Course Name Engineering Mechanics I

Course Code: MEC 1101 Credit: 4 CU

Instructor: Mr. Andrew Kasumba

Brief Course Description

This course introduces the students to the basic principles of statics as applied to particles and
bodies.

Course Objectives
Students will be able to relate statics principles of mechanics to engineering applications.

Course Outline
• Statics of particles: 6 hrs
Idealization and principles of mechanics, important coordinate systems and vector
quantities. Equilibrium of a particle, Newton’s laws of motion and free body diagrams
• Equivalent systems of forces: 4 hrs
Equilibrium of rigid bodies in two dimensions and three dimensions
• Analysis of Structures: 8 hrs
Plane trusses, analysis of trusses by method of joints and sections, frames and
machines,
• Forces in Beams and Cables: 8 hrs
Internal forces in members, types of loading and support, shear and bending moment
in a beam, shear and bending moment diagrams, general loading, shear, and moment
relationships. Cables with concentrated loads, cables with distributed loads, parabolic
cables and catenary cables
• Moment of Inertia: 8 hrs
Moment of inertia of areas and moment of inertia of masses.
• Friction: 8 hrs
Laws of dry friction, application of friction in machines(wedges, screws, disks
,wheels, axles and flexible belts)
• Method of Virtual Work: 6 hrs Work,
equilibrium of particles and rigid bodies, potential energy and stability
• Fundamentals of dynamics: 4 hrs
Kinematics of a body in plane motion
• Energy, moment, impulse and dynamics of a body in 3 dimensional motion: 8 hrs

Mode of delivery: Lectures, tutorials and demonstrations

Mode of Assessment

 Continuous assessment: assignments, quizzes and tests (40%) 

Final university examination (60%)

1
References

i. J. L Meriam and L. G Kraige. Engineering Mechanics (Statics) Fifth Edition.John

Wiley&Sons,Inc.
ii. Carleton G. Fanger.1970 Engineering Mechanics. Statics And Dynamics.Charles
E.Merrill Publishing Company,Columbus, Ohio.
iii. Timoshenko and Young. Engineering Mechanics Fourth Edition. McgrawHill
Kogakusha,Ltd.

2
Introduction to Statics

Mechanics is the physical science which deals with the state of rest or motion of bodies under
the action of forces

The principles of mechanics are required for the study of structural engineering, machine
design, fluid flow, robotics, electrical instrumentation, atomic and molecular behavior e.t.c.

Mechanics is divided into two parts, statics and dynamics.

Statics is the branch which deals with bodies at rest (in equilibrium) under the action of
forces

Dynamics deals with the motion of bodies

1. Basic Concepts
The following concepts and definitions are fundamental to the study of mechanics

Space: is the geometric region occupied by bodies whose positions are described by linear
and angular measurements relative to a coordinate system. For three dimensional problems,
three independent coordinates are required. For two dimensional problems, only two
coordinates are required

Time: is the measure of succession of events, and is a basic quantity in dynamics. Time is not
directly involved in the analysis of statics problems

Mass: is the measure of inertia of a body, or the resistance to change in its motion. Mass can
also be thought of as a quantity of matter in a body. The mass of a body is independent of its
position or motion

Force: action of one body on another. Force is characterized by its magnitude, direction and
point of application. {Note that you cannot see a force, only its effects}

Concentrated force: action that is assumed to occur at a single point. In actuality, there is no
such thing as a concentrated force since materials can support only a finite stress level.

Distributed force: the push or pull on a body of necessity is distributed over the area of
contact. Distributed force is specified by the intensity of the action, which is a force per unit
area of contact. This is the way all mechanical forces act, but if the dimensions of the contact
area are small compared with other dimensions of the body, the action of the force is
(readily) assumed to be concentrated. Force may also be distributed over the volume of a
body, such as gravitational force (weight) or magnetic force. In this case the intensity is
expressed as force per unit volume

Moment: the tendency of a force to rotate a body about an axis

Couple: the tendency of two equal, opposite non collinear forces to rotate a body

Torque: an alternate term for a moment and/or couple.

3
Newton’s laws of Motion

1st law: a particle remains at rest or continues to move in a straight line with a constant
velocity if there is no unbalanced force acting on it.

2nd law: the acceleration of a particle is proportional to the resultant force acting on it and is
in the direction of this force. It may be stated as F=ma, where F is the vector sum of forces
acting on the particle and a is the resulting acceleration.

OR

The resulting force acting on a particle is proportional to the time rate of change of
momentum of the particle and this change is in the direction of the force.

3rd law: The forces of action and reaction between interacting bodies are equal in magnitude,
opposite in direction, and collinear.

Newton’s Law of Gravitation

The computation of the weight of a body depends on the law of gravitation, which is
expressed as:

F=

Where F- mutual force of attraction between two particles

G- Constant of gravitation (6.67310-11m3/kg.s2) m1,

m2- masses of the two particles

r- Distance between the centres of the two particles

2. SI Units
Mass-kilogram-kg

Length-meter-m

Time-second-s

Force-Newton-N

3. Scalars and

Vectors

Scalar quantities possess only magnitude e.g. time, volume, density, speed, energy and mass

Vector quantities possess direction as well as magnitude and must obey the parallelogram law
of addition. Examples are displacement, velocity, acceleration, force, moment and
momentum

4
A vector quantity can be represented graphically by a segment of a straight line, called a
vector.

Line of action

Tip or end of the vector

Tail or beginning of the vector

Types of vectors

Fixed vector: acts at a fixed point

Sliding vector: has a unique line of action in space but not a unique point of application

Free vector: is one whose action is not confined to or associated with a unique line in space.
It is only necessary that it preserves its magnitude and direction

Equal vectors: have the same magnitude and direction

Negative vector: has a direction opposite to its positive counterpart, but has the same
magnitude

Coplanar vectors lie in the same plane

Concurrent vectors have lines of action that pass through the same point

Collinear vectors: have the same line of action

Fixed vector

Free vector
Negative vectors
Concurrent vectors

Collinear vectors

4. Vector Addition
Vectors must obey the parallelogram law of addition. It states that two free vectors V1 and V2
may be replaced by an equivalent vector V obtained as the diagonal of the parallelogram
constructed on the vectors V1 and V2

V1 and V2 are the components of the vector V, and V is called the resultant of the vectors V1
and V2

V2 V
V2

V1 V1

Instead of constructing a parallelogram of forces, the result can be obtained by constructing a

triangle of forces as shown
5
 V
V2

V1

If more than two forces act at a point, successive application of the parallelogram law can be
carried out to obtain a resultant force.

Determine the resultant of the two components

3
50N 4

70 N
Ans: 56.5N acting at 45°to the horizontal

Determine the force R which has the same effect on the bracket as the forces shown

150N

30°
100N 120N

120N
Ans: 150i−45j

Look up more examples from the reference textbooks and internet.

 Read about the principle of transmissibility and superposition

5. Analysis Techniques
Formulate the problem: state the given data, desired result and any assumptions and
approximations to be made

Develop the solution:

• Sketch any diagram you’ll need to understand the relationships. The sketches should
be kept neat and simple.
• State the governing principles to be applied
• Make the calculation
• Use consistent units throughout the calculation
• Ensure the answers are reasonable in terms of magnitudes, direction, common sense
etc
• Draw conclusions

6
 • Read and make notes about moment, Varignon’s theorem, couples, principle of
moments, and resultant of a system of forces. Attempt several questions and file your
solutions.

6. Free Body Diagram (fbd)

A free body diagram is a drawing which shows all the external forces acting on a body. The
ability to draw a correct fbd is extremely important for solving equilibrium problems.

The basic characteristics of a force are important in drawing a free body diagram.

Procedure for constructing a free body diagram

Step 1: decide which system to isolate based on one or more of the desired unknown
quantities

Step 2: isolate the chosen system by sketching its complete external boundary. Indicate on
this sketch all the forces acting on the particle. These forces are either active or reactive.
Active forces tend to set the particle in motion e.g. weight and reactive forces are caused by
constraints or supports that tend to prevent motion

Step 3: the known forces should be labeled with their proper magnitudes and directions.
Letters are used to represent the magnitudes and direction of unknown forces or angles

If the sense of a vector is unknown, assign an arbitrary sense. The subsequent calculations
from the equilibrium equations will yield a positive quantity if the correct sense was assumed
and a negative quantity if the incorrect sense was assumed. It is necessary to be consistent
with the assigned characteristics of unknown forces throughout the calculations.

Step 4: show the choice of coordinate axes directly on the diagram.

Example of a fbd

B y
T

A C Ra C x

W W

Loading diagram Free body diagram

 Practice drawing free body diagrams 7.

Equilibrium of a body/particle

A body is in equilibrium when the resultant of all forces acting on it is zero.

Thus the resultant force R and the resultant couple M are both zero and can be expressed as;
7
R= F = 0

M= 0

The scalar form is;

FX=0 …………………………………………….eqn 1

FY=0 …………………………………………….eqn 2

M0= 0 …………………………………………….eqn 3
The third equation represents the zero sum of moments of all forces about any point O on or
off the body. Equations 1, 2, and 3 are necessary and sufficient conditions for complete
equilibrium in two dimensions. 8. Statical determinacy and constraints
A constraint is any restriction to movement of a body
A rigid body which possesses more external supports or constraints than are necessary to
maintain equilibrium position is called statically indeterminate

Supports which can be removed without distorting the equilibrium condition of the body are
said to be redundant

Bodies which are supported by the minimum number of constraints necessary to maintain
equilibrium are called statically determinate

Problems in statics are restricted to statically determinate bodies.

9. Common Constraints and the two dimensional analysis

Roller

These supports transmit a

Roller Rocker compressive force normal to the
reacting surface

FX

Pin or hinge support FY

M
FX

Built -in or fixed support FY

If the pin is free to turn. If it is not, then it supports

a couple

The couple M restricts rotation

8
STRUCTURES

The focus of this chapter is on determining forces internal to a structure i.e. forces of action
and reaction between connected members.

An engineering structure is any connected system of members built to support or transfer

forces and safely withstand the loads applied to it.

Examples of structures: trusses, frames, beams, columns, and machines etc

Only statically determinate structures will be considered in this chapter.

Plane trusses

A truss is a structure/framework composed of members joined at their ends to form a rigid

structure e.g. bridges, roof supports, derricks and pylons etc.

When members of a truss lie essentially in the same plane, the truss is called a plane truss.

Plane trusses are commonly utilized in pairs, placed parallel on each side and connected by
cross beams, as applied in bridges and similar structures.

Howe (timber) Fink (steel sections)

9
 Pratt (timber) Warren (for long spans)

Commonly used roof trusses

The basic element of a plane truss is a triangle. Structures built from a basic triangle are
called simple trusses.

To analyze a simple truss several assumptions are made:

1. All members are two force members. A two force member is one in equilibrium under
the action of two forces only. The two forces are applied at the ends of the member
and are necessarily equal, opposite and collinear for equilibrium.
C C T T

Compression (strut) Tension (tie)

Two force members

2. The weight of the member is small compared to the force it supports. If not the effect
of the weight must be accounted for. The weight W of the member is replaced by two
forces, each , acting at each end of the member. These forces are treated as
external loads applied at pin connections.

W
3. The members are assumed to be pin jointed, even when welded or riveted connections
are used to join structural members
4. All external forces are applied at the pin connections. Provision for expansion and
contraction due to temperature changes and deformation resulting from applied
loading is usually made at one of the supports, such as by provision of a rocker, roller
or some other kind of slip joint.

Method of analysis of plane trusses

To determine the forces internal to a truss:

i. Dismember the structure and analyze separate free body diagrams of the individual
members or combination of members
ii. The analysis requires careful application of Newton’s 3rd law of motion.

Three methods are used for truss analysis:

10
 i. Method of joints
ii. Method of sections
iii. Maxwell’s diagram

Method of joints

The forces n the members of a truss are found by satisfying the conditions of equilibrium for
the forces acting on the connecting pin of each joint. This method deals with equilibrium of
concurrent forces, and only two independent equilibrium equations are involved.

Begin analysis with any joint where at least one Known load exists and where not more than
two unknown forces are present.

The external reactions are usually determined first by applying equilibrium equations to the
truss as a whole. Then analysis of the remainder of the truss is performed.

Note: Tension arrows are always indicated by an arrow away from the pin and compression
by an arrow toward the pin.

It is often convenient to indicate the tension T and compression C of the various members
directly on the original truss diagram.

Initial assignment of the direction of the force is arbitrary. A negative computed force value
indicates that the initially assumed direction is incorrect.

Consistency must always be maintained using Newton’s 3rd law of motion.

Checking for determinacy

For a truss that is statically determinate externally, the relation m+3=2j holds.

Where: m – number of members/ bars

j- Number of pins/joints

If m+3>2j, there are more members than the independent equations and the truss is statically
indeterminate internally, with redundant members present.

If m+3<2j, there is a deficiency of internal

F x
y F2 members, and the truss will collapse under load.
θ Redundant/ zero force members
F1 The only use of zero force members is to
increase stability of the truss during construction
or provide support when applied loading is changed.

The force F=0 and F1=F2. This condition holds regardless of the angle θ and holds if collinear
members are in tension or compression. If an external force with a component in the y
direction is applied to the joint, then F would no longer be zero.

 Find other special cases

11
 Example

Determine the force in each member of the truss shown. Indicate whether the members are in
tension or compression
y
Cy
400N
400N x
C
B C
4m
4m
θ 600N
θ 600N 6m
A
Ay
3m 3m D fbd X

Solution

Calculate the support reactions

Fx=0: 600-Cx=0  Cx=600

MC=0 +

(4003) - (Ay6) + (6004) = 0

Ay=600N

Fy= 0: 400+ Cy-600=0

Cy =200N

The analysis now starts at either joint A or C.

Joint A

FAB
Y Fy= 0: -
FAD

FAB Sin θ+600=0

X FAB =750N (Compression)

Fx= 0: FAB Cos θ=FAD

600N
FAD=450N (Tension)

Joint D

FDB FDC

FX=0: FDB= -250N

12
 450N 600N FDB=250N (Tensile)

FY=0: FDC= 200N (Compressive)

Joint C

200N
FX=0: FCB=600N (Compressive)
FCB 600N

200N

NOTE: The method of joints is used when the forces in all members of a truss are required.

Example 2
Determine the force in each member of the truss loaded and supported as shown. Indicate
whether the member is in tension or compression

Ans: AY = 1250N EY = 750N FAB = 2500N(C), FAH=2170N(T), FBH = FDF =FGD = 0N,

FHG = 2170N (T), FGF = FFE = 1300N(T), FBG = 1000N(C), FBC = 1500N(C), FCG

= 1500N(T), FCD = 1500N(C), FDE = 1500N(C)

1000N

B D

30°
A E
5m H 5m G 5m F 5m

1000N

Example 3
Determine the axial force Si in each bar of the plane truss supported and loaded as shown.

13
 8
45°
6 7 9

2 3
4
45°
1

1000N 1000N

ANS: S1=-1000N, S3=2000N,S5=-2000N, S7=-3000N, S8=3000N,S9=-707N Example

4.

Each member of the truss is a uniform 8m bar with a mass of 400kg. Calculate the average
tension or compression in each member due to weights of the members
E D

A 60° 60° 60 60°

C
8m B 8m

Ans: FAB=FBC = 5.66KN T, FAE=FCD = 11.33KN C, FBD = FBE=4.53KN T, FED = 7.93KN C 

Attempt several questions

Method of sections
If the forces in only a few members of a truss are to be found, the method of sections
generally provides the most direct means of finding these forces.

The method consists of passing an imaginary section through the truss, cutting it into two
parts. Provided the entire truss is in equilibrium, then each of the two parts must also be in
equilibrium. As a result, the three equations of equilibrium may be applied to either of the
parts to determine the member forces at the cut section.

Since only three independent equilibrium equations can be applied to the isolated position of
the truss, not more than three members whose forces are unknown should be cut
consequently.

In order for the portion of the truss on each side of the section to remain in equilibrium, it is
necessary to apply to each cut member the force which was exerted on it by the member cut
away as illustrated below.

14
 F E

A
D
B C

Ra L Rd

FEF FE

FBE FBE

FBC FBC

Ra L Rd

The sense of the arrows may be drawn with their proper sense of a visual approximation of
the equilibrium requirements. An entire section of the truss is considered as a single body in
equilibrium and forces n members internal to the section are not involved in the analysis of
the section as a whole. When taking moments, a suitable moment center, either on or off the
section should be chosen through which as many unknown forces as possible pass.

• The cutting section is preferably passed through the members and not joints
• Sometimes the method of joints and sections can be combined for an efficient solution.

Example

Determine the force in members FE,FC and BC of the truss shown. Indicate whether the
members are in tension or compression
F E 400N

3m

A D
B C
4m 4m 4
1200N
y

x 400N

3m

AX

8m 4m
AY 1200N DY

FX=0; 400+AX=0. AX=-400N

15
MA=0; DY=900N
F Y =0 ; A Y =300N

LHS section
F
FE

FC
AX
BC
AY

FE E 400N
RHS section
FC

BC D

1200N 900N

Considering the LHS section

MF=0: -(3004)+ (BC4)- (3004) =0

BC=800N Tensile

MB=0: (AY 8) + (FE3) =0

FE=800N Tensile

Considering the RHS section

FY=0: FCsinθ-1200+900=0

FC=500N Tensile

Determine the forces in members CD and CE using method of sections.

Determine the forces in members FH, GH and GI of the roof truss

16
 Attempt several questions

 Read and Make Notes on Maxwell’s Diagrams. Attempt Several Questions Using This
Method.

FRAMES AND MACHINES

Frames are structures that always contain at least one member acted on by forces at three or
more points. These members are called multiforce members. Frames are constructed and
supported so as to prevent any motion. Frame like structures that are not fully constrained
and are designed to transmit and alter the effects of a force or couple are called machines or
mechanisms.

Analysis of a frame

Analysis of a statically determinate frame or machine starts with calculation of external

reactions. The system/entire frame is isolated using a free body diagram and the 3 equations
of equilibrium are used to determine the external reactions.

To determine the internal forces holding the different parts of the frame together, the frame is
dismembered and free body diagrams of the individual parts are drawn. Consistent
representation of the forces on the diagrams of interacting bodies is absolutely necessary,
with the same force in two separate members being represented in opposite directions.

Two force members should be considered first in the analysis. This analysis is illustrated in
the figure below

17
Frames which cease to be rigid when detached from their supports

The frame analyzed above was designed in such a way that it could keep the same shape
without the help of its supports. Many frames however will collapse if detached from their
supports: such frames cannot be considered as rigid body; it should therefore be considered
made of two distinct rigid parts AC and CB
C

P Q

A
B

CY CY

CX CX C
P C C P
Q Q

A
AX BX
BX B AX B
A
AY
AY
BY BY

Four unknown force components act on AC, while only three independent equations may be
used to express that the body is in equilibrium, similarly for CB.

• Write MA=0 for the free body AC and MB=0 for CB. Solve the two simultaneous
equations to find CX and CY.
• FX=0 and FY=0 is used for each of the free bodies to obtain AX, AY, BX and BY.

Since the equations of equilibrium are satisfied by the forces acting on AC and CB, they must
be satisfied by the forces acting on the two free bodies considered simultaneously.

18
Since the internal forces at C cancel each other, the equations of equilibrium must be satisfied
by the external forces shown on the free body diagram of the frame ACB although it is not a
rigid body. These equations may be used to determine some of the components of the
reactions at A and B. However, the reactions cannot be completely determined from the free
body of the whole frame .The equilibrium conditions for ACB are necessary for equilibrium
of a non rigid structure but not sufficient conditions.

• Alternatively, one can utilize the fbd ACB as well as AC and CB. Write the MA=0 and
MB=0 for ACB to obtain By and Ay. Write MC=0, FX=0 and FY=0 for free body AC
to obtain AX, CX and CY. Finally writing FX=0 for ACB to obtain BX.
 To determine whether a structure is statically determinate and rigid, draw a fbd for each of
its component parts, count the reactions and internal forces involved. Determine the
number of independent equilibrium equations (excluding equations expressing the
equilibrium of the whole structure or groups of components already analyzed).

If there are more unknowns than equations, the structure is statically indeterminate. If there
are fewer unknowns than equations, the structure is nonrigid. If there are as many unknowns
as equations, and if all unknowns may be determined and all equations satisfied under
general loading conditions, the structure is statically determinate and rigid. If all unknowns
cannot be determined and all equations cannot be satisfied, the structure is statically
indeterminate and nonrigid.

 Attempt several questions

BEAMS

Beams are structural members which offer resistance to bending due to applied loads. Beams
are usually long prismatic members/bars designed to support loads, applied normal to the
axes of the bars.

Types of beams

Beams supported so that their external support reactions can be calculated by the methods of
statics alone are called statically determinate beams

A beam that has more supports than needed to provide equilibrium is statically indeterminate

Only statically determinate beams will be analyzed

Simple Cantilever
Combination
Statically determinate beams

19
 Continuous End supported Fixed

Statically indeterminate beams

Beams can also be identified by the external loading they support i.e. concentrated loads as
shown above, and distributed loads. The intensity  of a distributed load can be expressed as
a force per unit length of the beam. The loading intensity may be constant or variable,
continuous or discontinuous (changes magnitude abruptly).

Point load/ Uniformly distributed variable concentrated load

Distributed loads

The resultant of a distributed load passes through the centroid, as shown on the next page.

1 1
R2= (1- )
L

R = L
2

R=L
L L


 1 2
L
L L

For general load distribution

20
 R
dR=dx

dx
x

Starting with a differential increment of force dR=dx. The total load R is then

R=
The resultant R is located at the centroid of the area under consideration. The x-coordinate of
the centroid is found by the principle of moments

R =

The vertical coordinate of the centroid does not need to be found. Once the distributed loads
have been reduced to their equivalent concentrated loads, the external reactions acting on the
beam can be found using static analysis already developed in earlier chapters.

Examples

Determine the reactions at A and B for the beam subjected to the uniform load distribution
1.8KN
0.15m
6KN/m Ax
A
B
0.3m
Ay
300mm 300mm By

Ay=1.35KN, By=0.45KN

SHEAR AND BENDING

A beam can resist shear, bending and torsion, in addition to supporting tension or
compression.

T
V

T
T-torsional moment
21
 M

M
V
Shear force M-bending moment

Shear

The shear force V on a section is the algebraic sum of all lateral components of the forces
acting on one side of the section. The shear force tends to slide sections of the beam.

Shear force is positive when the resultant of the forces on the left section is upwards or to the
right is downwards.

Positive shear
V

Bending moment

Bending moment is the algebraic sum of all moments acting on one side of that section due to
the forces.

Bending moment is considered positive when the moment of the left section is clockwise and
on the right portion anticlockwise

MMM
M Positive bending

moment Hogging-negative bending moment

Shear and bending moment diagrams

The variations in shear variations and moment are usually shown graphically and the
expressions for V and M, when plotted against distance along the beam to give the shear
force and bending moment diagrams for the beam.

• The first step is to determine the reactions at the supports from the fbd of the entire beam

• Isolate a portion of the beam either to the right or to the left of an arbitrary transverse
section, with a fbd, and apply the equations of equilibrium to this isolated portion of the
beam. These equations yield expressions for the shear force V and bending moment M
acting at the cut section on the part of the beam isolated.

• The part of the beam, which involves the smaller number of forces either to the right or to
the left of the arbitrary section, usually yield the simpler solution

22
• Avoid using a section which coincides with the location of a concentrated load or couple,
as such a position represents a point of discontinuity in the variation of shear or bending
moment

• Be consistent with the positive conventions illustrated earlier

Shear and bending moment relationships

Consider a portion of the beam loaded as shown

=f(x)

V
 M M+dM

x
dx dX
V+dV

At the location x, the shear V and moment M act on the element. On the opposite side x+dx,
the shear V and moment are also shown in the positive convention. V and M Change with
length, hence label V+dV and M+dM

Fy=0: V-dx-(V+dV)=0

= …………………………………………………………eqn 1
Thus the slope of the shear diagram must everywhere be equal to the negative of the value of
the applied loading. This equation holds on either side of a concentrated load but not at the
concentrated load/couple Integrating equation 1

-
Or V=Vo + (the negative of the area under the loading curve from Xo to X)

Vo is the shear force at Xo and V is the shear force at X

Summing the area under the loading curve is the simple way to construct a shear force
diagram

 Moments on the left side of the element gives

M+ (dx  ) + (V+dV)dx- (M+dM) =0

The differentials of a higher order can be dropped. Hence

23
V= ………………………………………………………………………eqn 2
Thus the shear everywhere is equal to the slope of the moment curve. Equation 2 holds on
either side of a concentrated couple but not at the concentrated couple because of
discontinuity caused by abrupt change in moment.

M= Mo+ (area under shear diagram from Xo to X)

Mo is the bending moment at Xo and M is the bending moment at X.

Summing the area under the shear diagram is the simplest way to draw a moment diagram

For beams where there is no externally applied moment at x=0, the total moment at any
section equals the area under the shear force diagram up to that section.

When V is zero, the bending moment is either a maximum or a minimum

At a point on the beam where the type of bending is changing from sagging to hogging, the
bending moment must be zero and this is called a point of inflexion or contraflaxure.

Equation 1&2 can be combined to yield

- = …………………………………………………………eqn 3
Thus the bending moment can be obtained by two integrations, but this method is only usable
if  is a continuous function of x.

The internal axial forces are not considered because of the following assumptions

• In most cases the loads applied to the beam act perpendicular to the beam’s axis and
hence produce only an internal shear force and bending moment
• For design purposes, the beam’s resistance to shear, and particularly to bending is more
important than its ability to resist axial force.

Examples

Determine the shear and bending moment distributions in the simple beam

4KN
6m 4m

Draw a fbd of the entire beam to determine the external reactions

24
 4KN

R1=1.6KN R2=2.4KN

Draw a fbd of the section either to the right or left of the concentrated load. Do not take a
section at the concentrated load

V
M M

X V 10-x
1.6KN
2.4KN

From the left section

Fy=0: 1.6-V=0: V=1.6KN

MR1=0: M-1.6X=0: M=1.6X

From the right section of the beam

Fy =0: V+2.4=0: V=-2.4KN

MR2=0: M=2.4(10-X)

Plot the shear force and bending moment diagrams

4KN

1.6KN 2.4KN
V, KN

V=1.6KN
X,m

V=-2.4KN

M,KNm

9.6KN

X,m
0 10
6

Draw the shear force and bending moment diagrams of the beam loaded as shown

25
 6KN/m

A B

9m

From the equations of equilibrium, Ra=9KN and Rb=18KN

Taking a section as indicated on the loading diagram

6KN/m
y
M
X
V x
9KN 9m

Use the principle of similar triangles to find the loading intensity at a section of x,m. OR use
the equation of a straight line,y = ax+b since the boundary conditions are known.

Fy=0: -9+V+ =0:

V=9

M=0; M=(9X

Draw the shear and bending moment diagrams based on the equations obtained

Assignment

Draw the shear force and bending moment diagrams for a beam loaded as shown.
3000N
2000N

A B C D
4m 4m 4m

 Attempt several questions

26
CABLES

Flexible cables are used in many Engineering applications, such as suspension bridges,
transmission lines, aerial tramways, messenger cables for supporting heavy trolley or
telephone lines, and many others. To design these structures, relations involving tension,
span, sag and length of cables are important. These quantities are determined by examining
the cable as a body in equilibrium.

Cables are divided into two categories, according to their loading; Cables supporting
concentrated loads and Cables supporting distributed loads

In the analysis of cables, it is assumed that;

• Cables are perfectly flexible, thus any resistance to bending is negligible. This means
that the force in the cable is always in the direction of the cable.
• Cables have a constant length before and after loading (inextensible)
• The weight of the cable is negligible compared with the loads supported by the cable.
However the weight of the cable may be an appreciable load or the sole load and
cannot be neglected.

Cables with concentrated loads

Consider a cable attached to two fixed points A and B supporting the loads P1, P2, P3. Any
portion of the cable between successive loads may be considered as a two force member, and
the internal forces at any point in the cable reduce to a force of tension directed along the
cable. It is also assumed that the horizontal and vertical distances between the supports are
known. To determine the vertical distance from support A to each of the points C1, C2, C3
and the tension T in each portion of the cable
Ay
L
L
Ax

y1
y2 d d

y3
P1 C1
X1 X1 D C2 C3 Bx
P2 P1 By
X2 P3 X2
P2 P3
X3 X3

 The first step is to draw a fbd of the entire cable

 There are 4 unknowns involved, and the 3 equations of equilibrium are not sufficient to
determine the reactions at A and B. An additional equation is obtained by considering the
equilibrium of a portion of the cable. This is possible if the coordinates x and y of a point
D on a cable are known.

27
 Ay

Ax Md=0. An additional relationship between

From the fbd,
Ax and Ay is obtained. The vertical distance from A to
y any point of the cable
is now easily obtained.
C1
D
P1
T
X1
x

For example, considering point C2, draw a fbd for that portion of the cable

Ay
From MC2=0: y2 can be solved for.
Ax Fx = 0 and Fy = 0, the components of the force T
y2 representing tension in the portion of the cable to the
C1 right of C2 can be obtained
C2
P1 θ
P2 Tcos θ = −Ax
X1 T
X2 The horizontal component of the tension is the same
at any point in the cable.

It follows that the tension is maximum when cos θ is

minimum i.e. in the portion of the cable which has the largest angle of inclination of θ. This
portion of the beam must be adjacent to one of the two supports of the cable.

Example

The cable AE supports the vertical loads from the points indicated. If point C is 5m below the
left support, determine the elevations of point Band D, the maximum slope and the maximum
tension in the cable.
E

D 20m

A
C 5m
4N
B
12N
6N
20m 10m 15m 15m

From the Fbd of the entire beam

ME =0; 20Ax- 60Ay+6(40) +12(30) +4(15)=0

20Ax-60Ay+660=0

28
 Ey
E Ex
D
20m
Ay
A Ax C 5m
B 4N
12N
6N
20m 10m 15m 15m

Fbd of ABC

Ay
T

A Ax 5m
C
MC B =0; -5Ax- 30Ay+6(10) =0

12N Solving the two simultaneous

6N
20m equations:
10m
Ax= -18N and Ay= 5N

Elevation, yB at point B

5N
18N T
A yB MB=0:
B 18yB-5(20) =0
6N
20m yB = 5.56m below A

Elevation at D

T
D
5N
yD MD=0
A 18N 5m
C
B
4N -18yD-5(45)+6(25)+12(15)=0
6N 12N
yD=5.83m above A
20m 10m 15m

29
 Ey
Ex tension is constant.
θ 14.17m
D tanθ = 14.17/15
5N
5.83m
A 18N 5m θ = 43.4°
C
B 12N 4N Tmax=18/cosθ
6N
20m 10m 15m 15m Tmax=24.8N
The
horizontal component of the General relationships
X y
X+dx T+dT
x θ+d θ
B x
θ

T
A dx

Consider a cable carrying a distributed load as shown above. If the intensity is expressed as 
units of force per units of horizontal length x, then the resultant R of the vertical loading is

R=

Finding the position of R

=
R

The elemental load dR=dx is represented by an elemental strip of vertical length  and
width dx of the shaded area of the loading diagram and R is represented by the total area. R
therefore passes through the centroid of the shaded area.

The equilibrium conditions of the cable are satisfied if each infinitesimal element of the cable
is in equilibrium

Fy = 0: (T+dT) sin (θ+dθ) = Tsinθ+ dx

Fx= 0: (T+dT) cos (θ+dθ) = Tcos θ

As d θ tends to zero, sindθ = dθ and cos dθ=1

Trigonometric expansion and substitution of sindθ = dθ and cos dθ=1, yields

(T+dT) [sinθ+cosθdθ ]= Tsinθ+ dx

(T+dT) [cosθ-sinθdθ ]= Tcosθ

Dropping the second order terms and simplifying gives

Tcosθdθ+dTsinθ=dx

30
-Tsin θdθ+ dTcosθ=0

Which can be written as

d (Tsinθ)= dx ………………………………………………………Eqn 1 d (Tcosθ)= 0

………………………………………………………Eqn 2

From eqn2, the horizontal component of T remains unchanged

If To=Tcosθ, for the constant horizontal force; then T= To/cosθ

Substituting T in equation 1: d (To tanθ) = dx

But tanθ =

Thus …………………………………………………….Eqn 3
Equation 3 is the differential equation of flexible cables. This relationship defines the slope
of the cable.

Parabolic cables

When the intensity of vertical loading is constant, the condition closely approximates that of a
suspension bridge. The load is uniformly distributed along the horizontal. The mass of the
cable itself is not distributed uniformly with the horizontal but is relatively small, thus
neglected. Consider a cable suspended from two points, A and B, which are not on the same
horizontal line.
y
LB LA X
A T
d θ
y SA
hA s y
B c
To x
hB SB
x X/2

R=X

 = load per unit of horizontal length

To prove that the cable hangs in a parabolic arc and placing the origin at the lowest point of
the cable, where the tension is horizontal and is To.

Integrating equation 3 with respect to x gives

For the coordinate axes shown, when x= 0 , hence C=0

Thus

31
 which defines the slope of a curve as a function of x

Integrating again yields

Or y = ……………………………….Eqn 4

Equation 4 gives the shape of the cable, which is a vertical parabola

Alternatively

T= tanθ =

Md=0: (x  ) + (Toy) = 0

y= as shown in equation 4

Inserting the corresponding values x=LA and y=hA

And

Tension T is found from Pythagoras Theorem: T=

Eliminating To gives

T= …………………………………………………….Eqn 5

The maximum tension occurs at x=LA and is

T max = ……………………………………………….Eqn 6

The length SA of the cable is obtained from the origin to point A by integrating the expression
for a differential length

32
dS=
dS dy

dx

dx

= dx

Using binomial expansion

Which converges for replacing x in the series by

and setting n=1/2

= ……………………………Eqn 7

The series is convergent for values of , which holds for most practical cases. The
relationships which apply from the origin to point B can be easily obtained by replacing
HA,LA and SA by HB, LB and SB respectively.

For a suspension bridge, where the supporting towers are on the same horizontal line, the
total span L=2LA, the sag h=hA, and the total length of the cable is S=2SA. With these
substitutions, the maximum tension and the total length become

T max =

Catenary Cable

A catenary cable carries a load uniformly distributed along the cable itself. Cables hanging
under their own weight are loaded in this way. It is assumed that the cable assumes a curved
shape known as catenary.

33
 y
y
LB LA X
A T
θ
d ds dy
SA y
B hA s dx
c x
SB To
hB x

R=µs

The fbd of a finite portion of the cable, length s, measured from the origin is shown. The total
vertical force is equal to the weight of the cable section of length s. if the cable has a weight
of µ per unit of its length, the resultant load R=µs and the incremental vertical load is µds .

The equation of the cable becomes ………………………………………Eqn 8

Substituting the identity

…………………………………………………….Eqn 9
Equation 9 is the differential equation of a curve (catenary) formed by a cable. To ease the

solution of this equation, the substitution P is made

Integrating this equation yields

In

The constant C is zero because when x=0. Substituting P , changing to

the exponential form, and clearing the equation of the radical give

The slope may be integrated to obtain

But x = 0 when y = 0

Hence

34
 ………………………………………………………………………Eqn 10

Equation 10 is the equation of the curve (catenary) formed by a cable hanging under the
action of its weight only.

From the fbd,

…………………………………………………………........Eqn 11

(Using the relations dx=dscosθ and dy=ds sinθ)

To obtain the tension T in the cable

Combined with equation 11 gives

………………………………………………………………Eqn 12

Expressing the tension in terms of y (from equation 10)

T=To+µy……………………………………………………………………………… Eqn 13
Equation 13 shows that the change in cable tension from that at the lowest position depends
only on µy.

Most problems dealing with catenary involve solutions which can be handled by graphical
approximation or solved by a computer. When the cable is fairly taut, the load may be
assumed distributed along the horizontal and the catenary replaced by a parabola. Many
problems dealing with both catenary and parabolic cables involve suspension points that are
not at the same level. In such cases, apply the relations developed to the part of the cable on
each side of the lowest point.

35
Moment of inertia for an area

When forces are distributed continuously over an area on which they act, it is often necessary
to calculate the moment of these forces about some axis either in or perpendicular to the
plane of the area. The intensity of a force (pressure or stress) is proportional to the distance of
the line of action of the force from the moment axis.

The elemental force acting on an elemental area, then is proportional to distance times
differential area, and the elemental moment is proportional to distance squared times
differential area. Therefore the total moment involves an integral called the moment of inertia
or the second moment of area.

Consider the area A, which lies in the x-y plane.

36
 Y A
x
dA

r y

Z X

If each element of area is multiplied by the square of its distance from an axis, the summation
of these quantities for the whole area is the second moment of area about the axis and is
denoted by I.

And

These are termed as the rectangular moments of inertia

The second moment of area about Z (perpendicular to area)

This is termed as the polar moment of inertia and is denoted by j.

Since it follows that

Radius of gyration

Radius of gyration of a planar area is often used in column design in structural mechanics. If
the area of the plane is A, the second moment of area may be written as . K is termed
as the radius of gyration and it is the radius at which the area would have to be imagined
concentrated to give the same value of r.

And and

Thus

Parallel-axis theorem

It states that the second moment of area of a plane about any axis is equal to the second
moment of area about a parallel axis through the centroid, together with the product of the
area and the square of the distance between the axes.

37
 dA
y
X • X
G

O O

If it is required to find the 2nd moment of area about a parallel axis O-O, distance h from X-X.
The 2nd moment of area of element dA about O-O is

For the whole area

A A

The term in the middle is zero because the first moment through the centroid is zero

If a transfer is required between two parallel axes neither of which passes through the
centroid, it is first necessary to transfer one axis to the parallel centroidal axis and then
transfer from the centroidal axis to the second axis.

Typical values for moment of inertia

Rectangle, breadth b and depth d

d x

b o

y
r
x

circle

38
Triangle

a X1

x
b

Semi circle

r
x

Quarter circular area

Moment of inertia for composite areas A composite area consists of a series of connected
simpler areas or shapes such as semicircles, rectangles and triangles. Provided the 2 nd
moment of area of the shapes is known, or can be computed about a common axis, the
moment of inertia of the composite area equals the algebraic sum of all its composite parts

Example

Determine the 2nd moment of area about the reference axis x-x if r=25mm

Circle (hole) A

=11.46106mm4

39
Rectangle A

=112.5106mm4

2nd moment of area =112.5106mm4−11.46106mm4

=101.6106mm4

75mm

75mm

x
100mm

Assignment

Compute the moment of inertia of the beam’s cross-sectional area shown in the figure about
the x and y centroidal axes.

100mm

400mm y

400mm
100mm

100mm
600mm

 Attempt several questions

40
 Friction

In the preceding chapters, the surfaces of contact between two bodies were considered to be
perfectly smooth, and because of this, the force of interaction between the bodies always
acted normal to the surfaces at points of contact.

However in reality, friction forces are present thorough nature and exist in all machines no
matter how accurately constructed or carefully lubricated. A machine or process in which
friction is small enough to be neglected is said to be ideal. When friction must be taken into
account, the machine or process is termed real.

Definition

Friction may be defined as a force of resistance acting on a body which prevents or inhibits
any possible slipping of the body. This force always acts tangent to the surface at points of
contact with other bodies and is directed so as to oppose the possible or existing motion of
the body at these points.

Importance of friction

Friction is a nuisance in most situations and efforts are always made to reduce it in for
example bearings, power screws, gears, flow of fluids e.t.c

Friction is desirable in certain aspects and in such situations it is always desirable to increase
it e.g. in clutches, belt drives, wedges, footwear e.t.c.

Types of friction

i. Dry friction
ii. Fluid friction (contacting surfaces are separated by a film of fluid, either gas or
liquid)
iii. Internal friction

NB: fluid friction and internal friction are dealt with in fluid mechanics and strength of
materials. Our focus will be on dry friction

Dry friction

Dry friction exists when unlubricated surfaces of two solids or rigid bodies are in contact
under conditions of sliding or tendency to slide.

It is also known as “Coulomb friction” since its characteristics were extensively studied by
C.A. Coulomb in 1781

Theory of dry friction

Consider a block of uniform weight W resting on a rough horizontal floor and the effects that
are caused by pulling horizontally by a force P.

As shown in the fbd, the floor exerts a normal force and a frictional force along the
contacting surface.

41
 W W
Impending motion Tipping W

P P P
F h
x a/2 a/2 F
Rough surface
W N N

P
F
N Motion

Where N is the normal force, F the frictional force and W is the weight of the block.

F= frictional force

Therefore provided the block does not slip, any increase in P causes a corresponding increase
in x and as a result, this tends to concentrate the distribution of the normal force further
towards the blocks right corner, thereby increasing the chance of tipping. Indeed tipping
occurs if the contacting surface is rough enough to hold the block from slipping and the

applied force P = Pt ≥ where x =

For impending motion, in cases where h is small, or the surfaces of contact are slippery, the
frictional force F may not be great enough to balance the magnitude of P and consequently
the block will tend to slip before it can tip. Close examination of the contacting surfaces
shows that each surface has many protuberances (irregularities) that interlock preventing the
tendency of the two surfaces slipping over each other, as shown in the figure below. The
larger W is, the more the depth of these protuberances lock into each other. This increases the
force P required to move the surfaces over each other.

 F

R1 R2 R3 R4 R5 N R

A plot of friction force F and force P is shown below

F Impending motion

Static friction Kinetic friction

(No motion) (motion)

Fmax=µsN FK= µKN

F=P

42
 µs= coefficient of static friction µk= coefficient of kinetic friction

Impending motion

As the magnitude of the pulling force P is slowly increased from zero, the magnitude of
friction force F increases until it attains a maximum value Fs called the limiting static
frictional force. When this value is reached, the body is in unstable equilibrium since any
further increase in P will cause motion.

Experimentally, it has been established that the magnitude of the limiting static force Fs is
directly proportional to the magnitude of the resultant normal force N.

Fs  N OR Fs = µS N µS is the coefficient of static friction.

Motion

When P becomes greater than Fs the frictional force between the contacting surfaces drops
slightly to a smaller value Fk called the kinetic frictional force. When P>Fs the body begins
to slide with increasing speed.

Experiments have established that:

Fk  N OR Fk = µK N µK is the coefficient of kinetic (or dynamic) friction.

The block will not be held in equilibrium (P>Fk) instead, it begins to slide with increasing
speed.

Typical values of µK are approximately 25% smaller than µS

Angle of friction

The frictional force acting at a contacting surface is determined from Fk = µ K N only if

relative motion is occurring between the two surfaces. If two bodies are stationary, the
magnitude of the frictional force, F does not necessarily equal µ S N; instead, F must satisfy
the inequality F≤ µS N. Only when impending motion occurs does F reach the upper limit
F=Fs= µS N. consider the blocks shown below

W
W

P P

Fs Fk

ΦS ΦK
N Rs
Rk
N
Impending motion Motion

For equilibrium, the normal force N and frictional force Fs combine to create resultant Rs.
The angle ΦS that Rs makes with N is called the angle of static friction or the angle of repose. From
the figure:
43
If a body is not in motion, any horizontal force P < Fs causes a resultant R which has a line of action
directed at angle Φ from the vertical such that Φ < Φ S.

If P creates motion of the body, then P> Fs (but P ≥ Fk). In this case, the resultant Rk has a line of
action defined by ΦK. This angle is referred to as the angle of kinetic friction.

By comparison ΦS >ΦK.

If F≤ µS N, F must be determined from equations of equilibrium and its sense is established

after the equilibrium equations are solved.

Examples

The crate shown in the figure below has a mass of 20Kg. determine the force P such that the crate is
on the verge of moving up the plane. The coefficient of static friction is

y W=196.2N
0.8m 30°
x

F=0.3Nc
P
0.2m x
0.2m
P 0.2m 30° Nc

0.4m

The resultant Nc must act a distance x from the centerline of the crate to counteract the tipping effect
caused by P.

From the equations of friction and equilibrium

F= µS N F=0.3N

Applying the eqns of equilibrium

FX=0 P-0.3Nc-196.2sin 30° =0

FY=0 Nc-196.2cos30° =0

M0= 0 -Nc(x) +0.3Nc (0.2) =0

Solving for the three unknowns yields

Nc =169.9N, P=149.1N, x=0.06m

Since x is positive, then its direction was assumed correctly, however, x ≤0.4m, so the crate
will not tip over

44
Assignment

The homogenous block shown in the figure has a weight of 20N and rests on an incline for which
. Determine the largest angle of tilt θ, of the plane before the block moves

Ans. θ = 26.6°

4m

8m

The pipe shown in the figure is gripped between two levers that are held together at C. if the
coefficient of friction between the levers and the pipe is µ=0.3, determine the maximum angle θ at
which the pipe can be gripped without slipping. Neglect the weight of the pipe. Ans. θ= 33.4°

P
P
O

 Attempt several questions

APPLICATION OF FRICTIONAL FORCE IN MACHINES

Frictional forces in flat belts

The impending slippage of flexible members such as belts and ropes is important in the design of belt
drives, band brakes and hoisting rigs.

Consider the drum shown below subjected to two belt tensions T1 and T2 and a torque M necessary to
prevent rotation, the bearing reaction R. For the direction shown, T2>T1.

45
 Assuming either impending motion or motion of the belt, the magnitude of the frictional force dF = µ
dN. This force is to oppose the sliding motion of the belt and thereby increases the magnitude
of the tensile force acting in the belt by dT.

P P’ For equilibrium (from fbd)

Ft= 0: (T+dT)cos dθ/2-Tcos dθ/2- µS

P1 dθ dN=0
θ
β P2
Fn= 0: dN-(T+dT)sin dθ/2-Tsin dθ/2=0
O
For small angles cos dθ/2≈1,
R then
M
(T+dT) –T - µ dN= 0
T1 T2
dT= µdN…………………….eqn 1

For small angles sin dθ/2≈ dθ/2 dN- (T+dT)dθ/2- Tdθ/2 = 0

Neglecting 2nd order differential products yields

n
dN- T(dθ/2)- T.(dθ/2) = 0
t
OR dN = T(dθ)…………………..eqn 2
dθ/2 dθ/2
Combining eqn 1 and 2 yields
µdN
T
dN

dθ
r

O
T+dT dT = µT(dθ)

OR dT/T = µ (dθ)

OR ………………..Eqn 3

Where β is the total angle of the belt in contact with the drum. For a belt or rope wrapped N times
around the drum β=2πN

46
Equation 3 applies also to belt drives where both the belt and pulley are rotating at constant speed. In
this case the equation describes the ratio of belt tensions for slipping or impending slippage. At high
rotational speeds, there is a tendency for the belt to leave the rim leading to error in use of eqn 3.
Considering moments and Taking moments about the centre

-M-T1r + T2r =0

M=T1r (

Look at some examples

Wedges

Wedges are simple machines used to raise large stone blocks and any other heavy loads.
These loads may be raised by applying to the wedge a force usually considerably smaller
than the weight of the load. Because of friction existing between the surfaces in contact, a
wedge, if properly shaped will remain in place after being forced under a load. Wedges may
thus be used advantageously to make small adjustments in the position of heavy pieces of
machinery.

Wedges are largely dependent on friction. When sliding of a wedge is impending, the
resultant force on each sliding surface will be inclined from the normal to the surface by an
amount equal to the friction angle.

The component of the resultant along the surface is the frictional force which is always in the
direction to oppose the motion of the wedge relative to the mating surfaces.

Example

A wedge is used to adjust the position of a large mass M. the coefficient of friction for each
pair of surfaces is µ= tan. The force P required to start the wedge is found from the
equilibrium triangles of the forces on the load and on the wedge.

mg

P
β

R3

mg
47
 R2

 +β
R1
P R2
R2
+β
R3  mg
y R1

Forces to raise a load

Explanation

R3

mg


β

Fy=0: R2cos (+β)-mg=0

R2=mg/cos(+β)…………Eqn 1

Fx=0: R3-R2 sin(+β)=0

R3= R2 sin(+β)………….Eqn 2
R2

The fbds are shown with the reactions inclined at an angle  from their respective normals and are in
one direction opposing motion. The mass of the wedge has been neglected in the above analysis.

Using the sine and cosine rule, the unknowns in Eqns 1&2 can be found.R 2 may be found first from
the equilibrium of mass M so that P can be calculated from the lower figure. If P is removed, the
wedge will remain in place so long as β (angle of the wedge) is less than (angle of friction). In this
situation, the wedge is said to be self-locking.

If a wedge is self-locking and is to be withdrawn, a pull P must be applied on the wedge. In this event,
the reactions R1 and R2 would act on the opposite side of their normals to oppose the impending
motion as shown in the diagrams below.

48
 R3
R3

mg -β R2
mg
y

x R2
R2

-β 
R2 R1
P
P

R1

Forces to lower a load

Assignment

Determine the minimum force P required to move wedge A to the right. The spring is compressed a
distance of 175mm. neglect the weight of A and B. the coefficient of static friction for all contacting
surfaces is µS= 0.35. Neglect friction at the rollers. Spring constant K= 15KN/m (Ans.2391.2N)

P
A
10°

Read and make notes on screws, journal bearings, disk friction and rolling resistance

 Attempt several questions

49
Virtual work

In engineering applications of statics, we’re usually concerned with the question of

equilibrium of a rigid body, or a system of connected rigid bodies, either completely or
partially constrained by various supports, and subjected to active forces. The equilibrium of a
body is analyzed by isolating it with a free body diagram and writing zero force and zero
moment summation equations. However there are bodies composed of inter connected
members which can move relative to each other. Thus various equilibrium configurations are
possible, and must be examined. In this case the force and moment equilibrium equations,
though valid and adequate, are not often the most direct and convenient approach. The
method of virtual work, which utilizes the concept of work done by a force during a
differential movement in members of a body of connected members, is used.

Work

Work of a force is the product of the displacement and the force in the direction of the
displacement.

 ∆S
F cos 

F- Force, ∆S- displacement

Work, U = (F cos )∆S

50
 F
∆S


∆S cos 

Work, U = F (∆S cos )

The same result is obtained if we multiply the magnitude of the force by the component of
the displacement in the direction of the force. Hence work is a scalar quantity because the
same result is obtained regardless of the direction the vectors are resolved.

Work is positive when the working component of the force is in the same direction as the
displacement. When the working component is in the direction opposite to the displacement,
work is negative.

F
θ
∆S

Work, U = (F cos ) ∆S = - F cos θ ∆S

If the direction of the displacement and magnitude and direction of the force are variable,
then;

dU = Fds…………………………………………………………………………………Eqn 1

To illustrate equation 1, the figure below shows a force F acting on a body at a point A which
moves along the path shown from A1 to A2.

F A2 Point A is located by its position vector S measured

A’ from some arbitrary but convenient origin O. The
dS
A infinitesimal displacement in the motion curve from A to

A’ is given by A1 the differential change dS of the
position vector. The work
S S+dS done is defined in equation 1.

dU = Fcosds
O Or it can be represented or interpreted as:

F A2
dS
F cos

A1 dScos

51
Expressing F and S in rectangular components

dU =(iFx+jFy+kFz)(idx+jdy+kdz)

=Fxdx+Fydy+Fzdz

 To obtain total work done by F during a finite movement of point A from A 1 to A2,
integrate dU, between these two positions

U=

This integral can only be done if the relations between force components and their respective
coordinates or between F and S and between cos  and S are known

Work done by a couple

In figure A, the couple M acts on a body and changes its angular position by an amount dθ.
The work done by the couple is easily determined from the combined work of two forces
which constitute the couple. During the infinitesimal movement in the plane, line AB moves
to A’’B. The displacement of A is in two steps, first a displacement dSB equal to that of B and second
a displacement dS(A/B) due to a rotation about B. Thus the work done by F during the displacement
from A to A’ is equal and opposite in sign due to – F acting through the displacement from B to B’.
Therefore no work is done by a couple during a translation.

During the rotation however, F does work equal to F.dS(A/B)=Fbdθ, where dS(A/B)=bdθ and
where dθ is the infinitesimal angle of rotation in radians. Since M=Fb.

Then dU=Mdθ

dθ

A dSA A’ dS(A/B) A’’

F
M

b
dθ

Fig A
F dSB
B B’

The work of a couple is positive if M has the same sense as dθ.

The total work of a couple during a finite rotation in its plane becomes;

U=

Proof

52
 dθ
F
F r/2
dθ
r
r/2 dθ

dU =Fdistance

=F(r/2dθ) + F(r/2dθ)

=Fr dθ but Fr =M dU=Mdθ

U=

Virtual work

Consider a particle whose static equilibrium position is determined by the forces which act on
it.

Any assumed and arbitrary small distance away from the equilibrium position of a body,
consistent with the system constraints is called virtual displacement

The term virtual denotes that the displacement does not exist in reality but is only assumed in
order to compare various possible equilibrium positions in the process of selecting the correct
one

For a virtual displacement dS, the virtual work done is;

δU=FδS

=FcosδS or δU=Mδθ

Where  is the angle between F and δS

Equilibrium of a rigid body

To use the method of virtual work to solve problems of equilibrium, we assume ideal systems
where there is no friction between moving surfaces. There are however real systems when
sliding friction is present but the method of virtual work will find limited use.

For an ideal system, the principle of virtual work states that:

“A system of connected rigid bodies is in equilibrium provided that the virtual work done by
all the external forces and couples acting on the system is zero for each independent virtual
displacement of the system.”

i.e δU=0, for all forces and couples.

53
 P

δθ

δθ
O

For the rigid body, find the reaction R under the roller of negligible weight due to force P

Solution

Assume a virtual rotation δθ about O and a virtual work done by the ideal system, δU=0

Work done by P= -P (aδθ)

Work done by R= R (bδθ)

From the principle of equilibrium, virtual work=0

-P (aδθ) + R (bδθ) =0

Or R= which is simply the moment equilibrium about O.

Hence nothing is gained by using the virtual work principle for a single rigid body. The
principle is however advantageous for interconnected bodies.

There are three types of forces which act on a mechanical system

i. Active forces: these are external forces capable of doing virtual work during possible
virtual displacements

B P

O
F
P and F are active forces

ii. Reactive forces: these act at positions of fixed points where no virtual displacements
in the direction of the forces takes place

B
Fb

Fo O Fb and Fo are reactive forces

54
 iii. Internal forces: are forces in connections between members during any possible
movement of the system or its parts. The net work done by the internal forces at the
connections is zero. This is so because the external forces always exist in pairs of
equal and opposite forces

-F

Advantages of virtual work method

a. Relations between active forces can be established without having to dismember the
system
b. The relations between active forces can be established without reference to reactive
forces at all

In isolating a body for virtual work analysis, only active forces need to be shown. The
diagram drawn is thus termed the “active force diagram”

Degrees of freedom
Degree of freedom is defined as the number of independent coordinates needed to specify
completely the configuration of a mechanical system.
The coordinate can be a distance or an angle.

The principle of virtual work may be applied as many times as there are degrees of freedom.
With each application of the principle of virtual work, allow only one independent coordinate
to change while holding others constant.

The link and sliding block arrangement is an example of a single degree of freedom. The
independent coordinate θ is sufficient to specify the location of the two connecting links

a b

θ
P

The double link below has 2 degrees of freedom. To specify the location of each link, θ 1 and
θ2 must be known since the rotation of one link is independent of the rotation of the other

55
 θ1

L1

θ2
L2
P

Example 1
Determine the angle θ for equilibrium of the two member linkage. Each member has a mass
of 10Kg.
A B F=25N
θ

1m 1m

D
Active force diagram

XB
A -δ XB B
Ax F=25N
y θ
Ay By
δθ
δy
W W

W
D

When θ undergoes a small positive (clockwise) virtual rotation, the two weights W and F do
work. Reactive forces Ax and Ay are fixed. By does not move along its line of action,
therefore does no work in the vertical direction.

Virtual displacements
 Establish origin at fixed support A
 The location of F and W may be specified by the position coordinates X B and Y
respectively. These coordinates are in the same direction as the lines of action of their
associated forces.
i.e. XB= 2(1cosθ) m δXB= -2sinθδθ (partial derivative)
……………………………i
y= 0.5(1sinθ)
δy = 0.5cosθδθ…………………………………………………….ii
56
 Principle of virtual work δU=0;
W.δy+ W.δy+F.δXB=0……………………………………………………..iii
From equations i,ii,and iii
98.1(0.5 cosθδθ) +98.1(0.5 cosθδθ) + 25(-2sinθδθ) = 0
(98.1cosθ-50sinθ) δθ=0 θ=tan-1(98.1/50) = 63° and
δθ≠0

Summary of procedure of analysis

i. Draw the active force diagram of the entire system of connected bodies and define the
independent coordinate.
a) Sketch the deflected position of the system on the active force diagram, when the
system undergoes a deflection
b) On the diagram, indicate the forces/couples that do virtual work
ii. Virtual displacements
a) Indicate position coordinates Si measured from a fixed point to each of the active
forces and couples
b) Each coordinate axis should be in the same direction as the line of action of the active
forces and couples
c) Relate each position coordinate to the independent coordinate, then differentiate these
expressions in order to get virtual displacements (δy, δx, e.t.c) iii. Virtual work
equation
Write the virtual work equation expressing the work of each active force and couple in
terms of a single independent virtual displacement. From this equation, the unknown can
be solved for.

Example 2
Using the principle of virtual work, determine the equilibrium position of the two bar linkage
shown. Neglect the weight of the links

Solution

Note that the system has 2 degrees of freedom, since the independent coordinates θ1 and θ2
must be known to locate the positions of both links

θ1
M
L

θ2 M
P
L

Active force diagram when θ1 is kept constant

57
 Oy
Fig 1
Ox

θ1
M
L

δθ2
θ2
M P
L δXB θ2
XB

The position coordinate XB is measured from a fixed point O is used to specify the location of
P.

If θ1 is held constant and θ2 let to vary, then:

δU=0;

P( δXB) θ2 - Mδθ2 = 0………………………………………….i

The virtual work done by M is negative since δθ2 is opposite to the direction of action of M in
the figure 1

From figure 2:

P( δXB) θ1 – Mδθ1- Mδθ1 = 0………………………………….ii

To obtain the variation of δXB in terms of δθ2 it is necessary to take the partial derivative of
XB with respect to θ2 since XB is a function of both θ2 and θ1.

But X B= (Lsin θ1+Lsin θ2)……………………………………iii From

equation iii:

 (δXB) θ2 = Lcos θ2 δθ2……………………………………….iv

Active force diagram when θ2 is kept constant

58
 Oy
Fig 2
Ox

θ1 δθ1

L M θ2

θ2
M P
L δXB θ1
XB

From equation iv and equation i

PLcos θ2 δθ2 - Mδθ2 = 0

Or

Also

 (δXB) θ1 = Lcos θ1 δθ1...........................................................v

(PLcos θ1-2M) δθ1=0

Or

 Attempt several questions

Challenge

The three mass suspension system shown in the figure is idealized of three identical masses
with identical suspension lengths, and is brought to equilibrium position by a horizontal force
P. It is then set into motion by removing the force P. Find the equilibrium configuration.

Ans. θ1= , θ2= , θ3=

59
 L1 L
θ1
m1 m

L2 L
θ2
m
m2
L
L3 θ3 m
P
m3

Energy and stability

Elastic potential energy

Work done on an elastic member is stored in the member as elastic potential energy, Ve. This
energy can be released by allowing the elastic member to return to its original undisturbed
position.

For a linear elastic spring, force F needed to depress or extend it is proportional to the

deflection x i.e. F x OR F= kx. k is the spring constant. Work Ve = , which is the

area under the F versus x diagram.

F=k x
F2

F1 ∆ Ve= k x δx

X1 X2
x δx
x

For a spring being extended from x1 to x2 the work done is

∆ Ve=

or

Note that work/ energy equal to -∆Ve is dissipated when the spring is released.

60
 Gravitational potential energy (PE)

Potential energy of a body (referred to as Vg) is the work done on a body by a force equal
and opposite to the weight in bringing the body to a position from some datum where PE is
considered zero.

The PE is the negative of the work done by the weight in moving between the two positions.

PE= Vg= mgh

PE is independent of the path followed in arriving at a particular height. When a body is

below the datum position, the potential energy is negative.

The virtual change in Vg is δVg=mgδh, where δh is the upward virtual displacement of the
mass centre of the body. If δh is downwards, then δVg is negative.

Energy equations

The virtual work equation when applied to systems involving springs and change in potential
energy may be written as:

δU=δVg+ δVe

OR δU=δV where V= (Vg+ Ve) which is the total potential energy of the system

Thus for a mechanical system with elastic members and members that undergo change in
position, the principle of work can be restated as:

“The virtual work done by external active forces on a mechanical system in equilibrium
equals the corresponding change in the total elastic and gravitational potential energy of the
system for any and all virtual displacements consistent with the constraints”

Stability of equilibrium

Since the principle of virtual work states that δU=0, then;

δU = δVg+ δVe = δV=0

This equation expresses the requirement that the equilibrium configuration of a mechanical
system is one for which the total potential energy V of the system has a stationary value.

For a system of one degree of freedom where PE and its derivatives are continuous functions
of a single variable, say x that describes the configuration, the equilibrium condition, δV=0.

…………………………………………………………………….Eqn 1

This equation states that a mechanical system is in equilibrium when the derivative of its PE
is zero. For systems with several degrees of freedom, the partial derivative of V with respect
to each coordinate in turn must be zero for equilibrium.

There are 3 conditions under which equation 1 applies namely;

i. When total PE is minimum (stable equilibrium)

ii. When total PE is maximum (unstable equilibrium)

61
iii. When PE is constant (Neutral equilibrium)

Stable
Unstable Neutral

Unstable equilibrium occurs when a small displacement causes the system to move farther
away from the original position. In this case the original PE of the system is a maximum.

Neutral equilibrium occurs when a small displacement of the system causes the system to
remain in its displaced state. The PE of the system remains constant.

Stable equilibrium occurs when a small displacement of the system causes the system to
return to its original position. In this case the original PE of the system is a minimum.

The type of equilibrium can be checked by getting the second derivative function.

Thus for a body of one degree of freedom;

For equilibrium

For stable equilibrium

For unstable equilibrium

Procedure for analysis

Potential energy function: formulate the potential energy function V= Vg+ Ve for the
system. To do this, sketch the system so that it is located at some arbitrary position, specified
by the independent coordinate q. A horizontal datum is established through a fixed point and
the gravitational potential energy, Vg is expressed in terms of the weight W for each member
and its vertical distance y from the datum. Vg = ±Wy. The elastic potential energy Ve of the
system is expressed in terms of the stretch or compression x of any connecting spring and the

spring’s stiffness, k, Ve= once V has been established, express the position coordinates
x and y in terms of the independent coordinate q.

Equilibrium position: the equilibrium position is determined by taking the first derivative of
V and setting it equal to zero, δV=0

Stability: stability at the equilibrium position is determined by evaluating the second or

higher derivates of V.

Example

The uniform link shown has a mass of 10Kg. the spring is un stretched when θ=0°.
Determine the angle θ for equilibrium and investigate the stability at the equilibrium position.

62
 K=200N/m

(A)
A

θ L=0.6m

Solution

Potential energy function: The datum is established at the top of the link when the spring is
unstretched.

When the spring is located at the arbitrary position θ, it has increased potential energy by
stretching and the weight W decreases its potential energy by falling through a height y.

K
(B ) Position a - the spring is
unstretched
Datum
Position b - the spring is
F=Kx x stretched

y θ
L W
W

a b
Hence

V= Vg+ Ve Where; V total potential energy Ve elastic potential energy, Vg

gravitational potential energy

The difference in W from the datum between positions a and b is equal to

Or distance y

From position a to b, W loses potential energy equal to Wy

63
=W [ ]

V= kx2-Wy

V= kx2- W [ ]

Since L= x+2( or x=L(1-cosθ), then

V= ……………………………….eqn i

Equilibrium positions

For equilibrium δV=0

Since ≠0, then

This equation is satisfied provided θ=0°

θ= = = 53.8°

Therefore θ = 0° or 53.8°

Investigate nature of stability

Computing the second derivative of V gives

2
=

(From sin θ=cos2θ-cos2θ)

Substituting values for the constants with θ=0° or 53.8° yields

For θ=0° = -29.4 < 0 (unstable equilibrium)

For θ =53.8°= 46.9 > 0 (stable equilibrium)

64
 Attempt several questions

65