MODULE 5

MANUFACTURING CONTROL AUTOMATION

NUMERICAL CONTROL MACHINE:
Definition: Numerical control, popularly known as the NC is very commonly
used in the machine tools. Numerical control is defined as the form of
programmable automation, in which the process is controlled by the number,
letters, and symbols. In case of the machine tools this programmable automation
is used for the operation of the machines.
Components of numerical control machine:

1. Program of instructions: The detailed step-by-step commands that

direct the actions of the processing equipment. In machine tool
applications, the program of instructions is called a part program, and the
person who prepares the program is called a part programmer. In these
applications, the individual commands refer to positions of a cutting tool
relative to the worktable on which the workpart is fixtured. Additional
instructions are usually included, such as spindle speed, feed rate, cutting
tool selection, and other functions. The program is coded on a suitable
medium for submission to the machine control unit.
2. Machine control unit MCU: Consists of a microcomputer and related
control hardware that stores the program of instructions and executes it
by converting each command into mechanical actions of the processing
equipment, one command at a time. The related hardware of the MCU
includes components to interface with processing equipment and
feedback control elements. The MCU also includes one or more reading
devices for entering part programs into memory. The MCU also includes
control system software, calculation algorithms, and translation software
to convert the NC part program into a usable format for the MCU.
3. Processing equipment: Performs useful work and accomplishes the
processing steps to transform the starting workpiece into a completed
part. Its operation is directed by the MCU, which in turn is driven by
instructions contained in the part program. In the most common example
of NC, machining, the processing equipment consists of the worktable
and spindle as well as the motors and controls to drive them.
Applications of NC machines:
1. Machine tool applications, such as drilling, milling,turning, and other metal
working
2. Nonmachine tool applications, such as assembly,drafting, and inspection
The common operating feature of NC in all of these applications is control of
the workhead
movement relative to the workpart.
Advantages of NC machines.
 Cycle time reduction
 Non-productive time reduction
 Greater accuracy and repeatability
 Lower scrap rates

Disadvantages of NC machines.
 High investment cost
 High maintenance effort
 Need of skilled programmers
COMPUTERISED NUMERICAL CONTROL MACHINE
CNC machining is a manufacturing process in which pre-programmed computer
software dictates the movement of factory tools and machinery. The process can
be used to control a range of complex machinery, from grinders and lathes to
mills and routers. With CNC machining, three-dimensional cutting tasks can be
accomplished in a single set of prompts.
Block Diagram of CNC Machine

(i) Input Devices: These are the devices which are used to input the part
program in the CNC machine. There are three commonly used input
devices and these are punch tape reader, magnetic tape reader and
computer via RS-232-C communication.
(ii) Machine Control Unit (MCU): It is the heart of the CNC machine. It
performs all the controlling action of the CNC machine, the various
functions performed by the MCU are
 It reads the coded instructions fed into it.
 It decodes the coded instruction.
 It implements interpolation (linear, circular and helical
) to generate axis motion commands.
 It feeds the axis motion commands to the amplifier
circuits for driving the axis mechanisms.
 It receives the feedback signals of position and speed
for each drive axis.
 It implements the auxiliary control functions such as
coolant or spindle on/off and tool change.
(iii) Machine Tool: A CNC machine tool always has a slide table and a
spindle to control of the position and speed. The machine table is
controlled in X and Y axis direction and the spindle is controlled in
the Z axis direction.
(iv) Driving System: The driving system of a CNC machine consists of
amplifier circuits, drive motors and ball lead screw. The MCU feeds
the signals (i.e. of position and speed) of each axis to the amplifier
circuits. The control signals are than augmented (increased) to actuate
 the drive motors. And the actuated drive motors rotate the ball lead
screw to position the machine table.
(v) Feedback System: This system consists of transducers that act as
sensors. It is also called a measuring system. It contains position and
speed transducers that continuously monitor the position and speed of
the cutting tool located at any instant. The MCU receives the signals
from these transducers and it uses the difference between the reference
signals and feedback signals to generate the control signals for
correcting the position and speed errors.
(vi) Display Unit: A monitor is used to display the programs, commands
and other useful data of CNC machine.
Applications
Almost every manufacturing industry uses CNC machines. With an increase in
the competitive environment and demands, the demand for CNC usage has
increased to a greater extent. The machine tools that come with the CNC are
lathe, mills, shaper, welding, etc. The industries that are using CNC machines
are the automotive industry, metal removing industries, industries of fabricating
metals, electrical discharge machining industries, wood industries, etc.

Advantages
 It can produce jobs with the highest accuracy and precision than any other
manual machine.
 It can be run for 24 hours a day.
 The parts produced by it have the same accuracy. There is no variation in
the parts manufactured.
 A highly skilled operator is not required to operate it. A semi-skilled
operator can also operate accurately and more precisely.
 Operators can easily make changes and improvements and reduce the
delay time.
 It has the capability to produce complex designs with high accuracy in
minimum possible time.
 The modern design software, allows the designer to simulate the
manufacturer of his/her idea. And this removes the need for making a prototype
or model and saves time and money.
 Fewer workers are required to operate a CNC and save labor costs.

Disadvantages
 The cost of the CNC machine is very high as compared with a manually
operated machine.
 The parts of the CNC machines are expensive.
 The maintenance cost in the case of CNC is quite high.
 It does not eliminate the need for costly tools.
Distributed numerical control machine
Distributive numerical control (DNC) is a technology that allows a single
computer to be networked with one or more machines that use computer
numerical control (CNC).
Using DNC, an operator can quickly load CNC programs into multiple
machines. It is also possible to remove programs and replace them with updated
or modified programs. CNC allows machines, such as drill presses or lathes, to
perform complex and repetitive tasks automatically. In this context, DNC
facilitates the remote control of multiple programmable robots

Advantages:
 High Repeatability and Precision e.g. Aircraft parts.
 Volume of production is very high.
 Complex contours/surfaces need to be machined.
 Flexibility in job change, automatic tool settings, less scrap.
 Safer, higher productivity, better quality.
 Less paper work, faster production, reduction in lead times
Disadvantages:
 Costly setup, skilled operators.
 Computers, programming knowledge required.
 Maintenance is difficult
INTRODUCTION TO AUTOMATION:
Automation is the technology by which a process or procedure is performed
with minimal human assistance. Automation or automatic control is the use of
various control systems for operating equipment such as machinery, processes
in factories, boilers and heat treating ovens, switching on telephone networks,
steering and stabilization of ships, aircraft and other applications and vehicles
with minimal or reduced human intervention.
Automation covers applications ranging from a
household thermostat controlling a boiler, to a large industrial control system
with tens of thousands of input measurements and output control signals. In
control complexity, it can range from simple on-off control to multi-variable
high-level algorithms.
Principles and strategies of automation:
For a given production situation certain caution and respect must be observed in
applying automation technologies. There are three approaches for dealing with
automation projects.
 USA Principle
 Ten Strategies
 Automation Migration Strategy
USA principle:
The USA principle is a common sense approach to automation projects. Similar
procedures have been suggested in the manufacturing and automation trade
literature, but none has a more captivating title than this one. USA stands for
 UNDERSTAND the existing process
 SIMPLIFY the process
 AUTOMATE the process
(i) UNDERSTAND the existing process: the obvious purpose of the first
step in the USA approach is to comprehend the current process in all
of its details like what are the inputs? What are the outputs? What
exactly happens to the work unit between input and output? What is
the function of the process? How does it add value to the product?
What are the upstream and downstream operations in the production
sequence and can they be combined with the process under
consideration?
(ii) SIMPLIFY the process:
Once the existing process is understood, then the search can begin for
ways to simplify.this often involves a checklist of questions about the
 existing process like, what is the purpose of this step or this transport?
Is this step necessary? Can this step be eliminated? Can steps be
continued? Can steps be performed simultaneously? Can steps be
integrated into a manually operated production line?
(iii) AUTOMATE the process:
Once the process has been reduced to its simplest form, then
automation can be considered. The posiible forms of automation
include those listed in the ten strategies discussed in the following
section. An automation migration strategy might be implemented for a
new product that has not yet proven itself.

TEN STRATEGIES FOR AUTOMATION

1. Specialization of operations: The first strategy involves the use
of special-purpose equipment designed to perform one operation
with the greatest possible efficiency
2. Combined operations: Production occurs as a sequence of
operations. Complex parts may require dozens, or even hundreds,
of processing steps. The strategy of combined operations involves
reducing the number of distinct production machines or
workstations through which the part must be routed. This is
accomplished by performing more than one operation at a given
machine, thereby reducing the number of separate machines
needed. Since each machine typically involves a setup, setup time
can usually be saved as a consequence of this strategy. Material
handling effort and non-operation time are also reduced.
3. Simultaneous operations: A logical extension of the combined
operations strategy is to simultaneously perform the operations
that are combined at one workstation. In effect, two or more
processing (or assembly) operations are being performed
simultaneously on the same work part, thus reducing total
processing time.
4. Integration of operations: Another strategy is to link several
workstations together into a single integrated mechanism, using
automated work handling devices to transfer parts between
stations. In effect, this reduces the number of separate machines
through which the product must be scheduled.
5. Increased flexibility: This strategy attempts to achieve maximum
utilization of equipment for job shop and medium volume
situations by using the same equipment for a variety of parts or
products. It involves the use of the flexible automation concepts.
Prime objectives are to reduce setup time and programming time
 for the production machine. This normally translates into lower
manufacturing lead time and less work-in-process.
6. Improved material handling and storage: A great opportunity
for reducing non-productive time exists in the use of automated
material handling and storage systems.
7. On-line inspection: Inspection for quality of work is traditionally
performed after the process is completed. This means that any
poor quality product has already been produced by the time it is
inspected. Incorporating inspection into the manufacturing process
permits corrections to the process as the product is being made.
8. Process control and optimization: This includes a wide range of
control schemes intended to operate the individual processes and
associated equipment more efficiently. By this strategy, the
individual process times can be reduced and product quality
improved.
9. Plant operations: control whereas the previous strategy was
concerned with the control of the individual manufacturing
process, this strategy is concerned with control at the plant level. It
attempts to manage and coordinate the aggregate operations in the
plant more efficiently.
10.Computer-integrated manufacturing (CIM): Taking the
previous strategy one level higher, we have the integration of
factory operations with engineering design and the business
functions of the firm.
AUTOMATION MIGRATION STRATEGY
Owing to competitive pressures in the marketplace, a company often needs to
introduce a new product in the shortest possible time. The easiest and least
expensive way to accomplish this objective is to design a manual production
method, using a sequence of workstations operating independently.

The tooling for a manual method can be fabricated quickly and at low cost. If
more than a single set of workstations is required to make the product in
sufficient quantities, as is often the case, then the manual cell is replicated as
many times as needed to meet demand.

The improvements are often carried out in phases. Many companies have an
automation migration strategy, that is, a formalized plan for evolving the
manufacturing systems used to produce new products as demand grows.
A typical automation migration strategy is the following:
Phase 1 – Manual production

Manual production using single station manned cells operating

independently.This is used for introduction of the new product for reasons
already mentioned: quick and low cost tooling to get started.

Phase 2 – Automated production

Automated production using single station automated cells operating

independently. As demand for the product grows, and it becomes clear
that automation can be justified, then the single stations are automated to
reduce labor and increase production rate.

Phase 3 – Automated integrated production

Automated integrated production using a multistation automated system with

serial operations and automated transfer of work units between stations.

When the company is certain that the product will be produced in mass
quantities and for several years, then integration of the single station
automated cells is warranted to further reduce labor and increase production
rate.
ELEMENTS OF AUTOMATED SYSTEM
  Power to Accomplish  the Automated  Process
 An automated system is used to operate some process, and power is required
to drive the controls. The principal source of power in automated systems is
electricity. Electric power has many advantages in automated as well as in non-
automated process.. It is an important part of our industrial
infrastructure.  Electrical power can be readily converted 10 alternative energy
forms: mechanical, thermal, light, acoustic, hydraulic, and pneumatic. Electrical
power at low levels can be used to accomplish functions such as sigl1al
transmission, information processing, and data storage and communication.
Electrical energy can be stored in long-life batteries for use in locations where
an external source of electrical power is not conveniently available. Alternative
power sources include fossil fuels, solar energy, water, and wind. However,
their exclusive use is rare in automated systems.
 Program of Instructions
The actions performed On automated process are defined by a program of
instructions Whether the manufacturing operation involves low, medium, or
high production , each part or product style made in the operation requires one
or more processing steps that are unique to that style, These processing steps are
performed during a work cycle. A new part is completed during each work
cycle (in some manufacturing operations, more than one part is produced during
the work cycle; e.g., a plastic injection molding operation may produce multiple
parts each cycle using a multiple cavity mold). The particular processing steps
for the work cycle are specified in a work cycle program. Work cycle programs
are called part programs in numerical control. Other process control
applications use different names for this type of program.
 Control System
The control element of the automated system executes the program of
instructions. The control system causes the process to accomplish its defined
function. Which for our purpose is to carry out some manufacturing operation.

ADVANCED AUTOMATION FUNCTION:

In automation production technology the actions performed by an automated
process are executed by a program of instructions which is run during a work
cycle. To execute work cycle programs, an automated system should be
available to execute these advanced functions.
 SAFETY MONITORING
If there is a need for workers in an automated system, a safety monitoring is
required for the occupational safety and health of the workers. In a safety
monitoring various steps can take place including a complete stop of the system,
sounding an alarm or reducing the operating speed. Usually, limiting switches
are sensors like temperature probes, heat and smoke detectors or pressure
sensitive floor pads.
 MAINTENANCE AND REPAIR DIAGNOSTICS
There are three modes of operations which are used in a cycle
of maintenance and repair diagnostics: status monitoring, failure diagnostics and
recommendation of the repair procedure. In the status monitoring mode, the
current system status is displayed. The failure diagnostics mode takes place
when a failure occurs. The system will then suggest an adequate repair
procedure to a team of experts.
 ERROR DETECTION AND RECOVERY
The error detection mode is a step to determine if and when a failure occurs in
automated system. The possible errors can be divided into three categories.
Random errors, systematic errors and aberrations. While in the error recovery
mode, remedy actions take place for all detected errors.
LEVELS OF AUTOMATION

 Device level. This is the lowest level in our automation hierarchy.

It includes the actuators, sensors, and other hardware components
that comprise the machine level. The devices are combined into the
individual control loops of the machine; for ex· ample, the
feedback control loop for one axis of a CNC machine or one joint
of an industrial robot.
 Machine level. Hardware at the device level is assembled into
individual machines. Examples include CNC machine tools and
similar production equipment, Powered conveyors, and automated
guided vehicles. Control functions at this level include performing
the sequence of steps in the program of instructions in the correct
order and making sure that each step is properly executed.

 Cell or system level. This is the manufacturing cell or system level,

which operates under instructions from the plant
level. A manufacturing cell or system is a group of machines or
workstations connected and supported by a material handling
system, compute and other equipment appropriate to the
manufacturing process. Production lines are included in this level.
Functions include part dispatching and machine loading.
Coordination among machines and material handling system, and
collecting and evaluating inspection data.

 Plant level. This is the factory or production systems level. It

receives instructions from the corporate information system and
translates them into operational plans for production. Likely
functions include: order processing, process planning, inventory
control, purchasing, material requirements planning, shop floor
control, and quality control.

 Enterprise level. This is the highest level consisting of the

corporate information system .It is concerned with all of the
functions necessary to manage the company: marketing and sales,
accounting, design, research, aggregate planning, and master
production scheduling.
CONTROL TECHNOLOGIES IN AUTOMATION

Process industry vs. discrete manufacturing industry

Discrete manufacturing involves assembling things, and making things that are
distinct. The methodology uses Bills of Materials (BOMs), and assembles
components along a routing. In view of that, it includes make-to-stock, make-to-
order, and assemble to order production.
Whereas process manufacturing involves mixing of ingredients according to
specific formulas or recipes. Process manufacturers build something that cannot
be taken apart, technically you can take the mix out of the container and reuse
the container, but you can’t take the ingredients out of the finished goods
produced.  This makes the process manufacturers ‘process’ or formula based.
Discrete Manufacturing Process Manufacturing Industries
o Products are comprised of
components that can be touched, and o Products are manufactured using
counted. formulas or recipes
o Parts can be broken down &
disposed off or recycled after o Products cannot be broken down
production back into raw materials
o Uses Bills-of-Material o Uses formulas or recipes
o Assembles in a linear or routing
way o Blends in a batch
o Involves joining, attaching, o Involves grinding, boiling,
fixing, assembling etc. mixing, churning, etc.
o Doesn’t involves change of o Volume, density, mass, physical
volume or density properties all get changed here
Identify discrete manufacturing with the assembly line (and the junkyard!)
If you want to get a clear picture of discrete manufacturing, think about a
vehicle assembly line. As the car or truck moves down the line, workers (maybe
even robots) keep adding parts and components to it. Some of the components
were manufactured and assembled elsewhere and brought in for final assembly.
But no matter how many parts are made and assembled—and there are 30,000
parts in the typical car—they are distinct from one another.
Now, look into the future. The worn out, fully depreciated automobile ends up
in a junkyard. People needing replacement parts for their current vehicles go to
the junkyard to find them. The guy who owns or manages the business removes
the part from one of the old cars and sells it as a replacement part. In theory, he
could remove practically any usable part and sell it so that someone else can re-
use it.
Of course, there are many other examples of discrete manufacturing, but the
assembly line and scrap yard show it at its basic level. Its most salient feature is
that the final product—whether it’s the automobile or its sub-assemblies—
is manufactured sequentially and requires sophisticated planning to ensure
that the creation and assembly of the product are completed in the correct order
and that all of the parts are made to close tolerances, so they fit together
perfectly.

Process manufacturing is associated with industries that make products in bulk

For the most part, process manufacturing occurs in bulk quantities.
Pharmaceuticals, paints, foods, and beverages are prime examples of products
that go through a chemical conversion based on a formula or process. Unlike
discrete manufacturing, the individual parts that make up the final product are
not easily identified after they have been processed. And the materials that
make up the product cannot be disassembled and re-used in another
manner.
Process manufacturing comes from recipes or formulas. If the final product – a
chocolate cupcake, for instance – is not sweet enough, the baker will add more
sugar or chocolate to the next batch. Process manufacturing can be viewed as
being more complex since it is based on transforming individual ingredients
into a final product. But it is also characterized as being less defect-oriented
than discrete manufacturing, so there are fewer interruptions in the production
runs.
Continuous vs. discrete control

Continuous system

Continuous systems are those types of systems in which input and output
signals are the same at both the ends. In this type of system, variable changes
with time and any type of variation is not found in the input and output signal.
In response to the input signal, a continuous system generates an output signal.

Discrete systems

In discrete systems, both input and output signals are discrete signals. The
variables in the discrete systems vary with time. In this type of system, the
changes are predominantly discontinuous. The state of variables in discrete
system changes only at a discrete set of points in time.

Factor Continuous control Discrete control (discrete

(process industries) manufacturing industries)

Product Weights, liquid volumes, solid Numbers of parts and
output volumes products
measures
Quality Consistency, solution Dimensions, surface finish,
measures concentration, absence of appearance, absence of
contaminants, specification defects, product reliability
conformance
Variables and Temperature, volume flow rate, Position, velocity,
parameters pressure acceleration, force
Sensors Flow meters, thermocouples, Limit switches,
pressure sensors photoelectric sensors, strain
gauges, piezoelectric
sensors
Actuators Valves, heaters, pumps Switches, motors, pistons
Process time Seconds, minutes, hours Less than a second
constraints
In reality a combination of both control types actually exist in both process and
discrete manufacturing industries. This means industrial controllers have to be
designed to capture both data forms – continuous and discrete. Further, with the
emergence of computer systems taking-over from out-dated analogue
controllers, continuous process variables have started to be measured in
samples, thus creating a discrete sample-data system that approximates the
actual continuous system. One example of a controller that uses both continuous
and discrete control and where continuous control is achieved using frequent
sampling of continuous data is the Lego NXT controller illustrated in Figure
3.6.
Continuous control systems have as their objective the maintenance of an output
value at a desired level, in a similar fashion to the operation of a closed-loop
control system, as described earlier. In reality, continuous control systems are
often segmented into smaller parts, with many feedback loops, all of which have
to be individually controlled and co-ordinated, so as to maintain the overall
output variable. Continuous control systems are to be found throughout the
chemical industry, where many parameters related to chemical reactants—such
as temperature, pressure, and flow rates—must be maintained. They are also to
be found in conventional manufacturing systems, in certain situations, such as
the positioning of a work-part relative to a cutting tool by using x, y, z co-
ordinates.