of Egyptians,
Idrīs added to his authentic visions a series of new and symbolic portrayals of
oppression and alienation that encapsulated an entire era in contemporary
Arab societies.

• Zakariyyā Tāmir of Syria - Zakariyyā Tāmir’s contributions to the genre


tend to be concerned with a highly terse and symbolic representation of the
callous indifference of authority and bureaucracy, often expressed through
nightmarish visions of violence, both verbal and physical.

• At the beginning of the 21st century, the short story was by far the most
popular literary genre in the Arab world; for nonprofessional writers it was a
relatively short-term project with the prospect of many publication outlets, and
for readers it provided an opportunity to interpret a brief expression of
contemporary concerns, both social and political. The short story was also on
frequent occasions readily adaptable to the more lucrative and increasingly
available alternatives of film and television.

A very short list of distinguished contributors to the genre would include:

• Aḥmad Būzufūr (Būzfūr) of Morocco

• Ḥasan Naṣr of Tunisia

• Ḥaydar Ḥaydar of Syria

• Fuʾād al-Tikirlī and Muḥammad Khuḍayyir of Iraq

• Laylā al-ʿUthmān of Kuwait

• Yaḥyā al-Ṭāhir ʿAbdallāh

• Muḥammad al-Bisāṭī

• Salwā Bakr

• Ibrāhīm Aṣlān of Egypt

THE NOVEL

• Through the popularity of early translations into Arabic of works of European


fiction (Jules Verne and Alexandre Dumas, père being especially popular) and
imitations of them by Arab writers, the novel rapidly established a place for
itself within the currents of intellectual change during the 19th century.

• Among the earliest examples of the novel in Arabic were Ghābat al-ḥaqq
(1865; “Forest of Truth”), an idealistic allegory about freedom that was
published in Syria by Fransīs Marrāsh, and Al-Huyām fī jinān alshām (1870;
“Passion in Syrian Gardens”), a work set during the 7th-century Islamic
conquest of Syria, by Salīm al-Bustānī.
• The latter work appeared in serial form in the Bustānī family’s journal, Al-
Jinān, and this publication mode established a pattern that was to be followed
by writers of Arabic fiction for many subsequent decades.

• Premodern history also came to be frequently invoked in the Arabic novel.


This trend found a notable exponent in Jurjī Zaydān, who used the pages of his
own journal, Al-Hilāl, to publish a series of novels that educated and
entertained generations of readers by setting key events in Islamic history
against local backgrounds.

• Alongside these early efforts in novel writing, a neoclassical strand of


narrative became evident, one that focused in particular on the classical genre
of the maqāmah.

• Nāṣīf al-Yāzijī’s Majmaʿ al-Baḥrayn (1856; “The Meeting Place of the Two
Seas”) is a conscious revival of the style and generic purpose of earlier
examples, but Aḥmad Fāris al-Shidyāq’s Al-Sāq ʿalā al-sāq fī mā huwa al-
Fāryāq (1855; title translatable as “One Leg over Another [or The Pigeon on
the Tree Branch], Concerning al-Fāryāq [Fāris al-Shidyāq]”), which contains a
set of maqāmāt, looks to the future in its use of the autobiographical travel
narrative (and its incorporation of a female voice) as a means to compare and
criticize contemporary societies. Those critical features are even more marked
in another neoclassical and transitional narrative, Muḥammad alMuwayliḥī’s
Ḥadīth ʿĪsā ibn Hishām (1907; “Īsā ibn Hishām’s Tale”), a highly sarcastic
account of turn-of-the-century Egypt under British occupation.

• As is to be expected, the importation and adaptation of the novel genre in the


Arabic-speaking world involved a longer process than that of the short story.
While the developmental sequence was relatively similar within each
subregion, the chronology was not.

• Thus, an important moment in the Egyptian tradition was the initially


anonymous publication in 1913 of a novel, Zaynab (Eng. trans. Mohammed
Hussein Haikal’s Zainab), by “a peasant Egyptian.” It presents the reader with
a thoroughly nostalgic picture of the Egyptian countryside, which serves as the
backdrop for the fervent advocacy of the need for women’s education. The
author, Muḥammad Ḥusayn Haykal, had written the work while studying in
France, and the influence of a variety of European Romantic narrative
traditions is very clear.

• The confluence of a series of political, social, and critical trends in the


Arab world— the development of nationalist ideas, which gave rise to a
quest for independence from colonial occupation and a new sense of
identity, coupled with developments in education and a concomitant
interest in other literary traditions—resulted in a concentration of
creative energy on the novel during the 1930s. The process may be seen as
beginning with the appearance of Ṭāhā Ḥusayn’s fictionalized autobiography,
Al-Ayyām (3 parts, 1929–67; The Days), and the republication of Haykal’s
Zaynab in 1929. The following decade saw the appearance of works by
Tawfīq al-Ḥakīm (notably ʿAwdat al-rūḥ [1933; Return of the Spirit] and
Yawmiyyāt nāʾib fī alaryāf [1937; “Diary of a Country Prosecutor”; Eng.
trans. The Maze of Justice]), Ibrāhīm alMāzinī, ʿAbbās Maḥmūd al-ʿAqqād,
Maḥmūd Taymūr, and Maḥmūd Ṭāhir Lāshīn. Much influenced by these
important literary figures, a young philosophy graduate from Cairo University
began to explore the novel genre, and in 1939 the first novel of Naguib
Mahfouz (Najīb Maḥfūẓ) appeared, a historical novel set in ancient Egypt
entitled ʿAbath al-aqdār (“Fates’ Mockery”).

• Mahfouz, who in 1988 became the first Arab writer to win the Nobel Prize
for Literature, is acknowledged as the writer who brought the Arabic
novel to a stage of complete maturity and acceptance within the Arabic-
speaking world. Over his lengthy career he experimented with technique in a
variety of ways. He started with the social realism of his “quarters” novels,
each one set in a different section (quarter) of the old city of Cairo, which
culminated in the justly famous Cairo Trilogy (1956–57). He then turned to a
more symbolic mode in his novels of the 1960s (with examples such as Al-
Liṣṣ wa al-kilāb [1961; The Thief and The Dogs] and Thartharah fawq al-Nīl
[1966; “Chatter on the Nile”]). Thereafter he participated with the members of
a younger novelistic generation in a variety of explorations of newer modes
and styles while still casting a critical eye on developments in his own
homeland and reflecting on the major issues confronting the citizens of the
Third World.

• Like the short story, the novel genre now flourishes throughout the Arab
world; the demands of time and expense in both creation and publication may
make the novel somewhat less plentiful than the short story, but to the
Egyptian critic Jābir ʿUṣfur, the beginning of the 21st century marked “the era
of the novel,” to cite the title of his book Zamān al-riwāyah (1999).

Drama

• As the most public of genres, drama always presents the literary historian with
a rich blend of exemplars and issues. When the textual forms, language levels,
and publics are as varied as those of the Arabic-speaking world, the topic
becomes particularly complex. One might begin by pointing out that, in the
first decade of the 21st century, theatre was not present in some Arab-world
countries governed by conservative regimes, such as Saudi Arabia, and was a
new phenomenon in others, such as the countries of the Persian Gulf.

• In many other countries where drama was permitted, every aspect of


production was subject to the closest scrutiny by censorship authorities
(known as lajnat al-qirāʾah). These practical issues aside, modern Arabic
drama continued to exist in a cultural milieu in which there was ongoing
tension between the perceived tastes (and concomitant financial support) of
elite and popular audiences and between the differing aesthetic criteria applied
to productions in the standard written (literary) language and the colloquial
dialects.

• Drama and its practitioners also found themselves confronted with the
popularity and global reach of rival media—film, television, and video, all of
which tended to have recourse to the same set of performers. If drama in the
West found itself similarly challenged, this was much more the case in a
number of Arabic-speaking regions where a tradition of literary drama was
barely a century old.

Beginnings

• Within this more comprehensive view of the history of drama, the premodern
era offers many examples of similar public performance genres in Arabic.

• The storyteller (ḥakawātī) regularly performed extracts from a whole series of


popular narrative sagas on the street, often accompanied by musical
instruments; his tales related, for example, the chivalry of ʿAntar or the
migration of the Banū Hilāl tribe and its hero, Abū Zayd, or the victories of
the sultan Baybars against the Crusaders.

• During the Shīʿite holy month of Muharram, Muslims processed through the
streets, reenacting the events of the Battle of Karbalāʾ (680 CE), during which
the Prophet Muhammad’s grandson al-Ḥusayn ibn ʿAlī was killed.

• Cafés and other public places also provided venues for shadow plays (khayāl
al-ẓill), which regularly poked fun at the foibles of politicians and bureaucrats.
Especially during the period of Ottoman control over large portions of the
Arabic-speaking world, the Karagöz puppet show was a prevalent popular
source of public entertainment, much like its Western analogue, the Punch-
and-Judy play. All these different types of public dramatic events retained
their popularity throughout the premodern era and remained a source of
inspiration for playwrights into the modern period, particularly for those who
endeavored to combine some of the effects of Brechtian dramatic theory with
a search into the heritage of the Arab past for inspiration.

• In addition to all the above manifestations of the dramatic in the premodern


era, the written texts for a series of 13th-century plays by the Egyptian oculist
Ibn Dāniyāl have survived. Because the author’s preface notes that these
“new” plays were intended to replace a series of other scripts that had become
hackneyed, it seems likely that the performance tradition into which they were
intended to fit had been in existence for some time. Ibn Dāniyāl’s examples
probably reflect the general spirit of the genre in that they are bawdy farces,
full of slapstick incident and scatological reference; the chief character in one
of the plays, Ṭayf al-Khayāl, is al-Amīr Wiṣāl, translatable as Prince
Intercourse.

Literary Drama

• In 1847 Mārūn al-Naqqāsh, who had recently returned from a stay in Italy,
obtained permission from the Ottoman authorities in Syria to produce in his
house Al- Bakhīl, a play inspired by Molière’s drama L’Avare. Most of the
actors involved either were members of his family or were friends. While
there are reports of earlier performances by visiting European theatre troupes,
this performance is generally regarded as the beginning of the modern Arabic
tradition of staged performance of text-based drama. These early beginnings in
Syria were among the many social and cultural phenomena in that region that
were disrupted by the civil war that erupted in the 1860s.

• Prominent among the other troupes was that of Abū Khalīl al-Qabbānī, whose
performances in Damascus had been censored and even canceled after
complaints from the conservative Islamic establishment. The theatrical scene
that these Syrian émigrés encountered in Egypt was both lively and varied. To
perform his dramas in the colloquial dialect, the Egyptian Jewish playwright
Yaʿqūb Ṣannūʿ had assembled a troupe that attracted the attention of the
khedive of Egypt, Ismāʿil, who encouraged Ṣannūʿ to produce more—until,
that is, he discovered that he himself was the butt of some of the humour.

• Alongside such popular fare, the translator Muḥammad ʿUthmān Jalāl


“Egyptianized” several plays by Molière, including, most famously, a version
of Tartuffe, Al-Shaykh Matlūf. The Egyptian public thus found an evening’s
entertainment might consist of a serious text-based drama based on the fabled
Arabian past, a popular farce with strong political overtones, or even the
performance of an opera by Giuseppe Verdi at the newly constructed opera
house.

• In fostering this performance tradition, Egypt served a pioneer role in the


Arabicspeaking world after the earlier but aborted initiatives in the Syrian
region. Drama spread to other regions through the visits of troupes from both
Western countries and Egypt itself. This was particularly true for the countries
of northwest Africa (the Maghrib), where such visits to Tunisia in 1908 and
Morocco in 1923 led to the appearance of local troupes, while the famous
actor Jūrj Abyaḍ—a Christian from Syria—took his renowned troupe from
Egypt to Iraq in 1926.

• Because of the popularity of slapstick forms and the increasingly prevalent


role of singing and dancing in performances, Arab audiences maintained an
ambiguous understanding of the essence of drama—whether, in short, it was
“literature” or entertainment. In response there arose a perceived need for
plays that would underline the literary and textual aspect of drama. The
fulfillment of that project was the enormous achievement of the Egyptian
writer Tawfīq al-Ḥakīm, who, because of the theatre’s reputation, felt
constrained to publish his earliest plays under the pseudonym Ḥusayn
Tawfīq.

ARABIAN NIGHTS
The Arabian Nights, also known as A/The Thousand and One Nights is one of the
world’s most famous and beloved collections of legends and folktales. The stories, most of
which are believed to be Persian, Indian, or Arabian in origin, probably evolved over many
centuries of storytelling before they were written down. The earliest known collection was
Persian; this collection was translated into Arabic during the 800s.

Antoine Galland’s
During the early 1700s, Antoine Galland’s translated the Story into French and
introduced Europeans to the tales. He added numerous stories including the famous Aladdin
and Alibaba.

Stories Within a Story


The One Thousand and One Nights, or the Arabian Nights, as it is also known, is
constructed as a “frame story” to which all the other tales are subsequently added. The tales
themselves come in a very wide variety of genres, including fables, adventures, mysteries,
love-stories, dramas, comedies, tragedies, horror stories, poems, burlesque, and erotica. 
The stories in the Arabian Nights are loosely tied together by a frame story. The
frame story features a woman named Scheherazade, who has been condemned to die by her
husband, cruel Sultan Shahriyar. The night before she is to die, she tells him a tale and
cleverly leaving it unfinished. The sultan, fascinated by the tale and burning with curiosity,
postpones her execution by thirty-six hours so that she can tell him how the story ends. The
following evening, Scheherazade once again tells a tale ending in a cliff-hanger, and the
sultan again postpones her death. The cycle is repeated for a thousand and one nights, at the
end of which the sultan lifts Scheherazade’s death sentence. They lived happily ever after.

Some Stories under the Arabian Nights:


a. The Story of Alladin or the Wonderful Lamp
b. The Story of Ali Baba and the Forty Thieves
c. The Story of the Enchanted Horse
d. The Story of the Fisherman and the Genie
e. The Story of the King and the Physician
f. The Story of Sinbad the Sailor
g. The Story of the Young King of the Black Isles
h. Abdulla of the Land and Abdulla of the Sea
i. The Illiterate Schoolmaster
j. The Beautiful Slave and Ali Shar
k. The Wise Boy
l. The Fable of the Peacock, the Peahen and the Duc
The Prophet - written by Lebanese American poet Kahlil Gibran, is a book of twenty-six
prose poetry fables which were first published in 1923 by Alfred A. Knopf.

The Prophet begins with a man named Almustafa who has been living in Orphalese for twelve
years. He has been chosen as the townspeople's prophet and sage while he waits for the right
ship to come along which will take him back to his homeland.
When he sees his ship arrive, Almustafa is happy but feels a sense of sadness at leaving the
people he has come to care for behind. He leaves the hills and returns to the temple in the city.
There, he is asked by the elders not to leave, but they ask him—if he must go—to tell them
about his philosophy on life and death.
The seer Almitra encourages Almustafa to answer the townspeople's questions, and she
herself opens with a question of her own. This encourages the townspeople to ask for counsel
on many issues that affect them, including food, drink, clothes, crime, religion, marriage,
children, love, death, good, evil, beauty, property, and friendship.
As the day draws to a close, Almitra blesses the day and the city and she, Almustafa, and the
townspeople move down to the pier towards the waiting ship. Almustafa offers one more
speech to the townspeople, thanking them and telling them that they have given him more
than he has returned to
them. He asks them to be patient in waiting for all that life has to offer and promises to return
to them in another incarnation.

BY KAHLIL GIBRAN
On Marriage
Love one another, but make not a bond
of love:
Let it rather be a moving sea between
the shores of your souls.
Fill each other’s cup but drink not from
one cup.
Give one another of your bread but eat
not from the same loaf.
Sing and dance together and be joyous,
but let each one of you be alone,
Even as the strings of a lute are alone
though they quiver with the same music.

Give your hearts, but not into each


other’s keeping.
For only the hand of Life can contain
your hearts.
And stand together yet not too near
together:
For the pillars of the temple stand apart,
And the oak tree and the cypress grow
not in each other’s shadow.

On Children
You may give them your love but not your thoughts
for they have their own thoughts
You may house their bodies but not their souls,
for their souls dwell in the house of tomorrow, which you cannot visit, not even in your
dreams.

A. Introduction to Chinese Literature


 China
a) It is located in East Asia. It is the largest of all Asian countries and
has the largest population of any country in the world. Occupying
nearly the entire East Asian landmass, it covers approximately one-
fourteenth of the land area of Earth.
- China—People’s Republic of China
- Capital City: Beijing
- Largest City: Shanghai
- Recorded history from some 3, 500 years ago
- Chinese Name: Zhongguo (Central Land)
 Chinese Literature
a) To many Westerners, Chinese Literature remains a hidden seam in
the rich strata of Chinese culture. As a matter of fact, it is a treasure
of a very considerable number of brilliant and profound works as
early as each dynasty, in the long history of China, has passed
down its legacy of magnificent events and works.
b) The main disadvantage of written Chinese is the great number of
characters it contains: Even basic reading and writing requires a
knowledge of more 1,000 characters. This has often made it
difficult to spread the skills of reading and writing into certain
areas of the country. But even with this disadvantage, Chinese has
been a potent factor in shaping and maintaining a cultural
continuity for millions of people.
 Historical Treasure
a) For 3500 years, the Chinese have woven a variety of genres and
forms encompassing poetry, essays, fiction and drama; each in its
own way reflecting the social climate of its day through the high
spirit of art. Chinese literature has its own values and tastes, its own
reigning cultural tradition and its own critical system of theory.
 Historical Periods
A. Classical Period
- 6th century BC to 2nd century AD
- Zhou Dynasty (1027-221 BC)
a) The oldest documents of Chinese writings are inscriptions written
on bones and tortoise shells dated about 1400-122 B.C. during the
so-called Shang or Yin dynasty. These inscriptions recorded
divinations performed at the royal capital. It is to be inferred that
there were songs, which still exit today, sung to the accompaniment
of the dance and music. The Classical Period was the period of
great intellectual awakening.
b) Composed of/Dominated by the Works of:
- Confucius
- Mencius
- Lao-Tzu
- Zhuangzi

B. Medieval Period
- 3rd century to late 12th century
- China suffered invasions by Tatar tribes
- Barren of Literary production
- Spread of Buddhism from India
- Flowering of Poetry and Prose
- Invention of Printing
a) The T’ang dynasty is considered by scholars as the “Golden Age of
Chinese Poetry.” It produced a star-studded list of poets who
composed to perfection Lu-Shieh (regulated poems), a stanza of
eight lines with five words or seven-word lines and an intricate
pattern of tonal contrasts.
b) Great literary achievements came; literary developments were
associated with religious freedom and goodwill.
c) The t’zu is a form of Chinese poetry, which became widely spread
during the latter part of the T’ang dynasty—from the eighth to the
tenth century. Usually sang to the tune of popular songs, the t’zu
has a folk song quality and is marked by lines of varying lengths.
The length of each line is dictated by the tune that the lyric is trying
to fit.
C. Early Modern Period
- 13th Century to the end of 19th century
- Written in vernacular language
- Yuan Dynasty (1279- 1368)
- Growth of Chinese Fiction and drama
D. Modern Period
- Started at the beginning of 20th century
- Age of Prose
- New fictions in the form of short stories
- Gao Xingjian (1940) won the Nobel Prize for Literature in the
year 2000
 Splendor of Chinese Literature
a) Chinese literature can be used as an escape into a beautiful world and
time, a guide to virtuous living, and a historical map through images
and philosophy.
B. The Five Classics of Confucianism
 Confucius
He is also known as "Kong Qiu" or "K’ung Fu-tzu". He is a Chinese
philosopher, teacher and political figure. His teachings, preserved in the
Analects, focused on creating ethical models of family and public
interaction and setting educational standards. After his death, Confucius
became the official imperial philosophy of China, which was extremely
influential during the Han, Tang and Song dynasties.
 Confucianism
Confucianism is the worldview on politics, education and ethics taught by
Confucius and his followers in the fifth and sixth centuries B.C. Although
Confucianism is not an organized religion, it does provide rules for
thinking and living that focus on love for humanity, worship of ancestors,
respect for elders, self-discipline and conformity to rituals.
 Chun Tzu
- “gentleman” (junzi)
- denoting “the man with a cultivated moral character”
 Fundamental Principles of Confucianism
Li
a) it is the principle of self-restraint and sense of propriety that should be
inculcated in a person. A person should always act in a honorable way
and respect his elders, his ancestors, and his family members.
Hsiao
b) It is love for the immediate family and then society. It’s the principle of
love of parents for their children and of children for their parents.
Yi
c) It is the principle of righteousness. It is upholding what is right above
everything else and sacrificing oneself for it, if need be.
Xin
d) It is the principle of honesty in life. Being honest with oneself and
being honest with the people around you build trust and confidence.
Ren (Jen)
e) It is the most important of all principles. It means being kind and
humane to your fellow beings. Sharing and understanding each other
without being overtly judgmental.
Chung
f) It is loyalty to one’s family and to one’s country. It is a quality which
binds a country strongly together.
 The Five Important Relationships
a) Ruler-Subject
b) Parent-child
c) Husband-wife
d) Elder sibling- younger sibling
e) Elder friend-younger friend (or friend to friend)
 Examples of Confucius Philosophies
The Golden Rule
a) Confucius’ social philosophy was based primarily on the principle
of "ren" or "loving others" while exercising self-discipline. He
believed that ren could be put into action using the Golden Rule,
"What you do not wish for yourself, do not do to others." (Lunyu
12.2, 6.30).
On Politics
b) Confucius’ political beliefs were likewise based on the concept of
self-discipline. He believed that a leader needed to exercise self-
discipline in order to remain humble and treat his followers with
compassion.
c) In doing so, leaders would lead by positive example. According to
Confucius, leaders could motivate their subjects to follow the law
by teaching them virtue and the unifying force of ritual propriety.
The characteristics of a good ruler (or civil servant):
- moral goodness (virtue and propriety)
- rationality
- moderation
- benevolence
On Education
d) Confucius’ philosophy of education focused on the "Six Arts":
archery, calligraphy, computation, music, chariot-driving and
ritual. To Confucius, the main objective of being an educator was
to teach people to live with integrity.
e) Through his teachings, he strove to resurrect the traditional values
of benevolence, propriety and ritual in Chinese society.
On Wit and Wisdom (Quotes)
f) “To know what you know and know what you don’t know is the
characteristic of one who knows.”
g) “A man who has committed a mistake and doesn’t correct it is
committing another mistake.”
h) “A man who has a beautiful soul always has some beautiful things
to say, but a man who says beautiful things does not necessarily
have a beautiful soul.”
i) “A man who brags without shame will find great difficulty in living
up his bragging.”
j) “A man who does not think and plan long head will find trouble by
his door.”
 The Five Classics of Confucianism
Book of Changes or Book of Divinations or Oracles (I-Ching)
a) The Book of Changes contains a system of divination, which is
centered largely around the principles of yin and yang. The Book of
Changes has also been translated as I Ching or Classic of Changes.
Some of the divination practices are still used today.
Book of Rites or Book of Rituals (Li-Ching)
b) The Book of Rites described the social norms, governmental
organization, and the ritual conduct during the Zhou dynasty.
Believed to have been compiled by Kongzi, the Book of Rites is
the foundation of many ritual principles that arise in later imperial
China. According to the Book of Rites, proper ritual conduct would
maintain harmony in the empire, as well as emphasize the virtue of
piety.
Book of Historical Documents (Shu-Ching)
c) The Book of Documents is a compilation of 58 chapters detailing
the events of ancient China. The Book of Documents tells the deeds
of the early sage-kings Yao and Shun.
d) These narratives are influential in the development of the
understanding of a sage. The compilation also includes the history
of the Xia, Shang, and Zhou dynasties. The Book of Documents is
often considered the first narrative history of ancient China.
Book of Poetry (Shih-Ching)
e) The Book of Odes (Book of Poetry) is also translated as the Book
of Songs or Book of Poetry. The Book of Odes is comprised of 305
poems dealing with a range of issues, including love and marriage,
agricultural concerns, daily lives, and war.
f) The Book of Odes contains different categories of poems, including
folk songs and hymns used in sacrifice. Kongzi is believed to have
selected the 305 poems in this collection from a much wider
collection.
Spring and Autumn Annals (Ch’un Ch’iu)
g) As the longest of the Five Classics, the Spring and Autumn Annals
is a historical chronicle of the State of Lu. Unlike the Book of
Documents, the Spring and Autumn Annals appear to have been
created specifically for annalistic purposes.
h) The Spring and Autumn Annals was traditionally understood as
being written by Confucius, but modern scholars believe the text
was actually written by various chroniclers from the State of Lu.

C. The Four Books of Confucianism


The Four Books
a) They are Chinese classic text illustrating the core value and belief
system in Confucianism. They were selected by Zhu Xi in the song
dynasty to serve as a general introduction to Confucian thought, and
they were in the Ming and Qing dynasties made the core of the
official curriculum of the civil service organization.
b) Confucianism is an ethical teaching founded by Confucius.
c) Confucius a Chinese, teacher, editor, politician and philosopher of
the spring and autumn period of Chinese history.
d) Confucius was born on the 28th day of September 551 BC and died
479 BC.
e) Kong Qui is the first name of Confucius.
f) Confucianism is the opposite of Taoism and the most important
religion that encompasses a variety of traditions and beliefs and
spiritual practices largely based on the teaching attributed to buddha.
g) Confucius claimed to derive his teaching from the ancient whose
wisdom is embodied in the five classics, The l Jing...
- He is extremely influential during the Han, Tang and Song dynasty
- Han (Former/western 206 BCE - 9 CE) (Later 25-220CE)
- Tang (618-906 CE)
- Song (960-1279)
h) Confucius is the founder of Confucianism; He influences the l
Ching, Book of Rites - his philosophy emphasized personal and
governmental morality, correctness of social relationship, justice and
sincerity.
i) His followers completed successfully with many other schools
during the hundred school of thoughts era only to be suppressed in
favor of the legalist during the qin dynasty.
j) He also recommends family as a basis for local government; he
embraced the well-known principle " do not do unto others what you
don't want to do and to you. _Golden Rule
The Analects
a) it is the most revered sacred scripture in Confucian tradition
b) It is a collection of sayings and ideas attributed to the Chinese
philosopher Confucius and his contemporaries traditionally believed
to have been compiled and written by Confucius followers.
However, it is more likely that it was his disciples of his followers
who wrote the book. The analects contain short stories and small
sayings.
c) it is believed to have been written during the warring states period
(475 BC -221 BC) and it achieved its final form during the mid-Han
dynasty (206 BC- 220 AD) by the early Han dynasty the analects
were considered merely a commentary on the five classics but the
status of the analects grew to be one of the central texts of Confucius
by the end of the dynasty.

The Analects
Confucius
Section 3 Part 12
Yen Yuan asked about perfect virtue. The Master said, “To subdue one’s
self and return
to propriety, is perfect virtue. If a man can for one day subdue himself
and return to propriety,
an under heaven will ascribe perfect virtue to him. Is the practice of
perfect virtue from a man
himself, or is it from others?”
Yen Yuan said, “I beg to ask the steps of that process” The Master
replied, “Look not
what is contrary to propriety; listen not at what is contrary to propriety;
speak not what is
contrary to propriety; make no movement which is contrary to propriety.
“Yen Yuan then said,
“Though I am deficient in intelligence and vigor, I will make it my
business to practice this
lesson.”
d) The analects have been one of the most widely read and studied
books in china for the last 2000 years and continues to have a
substantial influence on Chinese and East Asian thought and values
today.

 The Doctrine of Mean (Zhongyong/ Chung Yung)


a) It was added to the book of rites at one time. It talks highly about
"the mean" or "Equilibrium" a human being who follows "the way of
heaven" avoids extreme and remains harmony. This balance unites
the individual with the balance of the universe. The Doctrine of
Mean was first occurred in Book Vl, verse 29 of the Analects of
Confucius. Zhongyong, (Chinese: `Centre' and `Unchangeable' or
`Doctrine of the Mean') Wade-Giles romanization Chung-yung, one
of four Confucian texts that, when published together in 1190 by the
Neo-Confucian philosopher Zhu Xi, became the famous Sishu
(``Four Books'').
b) Zhu chose Zhongyong for its metaphysical interest, which had
already attracted the attention of Buddhists and earlier Neo-
Confucianists. In his preface Zhu attributed authorship of the treatise
(which was actually a chapter from Liji, one of the Five Classics of
antiquity) to Zisi (Kong Ji), a grandson of Confucius.
c) Zisi presented Zhongyong as the central theme of Confucian thought.
The two Chinese characters zhongyong (often translated `doctrine of
the mean') express a Confucian ideal that is so broad and so all-
embracing as to encompass virtually every relationship and every
activity of human life. In practice, zhongyong means countless
things: moderation, rectitude, objectivity, sincerity, honesty,
truthfulness, propriety, equilibrium, and lack of prejudice. For
example, a friend should be neither too close nor too remote. Neither
in grief nor in joy should one be excessive, for unregulated happiness
can be as harmful as uncontrolled sorrow. Ideally, one must adhere
unswervingly to the mean, or centre course, at all times and in every
situation. Such behaviour conforms to the laws of nature, is the
distinctive mark of the superior individual, and is the essence of true
orthodoxy.
d) Another chapter in Book of Rites, attributed to Confucius' grandson
Zisi. The purpose of this small, 33-chapter book is to demonstrate
the usefulness of a golden way to gain perfect virtue. It focuses on
the Way that is prescribed by a heavenly mandate not only to the
ruler but to everyone. To follow these heavenly instructions by
learning and teaching will automatically result in a Confucian virtue.
Because Heaven has laid down what is the way to perfect virtue, it is
not that difficult to follow the steps of the holy rulers of old if one
only knows what is the right way.

The Doctrine of the Mean


Confucius
“While there are no stirrings of pleasure, anger, sorrow, or joy, the mind
may be said to
be in the state of Equilibrium. When those feelings have been stirred,
and they can act in their
due degree, there ensues what may be called the state of Harmony. This
Equilibrium is the great
root from which grow all the human actings in the world, and this
Harmony is the universal
path which they all should pursue.
 The Great Learning, (Ta Hsueh/ Daxue)
a) It is a short discussion on the character and influence of the noble
person. it is doubtful that confucius wrote this. It was the very
first book memorizes and studied by Chinese students.
b) What the great learning teaches is to illustrate illustrator’s virtue,
to renovate the people; and the rest in the highest excellence.
c) *the great learning came from a chapter in book of rites which
form one of the five classics. It consists of the short main text
attributed to the teachings of Confucius and then 10 commentary
chapters accredited to one of Confucius disciples, Zengzi. The
ideals of the book where supposedly Confucius but the text was
written after his death.
d) Its importance is illustrated by Zengzi for word that this is the
gateway of learning. The Great Learning is the first of the Four
books which were selected by Zhu Xi during the Song Dynasty
as a foundational introduction to Confucianism. It was originally
one chapter in Classic of Rites. The book consists of a short main
text, attributed to Confucius, and nine commentaries chapters by
Zeng Zi, one of Confucius' disciples. Its importance is illustrated
by Zeng Zi's foreword that this is the gateway of learning.
e) Some of the terms within the text form an important part of both
classical and modern Chinese political discourse. For example,
the concept of world peace has been the stated goal of Chinese
statecraft from the Zhou dynasty to the Kuomintang to the
Communist Party of China. Another term used in the text qin-
min which Legge translates as renovating the people is the name
of the People First Party, one of the minor parties in Taiwan.
f) The Great Learning is significant because it expresses many
themes of Chinese philosophy and political thinking, and has
therefore been extremely influential both in classical and modern
Chinese thought. Government, self-cultivation and investigation
of things are linked. It links together individual action in the
form of self-cultivation with higher goals such as ultimate world
peace as well as linking together the spiritual and the material.
g) By defining the path of learning (tao) in governmental and social
terms, the Great Learning both links the spiritual with the
practical, and creates a vision of tao that is radically different
than that presented by Taoism. In particular, the Great Learning
sets Confucianism as being this-worldly rather than other-
worldly. Instead of basing its authority on an external deity, the
Great Learning bases its authority on the practices of ancient
kings. The text also sets up a number of controversies that have
underlain Chinese philosophy and political thinking. For
example, one major controversy has been to define exactly the
investigation of things. What things are to be investigated and
how has been one of the crucial issues of Chinese philosophy.

The Great Learning


Confucius
“Things being investigated, knowledge became complete.
Their knowledge being complete, their thoughts were sincere.
Their thoughts being sincere, their hearts were then rectified.
Their thoughts being rectified, their persons were cultivated.
Their persons being cultivated, their families were regulated.
Their families being regulated, their states were rightly governed.
Their states being rightly governed, the whole kingdom was made
tranquil and happy.”
 The Mencius
a) It is a lengthy collection of the sayings of Mencius one of the
disciples of Confucius who lives sometime after him. Many
of the sayings being with the phrase "Mencius said".
b) It is also a collection of conversations of the scholar Mencius
with king of his time period in contrast to the sayings of
Confucius, which are short and self-contained, dementias
consist of long dialogues with extensive prose.
c) Mencius also known by his birth name Meng ke or KO, he
was born in the state of Zou.
d) Mencius serve as an official and scholar at the Jixia Academy
in the state of Qi.
e) Mencius went on to become Confucius's greatest disciple.
f) The book Mencius records his doings and sayings and
contains statements on the goodness of human nature, a topic
warmly debated by Confucianists up to modern times
Mencius” is a Latinization (coined by Jesuit missionaries in
the 17th century) of the Chinese “Mengzi,” meaning Master
Meng. His full name was “Meng Ke.” Our main access to
Mencius’s thinking is through the eponymous collection of
his dialogues, debates, and sayings, the Mengzi (Mencius).
This work was probably compiled by his disciples or
disciples of his disciples.
g) It was subsequently edited and shortened by Zhao Qi in the
second century C.E., who also wrote a commentary on the
text. This version of the text was used by subsequent scholars
and is the version available to us nowadays. The received text
of the Mengzi is divided into seven “books,” each of which is
subdivided into two parts (labeled “A” and “B” in English),
and then further subdivided into “chapters.” As a result, a
passage can be uniquely identified in any translation; for
example, 1A1 is the first passage in any edition or translation
of the text and 7B38 is the last.
h) Mencius (fourth century BCE) was a Confucian philosopher.
Often referred to as the “Second Sage” of Confucianism
(meaning second in importance only to Confucius himself),
Mencius is best known for his claim that “human nature is
good.” He has attracted interest in recent Western philosophy
because his views on the virtues, ethical cultivation, and
human nature have intriguing similarities with but also
provocative differences from familiar Humean and
Aristotelian formulations.
i) It was Mencius who introduced the large component of
compassion to onfucius, Contrary to Kao Tzu, Mencius
believe that by nature of people were good.
j) Mencius believed the qualities characteristic only to man
were believe to be innate
 Two Qualifications
- Humanity or Jen- ‘love for one's fellow man’
- Justice or Yi- ability to judge right from wrong Example of
Mencius sayings:
- Friendship is one mind in two bodies.
- With melted snow I boil fragrant tea.
- The great man is he who does not lose his child's heart

 Other Famous Work


Tao Te Ching (Lao Tzu)
a) It is a classic text traditionally credited to the 6th century BC
sage Laozi, also known as Lao Tsu or Lao tze.
- 2400 years after it was composed
- translates very roughly as "the way of integrity".
- In its 81 vs it delivers a triathlon how to live in a
world with goodness and integrity: an important kind
of wisdom in a world where many people believe
such a thing to be impossible.
b) The Tao Te Ching, along with the Zhuangzi, is a fundamental
text for both philosophical and religious Taoism. It also
strongly influenced other schools of Chinese philosophy and
religion, including Legalism, Confucianism, and Buddhism,
which was largely interpreted through the use of Taoist words
and concepts when it was originally introduced to China.
 Lao Tzu
- Born (570-490BC) at Henan
- a Chinese philosopher and writer.
- founder of Taoism
- referred as divine sage Tao " the way" The "virtue " Ching "canon,
great book, classic" Tao The- Ching
Examples
"Always without desire we must be found, if it's mystery we
would sound; but if desire always within us be, its author fringe
is all that we shall see"_ Tao Te Ching

Lao Tzu
IV
How does the sea become the king of all streams?
Because it lies lower than they!
Hence it is the king of all streams.
Therefore, to rise above people, you must humble yourself in
your speech;
To be a leader of the people, you must put yourself behind them.
Thus, it is that when a Sage stands above all people, they do not
feel the heaviness of his
weight;
And when he stands in front of the people, they do not get hurt.
Therefore, all the world is glad to push him forward without
being tired of him.
V
Difficult thing in the world
Can only be tackled when they are easy.
Big things in the world
Can only be achieved by attending to their small beginnings.
Thus, the Sage never has to grapple with big things,
Yet, he, alone is capable of achieving them!
He who promises lightly must be lacking in faith.
He who thinks everything easy will end by finding everything
difficult.
Therefore, the Sage, who regards everything as difficult, meets
with no difficulties in the
end.
 The Art of the War
a) It is an ancient Chinese Military Treatise from late Spring and
Autumn Period. The work, which is attributed to the ancient
Chinese Military strategist Sun Tzu, is composed of 13
chapters.
b) The book contained a detailed explanation and analysis of the
Chinese military, from weapons and strategy to rank and
discipline. Sun also stressed the importance of intelligence
operatives and espionage to the war effort. Because Sun has
long been considered to be one of history's finest military
tacticians and analysts, his teachings and strategies formed
the basis of advanced military training for millennia to come.
c) Beginning around the 12th century, some Chinese scholars
began to doubt the historical existence of Sun Tzu, primarily
on the grounds that he is not mentioned in the historical
classic The Commentary of Zuo (Zuo zhuan), which
mentions most of the notable figures from the Spring and
Autumn period.
Sun Tzu
- General, Military strategist, writer and philosopher
- Lived in Eastern Zhou period of Ancient China
- The Art of War is traditionally attributed to an ancient
Chinese military general known as Sun Tzu (now
romanized "Sunzi"), meaning "Master Sun". Sun Tzu was
traditionally said to have lived in the 6th century BC, but
The Art of War's earliest parts probably date to at least
100 years later.
 One of the 13 Chapters by: Lionel Giles (1910)
1. Sun Tzu said: The art of war is of vital importance to the
State.
2. It is a matter of life and death, a road either to safety or to
ruin. Hence it is a subject of inquiry which can on no account
be neglected.
3. The art of war, then, is governed by five constant factors, to
be taken into account in one's deliberations, when seeking to
determine the conditions obtaining in the field.
4. These are: (1) The Moral Law; (2) Heaven; (3) Earth; (4) The
Commander; (5) Method and discipline.
5. The Moral Law causes the people to be in complete accord
with their ruler, so that they will follow him regardless of
their lives, undismayed by any danger.
6. Heaven signifies night and day, cold and heat, times and
seasons.
7. Earth comprises distances, great and small; danger and
security; open ground and narrow passes; the chances of life
and death.
8. The Commander stands for the virtues of wisdom, sincerely,
benevolence, courage and strictness.
9. By method and discipline are to be understood the marshaling
of the army in its proper subdivisions, the graduations of rank
among the officers, the maintenance of roads by which
supplies may reach the army, and the control of military
expenditure.
10. These five heads should be familiar to every general: he who
knows them will be victorious; he who knows them not will
fail.
 13 chapters of The Art of War Translated by Lionel Giles (1910)
1. Laying plans
2. Waging War
3. Attack by Strategem
4. Tactical Disposition
5. Use of Energy
6. Weak Points and strong
7. Maneuvering an Army.
8. Variation of Tactics
9. The army on the March
10. Classification of Terrian
11. The Nine Situation
12. Attack by Fire
13. Use of Spies
Example
- Now, when your weapons are dulled, your ardor damped,
your strength exhausted, and your treasure spent, other
chieftains will spring up to take advantage of your
extremity. To no man, however wise, will be able to avert
the consequences that must ensue"- Sun Tzu
 Tang Poems
a) Tang poetry (pinyin: Táng shī) refers to poetry written in or around the time of
or in the characteristic style of China's Tang dynasty, (June 18, 618 – June 4,
907, including the 690–705 reign of Wu Zetian) and/or follows a certain style,
often considered as the Golden Age of Chinese poetry. The Quantangshi
includes over 48,900 poems written by over 2,200 authors.
b) During the Tang dynasty, poetry continued to be an important part of social
life at all levels of society. Scholars were required to master poetry for the
civil service exams, but the art was theoretically available to everyone. This
led to a large record of poetry and poets, a partial record of which survives
today. The two most famous poets of the period were Li Bai and Du Fu. Tang
poetry has had an ongoing influence on world literature in modern times.
c) Li Bai , also known as Li Bo, courtesy name Taibai, art name Qinglian Jushi,
was a Chinese poet acclaimed from his own day to the present as a genius and
a romantic figure who took traditional poetic forms to new heights. He and his
friend Du Fu (712–770) were the two most prominent figures in the
flourishing of Chinese poetry in the Tang dynasty, which is often called the
"Golden Age of Chinese Poetry". The expression "Three Wonders" denote Li
Bai's poetry, Pei Min's swordplay, and Zhang Xu's calligraphy.
Du Fu
- was a Chinese poet and politician of the Tang dynasty
- Along with his elder contemporary and friend Li Bai (Li Bo), he is
frequently called the greatest of the Chinese poets.
- His greatest ambition was to serve his country as a successful civil
servant, but he proved unable to make the necessary accommodations.
- His life, like the whole country, was devastated by the An Lushan
Rebellion of 755, and his last 15 years were a time of almost constant
unrest.
Example
Tang Poems
“How beautiful she looks,
Opening the pearly casement
And how quiet she leans,
And how troubled her blow is!
You may see her tears now,
Bright on her cheek,
But not the man he bitterly loves”.
Li Bai, A Bitter Love.

D. A Wife Mourns for her Husband by Confucius


 Confucius
- Born: 28 September 551 BC, Lu
- Died: 11 April 479 BC, Lu
- Chinese philosopher and politician of the Spring and Autumn
period
 Confucianism - emphasized personal and governmental morality,
correctness of social relationships, justice, kindness, and sincerity.

A Wife Mourns for her Husband


By Confucius

The dolichos grows and covers the thorn,


O'er the waste is the dragon-plant creeping.
The man of my heart is away and I mourn--
What home have I, lonely and weeping?

Covering the jujubes the dolichos grows,


The graves many dragon-plants cover;
But where is the man on whose breast I'd repose?
No home have I, having no lover!

Fair to see was the pillow of horn,


And fair the bed-chamber's adorning;
But the man of my heart is not here, and I mourn
All alone, and wait for the morning.

While the long days of summer pass over my head,


And long winter nights leave their traces,
I'm alone! Till a hundred of years shall have fled,
And then I shall meet his embraces.

Through the long winter nights I am burdened with fears,


Through the long summer days I am lonely;
But when time shall have counted its hundreds of years
I then shall be his--and his only!

 Elements of Poetry used in the Poem


a) The Speaker: Wife
b) Content: Mourning of the wife for her beloved husband absence
c) Theme: True Love
d) Form: Structured Poetry
e) Rhyme scheme: abab cdcd abab ecec cfcf
f) Mood: Gloomy
g) Tone: Mournful
h) Figurative Language: Anaphora and Personification

 Other Chinese Famous Writers


Qu Yuan (339-278 BC)
a) Statesman and poet during the Warring States period
b) He has been attributed to the first seven poems of the Chu ci
(Songs of Chu)
c) He served under King Huai but was banished after composing the
poem “Li Sao” (Encountering Sorrow)
Wang Wei (701-761)
a) a painter, musician, poet, and devout Buddhist
b) He composed “landscape poems” while roaming the lands near the
Wang River, exchanging verses with his friend Pei Di

Shi Nai’en (1296-1372)


a) Chinese writer from the Yuan and early Ming periods
b) author of the first of the “four great classical novels”
- Water Margin or Outlaws of the Marsh
- Journey to the West
- Romance of the Three Kingdoms
- Dream of the Red Chamber
INDIAN LITERATURE

The Republic of India is a South Asian country which is known as the seventh
largest country in the world by its geographical area and the second most populous
country with over 1.2 billion people. India was derived from Indus which originated
from the Old Persian word Hindu. The word Hindu came from the Sanskrit word
Sindhu which was the historical name of the Indus River.

The four of the world’s major religions originated in India which influenced the
Indian writing. These Indian religions are Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism, and Sikhism
which are also known as Dharmic religions. India is one of the most religiously
diverse countries in the world and its religions play an important part in the lives of
the Indians.
INDIAN CULTURE

Hinduism is more than a religion. Hinduism is a way of life for many people
around the world. The Hindu philosophy comes from a wide range of beliefs from
scriptures and many other varied religious literatures. The Hindu culture is one that
revolves around love and respect for others. For example, respect for elders is a
foundation of Hindu culture. This acknowledgement of seniority is shown by sitting
to the left of elders, never sitting while they are standing, bringing gifts on special
occasions, not challenging or arguing, and by serving their food first. Hindus also
show respect in the way that they address each other. Someone who is younger never
addresses an elder by his or her given name. Even a younger brother will not address
an older brother by name, but instead as periannan (peh-ree-uh-NON), or annan (uh-
NON, older brother). A Hindu wife will only refer to her husband as “my husband” or
“him” and never by his given name. In order to show respect to holy men and
women, one will touch their feet in reverence of their humility (Subramuniyaswami,
2002).

Purity is another vitally important trait in Hindu culture. Hindus believe that
one must reach purity of three forms; mind, speech, and body or sometimes referred
to as thought, word, and deed. Hindus reach purity of the mind through meditation,
good company, and clearing the subconscious. Never using harsh, aggravated, or
crude language attains purity of speech. Keeping a clean and healthy physical body is
needed to attain purity physically and one must also only consume pure foods. One
must never touch food that one does not intend to buy and no one should offer
something to someone of which they had taken a bite or sip from.

A common saying in Hindu culture is “Life should be lived joyously!” This


ideology is exemplified in every aspect of Hindu culture. Hindus strive to keep a
friendly expression on their face and share a kind word with everyone they meet. It is
understood that every movement has a meaning and body language is very important
in the Hindu culture. So much so that the degree of openness of ones eyes in a smile
can determine ones interest and enthusiasm in a conversation and crossed arms while
standing can indicate non-participation and disinterest. All of these aspects lead to a
collection of refined gestures that are perceived in ones demeanour.

Values and Norms

The Hindu have many values and beliefs that make up their culture and help
guide them through life. These values usually aren't explicitly written out, but are
more subtle and are often shown through behavior and religious stories and practices.
There are many variations to Hindu values with the following common threads, truth,
dharma (DAR-muh), karma (KAR-muh) and the belief in a supreme being.

One of the main values of the Hindu culture is known as Dharma. Dharma
means striving for righteousness and upholding moral laws. The Hindu believe it is
important to make Dharma central to life and to live up to one's duties and abilities.
Dharma is often taught through stories and scripture where there are difficulties in
deciding what is right or wrong and how it is important to execute Dharma and
respond to situations righteously. The value of Satyam (SUT-yum) states that Hindus
believe they should speak the truth. If truth causes harm it is better not to say it. They
also have a strong belief in the law of Karma, which is the law of cause and effect
that states a person reaps what they sow. The way that a person conducts themselves
in life, whether positively or negatively, will determine their destiny. They believe
that no soul is eternally damned, but instead everyone has the ability to make choices
that will determine the form in which they will be reincarnated. If a person does not
live up to their Dharma and choose righteousness, they may be reincarnated to a state
that is lower than what they are presently at.

Another important value of the Hindu is Moshka (MOHK-shah). Moshka is the


liberation of an individual and the release of the soul from the cycle of life and death.
Moshka is the ultimate goal for the Hindu and can only be achieved through complete
realization and experience. A person must live all values, stay on the path of
knowledge and Dharma and unconditionally surrender to God in order to obtain
Moshka.

Religion

The Hinduism religion is one of the oldest living religions to date; it can be
traced back to 4,000 years ago and originated in India. It is now the 3rd largest
religion with more than 1 billion followers. The Hindu religion is also known as
Sanatan Dharma (SAN-uh-tan DAR-muh), which translates to Eternal Spiritual Path.
The sacred text that Hinduism bases many of its beliefs from is called the Vedas (vei-
duhs). The fundamental teaching found in the Vedas, also known as the Vedanta
(VEI-dawn-ta), is a human’s basic nature isn’t confined to the body or mind; there is a
spirit or spark of God in the soul. They see all things as a piece of God. For many
Hindu, this is not just a just a theory, but it’s something that can be experienced
through the practice of yoga. The four main types of yoga are Karma (car-ma), Bhakti
(BAK-ti), Jnana (juh-naw-naw), and Raja (ra-ja). Each type of yoga is practiced for a
different reason regarding your temperament.

The name for God in Hinduism is Brahman (bra-men). There are many
manifestations of Brahman and therefore many Gods and Goddesses that can be
worshipped. For example, a man can be known as a father, a brother, a husband, an
uncle, a grandfather, a cousin, a friend, and so on. This is the same for God. If there is
one manifestation of God that is preferred, then often times a Sect is created within
Hinduism to worship that manifestation of Him. All sects follow the teachings of the
Vedas/Vedanta regardless of which manifestation of God they choose. Many time
Hindus worship God in the form of an idol, which is why nature and animals are
sacred. The cow is the most sacred animal, which explains why vegetarianism is
strongly encouraged in the religion.
The three main deities, or forms of god, in Hinduism are Lord Brahma (bra-ma)
(the creator), Lord Vishnu (vish-nu) (the protector), and Lord Shiva (shee-va) (the
destroyer). These along with Lord Ganesha (gih-nai-shaa), Lord Krishna (krihsh-naa),
Lord Hanuman (huh-noo-mahn), Lord Rama (rAA-muh), and Goddess Parvati (paar-
vuh-tee) are the most popular deities (Hinduism Facts, n.d.).

Reincarnation plays a big role in the Hindu religion and it is the effect of all the
actions taken in this world. For example, a person born into a very privileged family
and has a “good” life is reaping the benefits from their actions in a previous life.
Rebirth will continue until the desires of the mind no longer exist and Maya (my-uh)
is overcome (Hinduism: background, basic beliefs, and sacred texts, 2002).

Maya is the struggle of having great ideas and solutions to the world’s
problems, but our actions not living up to that. It’s seeing the world full of injustice
and misery. The way out of Maya is to see the world correctly, for God is in all things
and through spiritual enlightenment and the practice of yoga a person may see that the
world is God alone. This is what defines Moksha (mohk-shuh), also known as,
spiritual freedom. When Moksha is achieved there are no desires and a deep
satisfaction, thus no longer a purpose for rebirth.

Communication Style and Language

Sanskrit is the official sacred language in Hinduism. It is not very popular


today, but it is still spoken in India and recognized as one of the official languages
(Wikipedia, n.d.). In the 2001 census in India, 14,135 people said that Sanskrit is their
native language. It is used in rituals, chants, and hymns in Hindu temples all over the
world. Vedic (VEI-dik) Sanskrit is the language of the Vedas (vei-duhs), which is one
of the sacred texts in Hinduism. Tamil (taa-mihl) is the second language of Hinduism.
It is the language of the 12 Tirumurais (tee-roo-muh-RI) and the Naalaayira Divya
Prabhandham (nay-lay-YEE-ruh tih-VEE-yuh pee-ruh-PAN-tahm), which are some of
their sacred texts. Sects in south India use Tamil along with Sanskrit and believe it to
have an equal status with Sanskrit (Wikipedia, n.d.). Some may practice silence as a
ritual; this is called maunbrat (MOHN-brAHT)

Hinduism communication style and language is varied due to where the Hindu
person lives and what sect they are apart of. Since Hinduism is such a large culture
and religion, there are many different types of people that belong to it. For example,
some are born in India and some are born in the UK; this will have a huge impact on
communication styles.

Hindus greet each other by placing palms together in front of them, also known
as Namaskar (NOHM-es-kar), while they bow their heads. This shows respect to the
belief that God exists in everyone. Children, in more traditional families, greet their
parents by touching their feet.
INDIAN TRADITIONS AND BELIEFS
 The culture of india is an amalgamation of sub cultures spread all over the
indian sub continent and traditions
 They are several millennia old.
 Several elements of india diverse culture- such as indian religions, yoga,
cuisine, clothing, festivals, languages and etc..

Namaskar
 Common spoken greeting
 Salutation
Religions & spirituality
 India is birth place of many religions
 Like Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism and etc
 Hinduism and Buddhism are the world’s 3rd
and 4rth largest religion
Language and literature
 There are many languages as india
 being the multi religious society
 Sanskrit, telugu, hindi, Malaya
lam, kannada
Marriage
 For centuries, arranged marriages
 have been the tradition in indian society
 They also demand dowry
 It has been outlawted by the Indian government
Festival
 India is multi religious society
 Celebrates festivals of various religions
 Many states and religions have different festivals depending on the religions.

INDIAN LITERATURE
 Indian Literature is one of the oldest and richest literatures around the because
it has the largest collection of manuscripts.
 It is also known as one of the most complex because it started during the times
when India was struggling with the creation of its official language.
 Indian Literature is poetic in nature and written in verses.

ORAL AND WRITTEN TRADITION


 They were transmitted orally in earlier times and the earliest times were
composed to be sung or recited.
 They were transmitted orally from generation to generation before they were
written down.
 Indian literary pieces are long and they were written and recorded in copper
plates, birch palm leaves, and papers.

EARLY SANSKRIT LITERATURE


 The first Indian literary work was a collection of Sanskrit hymns that was
orally transmitted.
 Vedas- (meaning knowledge) are large body of religious texts, originated in
Ancient India. The Vedas are written in Sanskrit and known as the oldest
scripture of Hinduism.
 According to researches, Ancient Indian Literature is one of the most beautiful
and largest to read and understand.
 Most of the literary works during these tines are religious texts.
 Ramayana and Mahabharata- two well-known epics that correspond to the
Indian culture. Mahabharata is the longest epic in the world.

CLASSICAL SANSKRIT LITERATURE


 Influenced by the importance of religion and Sanskrit
 Despite the fact that India has diverse languages, the importance of religion
and the influence of Sanskrit in many Indian languages enabled Sanskrit
Literature to grow over one millennium.

MEDIEVAL INDIAN LITERATURE


 Remained influenced by Sanskrit Literature
 Literary works created between 11th and early 19th Century were influenced
by Buddhist and Jain works.
 Sanskrit also gave way to Prakrit language which was also used in literary
works.
 During this period, the Muslim invasions and the arrival of the British also left
their mark in Indian Literature.

MODERN INDIAN LITERATURE


 The period of the Modern Indian Literature started with the first movements
for independence in the mid-19th Century.
 Literary works incorporated both the elements of Sanskrit and Western
Literature in the 20th Century.
 Indian English Literature in 20th Century- refers to literary works that are
written by Indian writers in English language.
CHARACTERISTICS OF INDIAN LITERATURE
1. Indian Literature is influenced by religion.
2. Indian literary masterpieces written in form of epics represent the great epochs
in the history of India.
3. Indian Literature reflects their traditions and beliefs.
4. Indian Literature reflects human values.

THEMES IN INDIAN LITERATURE


 Epic themes- began with the two legendary epics Ramayana and Mahabharata
and contemporary Indian writers were influenced by these two epics. Many
later Sanskrit literary pieces were also based on these themes.
 Romantic themes- romance in Indian Literature entails every aspect of life
such as dealing with war or battles, chivalry, relationship with heroic
adventures, and knights projecting their princesses.
 Social themes- Indian Literature reflects the Indian norms and social
structures. It reflects the Indian Literature as people are divided into four
Varna based on their profession or social status.

MAHABHARATA
The Mahabharata is one of the two major Sanskrit epics of ancient India, the
other being the Ramayana. It narrates the struggle between two groups of cousins in
the Kurukshetra War and the fates of the Kaurava and the Pandava princes and their
successors.
 Mahabharata is name of the book in Sanskrit language
 Composed B/W 300 B.C & 300 A.D
 Has the honor of being the longest epic in world literature
 Works are divided into 18 books

Who wrote Mahabharata?


Krishna-Dwaipayan Vyasa, himself a character in the epic, composed it; as,
according to tradition, he dictated the verses and Ganesha wrote them down. At
100,000 verses, it is the longest epic poem ever written, generally thought to have
been composed in the 4th century BCE or earlier.

SUMMARY OF MAHABHARATA

The Mahabharata is an epic that comprises one hundred thousand stanzas of


verse divided into eighteen books, or parvas. It is the largest single literary work in
existence. Originally composed in the ancient language of Sanskrit sometime between
400 BC and 400 AD, it is set in a legendary era thought to correspond to the period of
Indian culture and history in approximately the tenth century BC. The original
“author” was Vyasa who tried to tell about the Great War between the Pandavas and
the Kauravas - cousins who claimed to be the rightful rulers of a kingdom. The events
in the epic play out in the Indian subcontinent and surrounding areas. It was first
narrated by a student of Vyasa at a snake-sacrifice of the great-grandson of one of the
major characters of the story. Including within it the Bhagavad Gita, the Mahabharata
is one of the most important texts of ancient Indian, indeed world, literature.

PLAYS AND POEMS OF KALIDASA


 Kalidasa was a classical Sanskrit writer, widely regarded as the greatest poet
and dramatist in the Sanskrit language of India
 His plays and poetry are primarily based on the Vedas, the Mahabharata and
the Puranas.
 Several ancient and Medieval books state that Kalidasa was a court poet of a
king named Vikramaditya.
The most popular theory is that Kalidasa flourished during the reign of
Chandragupta.

KALIDASA- was a Brahman's child. At the age of six months he was left an orphan and
was adopted by an ox-driver. He grew to manhood without formal education, yet with
remarkable beauty and grace of manner.Scholars have speculated that Kalidasa may have
lived near Himalayas, in the vicinity of Ujjain, and in Kalinga

PLAYS OF KALIDASA
 Abhijnanashakuntala is the most famous and is usually judged the best India
literary effort of any period, the work tells of the seduction of nymph
Shakuntala by King Dushyanta, his rejection of the girl and his child, and their
subsequent reunion in heaven.

 Vikramorvashi tells a legend as old as the Vedas, though very differently. Its
theme is the love of a mortal for a divine maiden; it is well known for the mad
scene (Act IV) in which the king, griefstricken, wanders through a lovely
forest apostrophizing various flowers and trees as though they were his love.

 Malavikagnimitra is of a different stamp a harem intrigue, comical and


playful, but not less accomplished for lacking any high purpose. The play
contain datable references, the historicity of which have been much discussed

GITANJALI BY RABINDRANATH TAGORE


Rabindranath Tagore (1861-1941)
 He was born in Calcutta, State of Bengal, India (1861)
 He was from a well-known family
 He was a Noble Laureate and a great poet who contributed a lot in Indian
Literature.
 Won the Noble Prize for Literature in 1913
 Writer of Mahamaya and Gitanjali

GITANJALI (SONG OFFERINGS)


 Published in 1910, translated in 1912
 Collection of 103 poems
 “Gita” means song, “Anjali” means offering
 Song Offering to the Creator
 The Creator, The Nature, The Soul, and The Humanity
 Throughout the Gitanjali collection, Tagore expresses a joyful personalized
spirituality with emphasis on faith devotion and an individual’s relationship
with the divine in contrast with the official rules and practices of religion.
 The collection begins with the poet’s happiness in serving God. He described
his sufferings through separation from God and his re-awakening to God’s
presence.
 He also shared his wisdom through song and story and in the last part, he
connected his acceptance of his mortality and fulfillment of his life’s purpose.
 These collection of poems helped the Indians to see the Creator, the nature, the
soul, and the humanity differently.

PANCHATANTRA
The Panchatantra is a collection of folktales and fables that were believed to
have been originally written in Sanskrit by Vishnu Sharma more than 2500 years ago.
This collection of stories features animal characters which are stereotyped to
associate certain qualities with them.
The word Panchatantra is the combinations of the words Pancha –meaning
five in Sanskrit, and Tantra – meaning weave. Literally translated, it means
interweaving five skeins of traditions and teaching into a text.

What is Panchatantra all about?


The origins of the Panchatantra lie in a tale of its own, when a King approached
a learned pundit to ask him to teach the important lessons of life to his ignorant and
unwise sons.
This learned scholar knew that the royal princes could not understand complex
principles in an ordinary way. So, he devised a method wherein he would impart
important knowledge in the form of simple and easy-to-understand folktales.
Thus, the Panchatantra came into origin. It is one of the most popular collection
of Indian tales, and has influenced literature all over the world since the time of its
conception.
This particular version of the Panchatantra was translated by G L
Chandiramani, who has also translated the Hitopadesha. Panchatantra comes from the
individual words, 'pancha' and 'tantra'. While pancha refers to the number five, tantra
refers to ways/strategies related to inner fulfilment. The stories in this book aim to
impart the deeper wisdom of life, through the simple portrayal of animal characters.

What is the purpose of Panchatantra?: Benefits of reading Panchatantra Stories


 Fun reading
 Raising Curiosity and Furthering Brain Development
 Priceless Moral Lessons
 Rich Indian heritage values
 Quality Time
 Reading habit

How many parts are there in Panchatantra?


Panchatantra is a Sanskrit word derived from 2 words ‘Pancha’ means five, and
‘tantra’ means systems. Panchatantra has almost 50 stories, divided into five volumes.
Panchatantra Tales are based on the following five principles.

1. Mitra Labha: Mitra Labha (Gaining Friends)- is a collection of stories related


to winning friends. The stories under this principle teach us the importance of
friends and how good company leads to success.

2. Mitra Bheda : Mitra Bheda (Losing Friends)- is a collection of stories related


to losing friends. The stories cover 2 themes, Losing Friends is traumatic, and why
do we lose friends.

3. Kákolùkïyam (Crows and Owls- This volume has stories on rules and strategies
of war and peace. Kákolùkïyam (Crows and owls) can be a good training ground
for young minds to understand the value of peace over war.

4. Labdhapranásam (Loss of gains)- The stories from Labdhapranásam volume of


Panchatantra includes talks about how to come out of the difficult situations
without losing things. Everyone (Kids or Adults) in their lifetime have to go
through difficult circumstances, how we face these difficult circumstances, and
come out of them without losing things like faith are covered in this section.

5. Aparïksitakárakam (acting without thinking)- It is a rare collection of stories


about how imprudence leads to losing what is important. These tales teach us why
Actions without thought should be avoided at all costs and How important it is to
think out and plan your actions.

THE INDIAN WRITERS

Krishna- Dwaipayan Vyasa

 also known as Vyasa or Veda-Vyasa


 is a central figure in most Hindu traditions.
 He is traditionally regarded as the author of the Mahabharata, although it is
also widely held that he only composed the core of the epic, the Bhārata.
 A significant portion of the epic later was only added in later centuries, which
then came to be known as the Mahabharata.
 He is best known as the traditional author of the Mahabharata, one of the two
most important epics of Hinduism. He is also credited as the traditional
compiler of the Vedas, as well as the writer of other important works including
the Puranas
 The Mahabharata and the Ramayana are the two main epics of India
 The Vedas are the religious texts which inform the religion of Hinduism (also
known as Sanatan Dharma meaning “Eternal Order” or “Eternal Path”). ...
They are commonly referred to as “scripture”, which is accurate in that they
can be defined as holy writ concerning the nature of the Divine.

Maharishi Valmiki 
 One of the writer of Indian Literature, he is the author of one of the main
epics In India which is the Ramayana. he is called the Adikavi or First
Poet - the Poet of Poets of India.

Vishnu Sharma

 Was an Indian scholar and author who is believes to have written the
Panchatantra collection of fables.
 Vishnu Sharma chose the fable as his medium because he understood that
humans can accept their own foibles if they are presented entertainingly,
narrating as stories about beasts which we think inferior to humans in many
ways.
 Example of Panchatantra he made is THE FOUR FRIENDS AND THE
HUNTER

Rabindranath Tagore

 He was highly influential in introducing Indian culture to the West and vice
versa, and he is generally regarded as the outstanding creative artist of early
20th-century India.
 Tagore was a Nobel Laureate for Literature (1913) as well as one of India's
greatest poets and the composer of independent India's national anthem, as
well as that of Bangladesh. He wrote successfully in all literary genres, but
was first and foremost a poet, publishing more than 50 volumes of poetry.
 The Works of Rabindranath Tagore consist of poems, novels, short stories,
dramas, and essays that Bengali poet and Brahmo philosopher Rabindranath
Tagore created over his lifetime.
 Example of his work is the Gitanjali collection.

Kalidasa

 Kalidasa was the greatest of the Sanskrit dramatists, and the first great name in
Sanskrit literature after Ashvaghoshha
 (Sanskrit is the liturgical language of Hinduism and the main literary
language in Buddhism and Jainism, and has an important position in the
Indo-European studies.)
 In the field of drama, his work named Abhijananasakuntalam is quite famous,
and it is usually considered as one of the best literary efforts of all time
 After the epic drama like Ramayana and Mahabaharata it’s the work of
Kalidasa that is set before any. It’s the grace and genius of his astonishing
words that gave him the title of Aadi kavi which means the first and of its own
kind.
 Kalidasa is known for his Mythological stories woven in beautiful masterpiece
in form of poems and plays. Kalidasa is influencing hundreds of poets and
play writer since 2000 years and this influence can be seen reflecting the
beauty not only in literature but also in art like drawings, music, sculpture etc.
 Abhijnanashakuntala (Recognition of Shakuntala) is his world famous and the
most popular drama in seven acts about the love and marriage of Dushyant
and Shakuntala. This is the first Indian drama to be translated into a Western
language.

Ashvaghoshha

 Philosopher and poet who is considered India’s greatest poet before Kalidasa
(5th century) and the father of Sanskrit drama; he popularized the style of
Sanskrit poetry known as kavya.
 His fame lay largely in his ability to explain the intricate concepts of
Mahayana Buddhism. Among the works attributed to him are the Mahayana-
shraddhotpada-shastra (“The Awakening of Faith in the Mahayana”), the
Buddhacarita (“The Life of Buddha”), in verse, and the Mahalankara (“Book
of Glory”).

Ruskin Bond

 Is an eminent contemporary Indian writer of British descent. He authored


inspiring children’s books.
 He is considered to be an icon among Indian writers and children's authors and
a top novelist.
 Bond experimented with different genres; early works include fiction, short
stories, novella with some being autobiographical. Later, he tried out non-
fiction, romance and books for children. He said his favourite genres are
essays and short stories.
 His writing style is distinct in a way that it tries to make reader understand the
landscape and ethos through carefully mastered words.
 Reading Ruskin Bond, you realise that the appeal of any story lies in the
simplicity of writing style and depth of subject matter. Ruskin Bond is a writer
who lived in the hills, felt inspired by its rarefied air, and exhaled the stories
that took shape in his heart.

Ashwin Sanghi

 Ashwin Sanghi is an Indian writer who usually writes about thriller and
suspense. Despite writing in the present era of uncertainty among a certain
trend, Ashwin holds different themes than ordinary romance. He keeps things
good and polishes them to be better with his conventional style of writing.
Basically, he tries to present theological, mythological and historical concepts
in a contemporary context.
 His style, composition and narration style take a rather classical approach in
describing every possible detail. That’s why he is regarded as Indian Dan
Brown by many critics and the media. His novels are inspired by the high
values of mythology and theology.
 His novels are not written in any kind of hurry for giving a romantic solution
to any and every possible problem of life.
 Ashwin is not called the modern tale-teller of India without substantial
reasons. He is famous across the reading audience, in India as well as outside
India. His works offer the readers more than mere entertainment that most of
the novelists tend to offer these days.
 Example of his works is The Vault of Vishnu, Keepers of the Kalachakra,
The Sialkot Saga, and a lot more.

Sudha Murthy
Her books have been translated into all the major Indian languages.
 She is a writer who perfectly describes human emotions and behaviour in her
writings. Her books based on real life experiences are truly inspiring and give
you a larger perspective of life.
 Her writings mostly comprise of stories of common people and their
uncommon struggles, deeds and thoughts which give you lessons for a life
time.
 Sudha Murthy always inspired everyone to lead a simple life and listen to their
conscience. She believes the beauty of a person lies in simplicity and
confidence; so she says live life for you and not for others.

Example of his works is The Serpent’s Revenge, The Bird with the Golden Wings,
etc.
INTRODUCTION
Ancient Egyptian Literature was written in the Egyptian language from
ancient Egypt's pharaonic period until the end of roman domination. It represents the
oldest corpus of Egyptian literature along with Sumerian literature. It is considered
the world's earliest literature.
Egyptian literature traces its beginnings to ancient Egypt and in some of the
earliest known literature. The Egyptians were the first culture to developed literature.
They use Hieroglyphs meaning sacred carving. Hieroglyphs writing system were in
the form of pictures. It can be read as picture, symbol for object or as a symbol for
sounds.
HISTORICAL BACKGROUND
Old Kingdom
Egypt's old kingdom was one of the most dynamic periods in the development
of Egyptian art. During this period artist learned to express their thoughts and
perspective or their culture worldview through images and forms. Architects during
this time mastered the techniques on monumental structures in stone, as a result
sculptor have created the earliest portraits in wood, copper, and stone. They are able
to produce detailed images on their carvings through their careful and sharp
observation of the natural world.
When Egyptian mastered the art, they used it to record important elements of
their world, they painted and carved on the walls of temples and tombs. This is the
time where pyramid text and carving on the tombs started.
Middle Kingdom
It is considered ancient Egypt's classical age during which the culture
produced its greatest works of art and literature. During the old kingdom most of
Egyptian literature was all about kings and Gods but during the middle kingdom,
literature about the common people and the human experiences arose such as Tale of
Nefertiti, Tale of Sinuhe, The Tale of Shipwrecked Sailor, the story of Eloquent
Peasant, the tale of Two Brothers, A Dialogue between a man weary of life and his
soul.
New Kingdom
New kingdom literature developed in a period when Egypt had founded an
empire more cosmopolitan approach. Because of many invasions, wars and attacked
the Egyptian had faced, the early pharaohs of the new kingdom dedicated themselves
to prevent this kind of situation. As a result, Egyptian expresses their continuous
support pharaoh through monumental inscription. Stories and poems during new
kingdom were all about the conflict people faced in their lives such as dealing with
injustice, an unfaithful spouse and trying to live one's life fully even in the face of
death.
FORMS OF EGYPTIAN LITERATURE
Tombs
A tomb is a place in which Egyptian buried when they die. The ancient
Egyptian believed that life did not stop when you died. What they believe is you
moved away to another place called afterlife. The ancient Egyptian wrote stories and
poems on the walls of the tombs sometimes with pictures that said nice things about
themselves because the wanted the Gods to know that they had done a lot of good
things in their lifetime, and that is because they believed that in order for them to
reach the afterlife, they had to do good things while they are alive.
Stele
A wooden slab that is erected for honorary purposes it is decorated with the
name of the person they shall remind of this. It also serves as territorial markers or
boundary to commemorate military victories. The dead were also represented on the
stele as they were in life commonly men as warriors or athletes and women
surrounded by their children.
Obelisk
A stone rectangular pillar with tapered top forming a pyramidion, set on a
base, erected to commemorated as individual or an event to honor the God. Was
decorated by hieroglyphs that includes religious dedication usually to the sun God.
Temples
This were built for the official worship of Gods and in commemoration of the
pharaohs in ancient Egypt, and Egyptian control. Temples were seen as houses for the
Gods or kings. They perform rituals there and giving offering to the God. The most
important part of the temple was the sanctuary which typically contain cult image and
statue of its God.
Papyrus
Writing material of ancient times and also the plant from which it was derived,
Cyperus papyrus, also called paper plant.
TYPES OF EGYPTIAN LITERATURE
Mythology
Egyptian mythology is the collection of myths from ancient Egypt which
describe the action of the Egyptian Gods as a means of understanding the world
around them. The Egyptian myths express their religious beliefs. Myth appears
frequently in Egyptian writings and art. Every aspect of life in ancient Egyptian
mythology was about the creation of the world.
Hymns and Prayers
Egyptians produced numerous prayers and hymns, written in the form of
poetry. It is written to praise particular deities, and they were recited as part of the
Egyptian rituals, in the other hand prayers is a more personal way for Egyptians to ask
God for blessings, help or forgiveness for wrongdoings.
Autobiographies
It started to appear in 2500 BCE, constitute the earliest, simplest, and most
significant genre of Egyptian literature. Egyptian autobiographies were usually
written on tombs and stele by high-ranking priest and officials for themselves or
family member as a part of burial equipment.
Funerary text
Among the most significant and extensively preserved Egyptian writing are
funerary text designed to ensure that deceased should reached a pleasant afterlife.
Three Different Types of Funerary Text:
Pyramid Text
The pyramid texts they are a loose collection of hundreds of spells inscribed
on the walls of royal pyramids during the Old Kingdom. The purpose of Pyramid Text
is to transform the deceased into an AKH or those judge worthy to be in the afterlife.
Pyramid texts consist of offering spells and transformation spells recited during
rituals.
Coffin Text
Coffin text was also a collection of ancient Egyptian funerary spells. The only
difference is that Pyramid text are written directly on walls while Coffin text was
written directly on the coffin of the dead. Coffin Text purpose is to guide the soul of
the dead to the afterlife. It also provides maps of the afterlife and information.
Book of the Dead
The Book of the Dead was also ancient Egypt funerary text that generally
written on papyrus. It consists of number of magic spells intended also to assist a
person's journey through the afterlife.
EGYPTIAN TALES
Like most of Egyptian Literature, Tales can be divided into the three
kingdoms of Egypt, depending on when they were written. With the Old Kingdom
dating as far back as 3,000 B.C. and beyond, the Middle Kingdom, from 3,000 B.C. to
1,600 B.C., and the New Kingdom, from 1,600 B.C. to 322 B.C.
Narrative work from the Middle Kingdome includes, but not limited to, the
following tales:
The Eloquent Peasant.
Also known as “The Tale of the Peasant and the Workman”, this is a tale
about a man made an eloquent plea for the return of his stolen donkey. The peasant
takes his complaint to the chief steward, presenting his case quite eloquently. The
steward reports the plea to the pharaoh (king) who is intrigued. The pharaoh asks the
steward to ignore the peasant, requiring him to keep returning and making more of
these wonderful pleas.
The Story of Sinuhe
A historical text that was written by an unknown author in the 1800s.
Originally published in the Egyptian Ancient language, the text has since been
translated and incorporated into other publications. The text tells the story of Sinuhe
and includes the Pharaohs of Egypt; Senworset I and Amenemhat throughout their life
and afterlife. The text is regarded as one of the greatest works of literature in Ancient
Egyptian history.
The Tale of the Shipwrecked Sailor
In the story, there is no death and resurrection but the theme of an individual
becoming lost in a strange and frightening land and then returning home is central and
this would have resonated with an ancient Egyptian audience.
The New Kingdom’s corpus of tales includes, but not limited to, the following
tales:
The Tale of the Doomed Prince
Also known as the “The Prince who was Threatened by Three Fates”, this is
an ancient Egyptian story that tells the story of a prince who was destined to die by a
crocodile, a snake, or a dog. The story follows the prince as he is kept safe during his
childhood only to leave the stone house his father built him to face his fate, whatever
that might be. The prince meets and falls in love with princess of Mitanni, who
insisted to be wed. The princess defeats the serpent by killing it, then came the
crocodile… The conclusion is left unknown due to the destruction of the original text.
The Tale of the Two Brothers
Also known as the “The Fate of an Unfaithful Wife”, is a story that centers
around two brothers: Anpu (Anubis), who was married, and his younger brother, Bata.
The conflict arose when Anpu’s wife attempted to seduce the younger brother.
EGYPTIAN LOVE SONGS
Those parts of Egyptian poems that have survived are primarily praise of the
lover or poems of longing. Although they appear to be spontaneous outbursts of
young people, they are thought to be the deliberate works of literary artists.
As in parts of South East Asia, the Chester Beatty cycle of poems shows a
regular alternation of male and female speakers. Similarly, the convention of lovers
addressing each other as brother and sister appears here also, as normal terms of
endearment.
Perhaps the most elaborate series of songs is the cycle of seven stanza on the
back of a papyrus roll now preserved in the Chester Beatty Library and Gallery.
1. the man sings of her beauty, and his wish to approach her.
2. the woman, separated, in the house of her mother, sings of her longing for
his arrival.
3. the man abandons hope of reaching her.
4. the woman struggles with her desires.
5. after seeing her, the man rejoices but is still separated.
6. after seeing him, the woman sings of her hope that her mother might share
her sentiment.
7. seven days of separation have left the man sick: only she can cure him.

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