DEPARTMENT OF AEROSPACE ENGINEERING

A REVIEW OF COMPOSITES ON AIRCRAFT STRUCTURES

GROUP MEMBERS:
1. HIDAYATULLAH BIN MOHAMMAD ALI (183243)
2. FAJOBI ABEEB OLAMILEKAN (181268)
3. NURFAIZAH BINTI MOHAMAD (184655)
4. MAISARAH AFIQAH BINTI NASARUDDIN (184049)
5. MUHAMMAD AFIQ BIN AHMAD WIZRAN (178744)

EAS3401
AEROSPACE MATERIALS AND PROCESSESS

18TH NOVEMBER 2015

 INTRODUCTION

Composites material have been used on aircraft structures since last decades until now. The
permanent interest of this specialists increases where there are more application of composites on
modern aircraft rather than olden days. A composite material is one which composed of at least two
elements working together to produce material properties that are different to the properties of those
elements on their own. The first time composite used on the aircraft was after the Second World
War on the military sites. The use of composites on aircraft structure do reduce the weight in
structural design. For advantages, composites offer high strength and stiffness to weight ratio
comparing to metal alloys. It also corrosion resistance and act as excellent fatigue properties. In the
other hand, for disadvantages, composites are low fracture toughness and moisture absorption.
The main reason why the composites takes too long to be applied on the aircraft structures
from the last decades is because of the cost. The cost of aircraft components or structures that made
out of composites is quite high rather than similar structures that was made out of alloys, mainly
aluminium, metal and et cetera. They are relatively low through-thickness strength, low resistance

SOURCE: Chris red, Composites Forecasts and Consulting

SOURCE: Chris Red, Composites Forecasts and Consult

to mechanical damage and temperature limitations (compared with titanium alloys). That is where
the manufacturer prefer to produce aircraft structure using other structures made of alloy, metal or
others rather than composites mainly because of these reasons.
Now, with continuous developments in materials, design, and manufacturing technology,
composites are having more advantages over other materials such as metals.

LITERATURE REVIEW
 Currently a large variety of composite components are used in aircrafts. Composites play a vital
role to assure the integrity of the aircraft such as the primary structure components, the control
components, exterior and also the interior components. Thus, composite materials have a lot of
application when involves with aerospace components. Composite are made up by combining
several materials in order to improve the characteristics and the properties of the materials from its
individual original material. A composites materials are mostly preferred than its original material
for reasons such as it is stronger, lighter, or less expensive. The use of composite materials is
abundant in aerospace field because of the properties it exhibit. It is applied in manufacturing
various parts of the aircraft structure.

The appeal of higher strength, stiffness and lower density, combined with great resistance to
fatigue and corrosion led to the use of metal. But weight has also always been a consideration.
These factors and its durability have propelled carbon fiber/epoxy to widespread use in aerospace
and a variety of high performance applications. Carbon fiber construction offers exceptional
strength and stiffness at a lower density that metal materials.

Other types of composite materials are glass fibre reinforced plastic GFRP which are used in
fairing, storage room doors, floors and passenger compartments. There are a large range of desirable
mechanical, chemical, electrical and other properties can be obtained in this present development. A
lot of analysis of glass-resin composite properties points to several areas where improvements
and/or manufacturing techniques would lead to improved properties.

Composites are versatile which can be used for both structural applications and components, in
all aircrafts and spacecrafts. Applications of composite materials are very broad. The types have
different mechanical properties and are used in different areas of aircraft construction. For example,
carbon fiber and glass fibre has its own properties. Carbon fiber are known for its unique fatigue
behavior whereas glass fibre are known for its high strength-to-weight ratio and also its good
dimensional stability.

APPLICATION OF COMPOSITES ON AIRCRAFT STRUCTURES

 Written by HIDAYATULLAH BIN MOHAMMAD ALI (183243)

Primary Structures in Commercial, Aerospace, Marine, Industrial, and Recreational

Structures are primarily made up of commercial material. Based on the book ‘Engineering Materials
Properties and Selection’ by Budinski K. G. page 32, Composites was created from a combination
of materials mixed together to achieve specific structural properties, the independent materials in
composites do not dissolve or merge completely but rather act together as one. By joining the
various properties, a superior material is produced. The high strength, low weight and corrosion-
resistant materials of composites are quickly becoming more important to aircraft structure.
Composites are essentially plastics reinforced with carbon fibers. Carbon fibers, each no longer than
a human hair, are set into resin to form sheets, or plies. Plies are laid on top of each other to form
sub-components. The strength and stiffness of the materials depends on the direction at which the
plies have been laid together. There are many application of composites on the aircraft structures
including fairings, flight-control surfaces, landing-gear door, leading- and trailing- edge panels on
the wing and stabilizer, interior components, floor beams and floor boards, turbine engine fan
blades and primary wing and fuselage structure on new-generation aircraft. Advanced composites
do not corrode like metals. A combination of corrosion and fatigue cracking is a significant problem
for aluminium commercial fuselage structure. For information, Boeing 787 aircraft used
approximately 50% of its airframe from composites. A very bold move in the commercial aircraft
industry.
As for Airbus, during
Figure 1 : Evolution composite application at airbus the past 30 years,
AIRBUS has
continuously and
progressively
introduced composite
technology as a
consequence of
successful experience
accumulated (Figure
1).

The application of
Figure 2 : Airbus 350 XWB Structural Design
composites does not only
limited to the exterior of the
aircraft but it was also long used on the interior components and fixtures of the aircraft such as floor
boards, lavatories, galleys, bulkheads and cabin dividers, wall and ceiling panels and stowage bins.
Composite materials will play an increasingly significant role in aerospace application. Boeing 737
and now the Airbus 350-
XWB (Figure 2) has used
more than 50% composite
materials comparing to
previous types of aircraft.
With their unique
combination of properties
such as high strength, low
weight, low flammability,
non-toxicity and durability,
smoke density and heat
release, composites are ideal
and one of the best material
for many aerospace applications, both interior and exterior components.
References:

1 Budinski K. G. (2009)
The Nature of Composites
Engineering Materials Properties and Selection, Nineth Edition, Page 32.
2 Baker, A. A. (Alan A.) (2004)
Introduction and Overview
Composites Materials for Aircraft Structures, Second Edition, Page 1.
3 Soutis C. (2005)
Progress in Aerospace Sciences 41
Fibre reinforced composites in aircraft construction, Volume 1, Page 148-150.
4 Trilaksono A. (2014)
Automatic Damage Detection and Monitoring of a Stitch Laminate System Using a Fiber
Bragg Grating Strain Sensor
Open Journal of Composite Materials, Volume 4, Page 1.
5 FAA, Sky horse Publishing, Inc (2014)
Composite Materials in Aircraft
Pilot’s Handbook of Aeronautical Knowledge, Volume 1, Page 2-9
PROPERTIES OF A COMPOSITE MATERIAL ON AIRCRAFT STRUCTURES
 Written by FAJOBI ABEEB OLAMILEKAN (181268)

Chemical & Weathering Resistance:

Composite products have good weathering properties and resist the attack of a wide range of
chemicals. This depends almost entirely on the resin used in manufacture, but by careful selection
resistance to all but the most extreme conditions can be achieved. Because of this, composites are
used in the manufacturing. A surprising number of applications where composites are used involve
occasional or prolonged contact with chemicals. These chemicals can be anything from cleaning
agents, acids, alkalis, fuels, hydraulic and brake fluids, de-icers, paint strippers, lubricants, etching
chemicals, flue gases and event food and drink.
The resistance of composites to highly reactive chemicals is generally very good, which in turn
explains their widespread use in the chemical process equipment industry where it is often difficult
to find any other affordable, process able materials capable of withstanding the very harsh
conditions. It is rare for composite components to be attacked as rapidly as some common metals
are when placed in contact with acids.

DURABILITY:

The durability of any material is determined by its resistance to the damaging effects of an influence
such as extreme temperature, ultra-violet radiation, exposure to aggressive chemicals, stress cycles,
etc. Durability is assessed by measuring an appropriate material property such as strength, modulus,
etc., before and after exposure to one or more such influence for a period of time under prescribed
conditions. A high level of property retention is consistent with high (good) durability. In this
respect, the "lifetime" of a material may be identified with the time of exposure that results in a
particular property remaining above a certain level. All composite materials are durable in as much
as they are water resistant, thermally stable and cannot rust.

In almost all applications, the durability of a composite material may be enhanced by imposing a
conservative safety factor (2-4) on the design, and in many such cases additional durability may be
achieved by the use of a protective coating and/or the incorporation of light stabilisers and
antioxidants.

JOINING:

Joints are a potential source of weakness for any structure, and can also add additional weight
therefore the ideal structure should be designed with as few joints as possible. This is not always
achievable in practice, however, as there is generally an upper limit to the component’s size due to
process ability and/or to facilitate the transportation and assembling on-site.
However, these will only become materials-of-preference if better ways can be found for producing
more efficient joints. Methods of mechanical fastening and adhesive or thermal bonding (welding)
have been developed but are often extensions of methods used for joining conventional metallic or
polymeric structures.  To enable effective joint design, this must be integrated at the material and
structure synthesis stage.

There are many formalised fibre-reinforced polymer (FRP) composite repair procedures prepared
by reputable organisations throughout the world, all evolved from good historical industry practice
and adapted to the specific conditions of each sector. All successful repairs carried out to any
substrate rely on skilled repair technicians, good surface preparation, well designed repair
procedures and the use of first rate materials. They currently also depend on stringent quality-
control encompassing reliable damage detection, surface cleanliness and texturing examination,
drying to known limits, undertaking work within permitted temperature and humidity envelopes,
and controlling resin cure to manufacturers recommendations.

References:

1 H.KAWADA ET AL. 2005

LONG-TIME DURABILITY OF POLYMER MATRIX COMPOSITE UNDER HOSTILE

ENVIRONMENT: MATERIAL SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING VOLUME 412, PAGE
159 – 164

2 BRUCE K. DONALDSON, 2008

THE MECHANICAL BEHAVIOR OF ENGINEERING MATERIALS

ANALYSIS OF AIRCRAFT STRUCTURE PAGE 109

3 GORGR MURRAY ET AL. 2007

COMPOSITE

INTRODUCTION TO ENGINEERING MATERIAL PAGE 265

ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF THE APPLICATION OF COMPOSITES

MATERIALS ON AIRCRAFT STRUCTURES
Written by NURFAIZAH BINTI MOHAMAD (184655)
 Composites materials such as nickel-based superalloys which is one of the high-performance
alloy is used in making the fundamental components of the aircraft turboshaft engines. According to
the article ‘Nickel-Based Superalloys for Advanced Turbine Engines: Chemistry, Microstructure
and Properties’ in Journal of Propulsion and Power, by Pollock, T.M., and Tin, S., nickel-based
superalloys is a composite material which has a low-density characteristic are fatigue and corrosion
resistance and could withstand temperature up to 1200 ºC. Refractory composites are use in
manufacturing the segment that are in contact with hot gases in the engine. This composites
materials are designed to be used at high temperature ranging from 1000ºC to 1200ºC, whereas the
separation of fiber from the matrix prevents crack propagation. Composites are also use in repairing
components of the aircraft as it contains fiber dominated properties that are fatigue resistance. For
example, the use of boron/epoxy composites can be used to detect crack underneath repairs by using
eddy current methods. Another advantages of using composites in repairs is that it can be formed
into desired shape into the repair during cure process. The NASA space shuttle uses a number of
composite parts such as graphite/epoxy cargo bay door because it offers significant advantages over
conventional metallic materials as it has a high stiffness to weight ratio, low thermal expansion
coefficients, and good vibration-damping properties.

The drawback and limitation such as the high cost of fabrication might be a disadvantage of
using composites materials. For example, a part that is made up of graphite/epoxy composites may
cost up to 10 to 15 times of the cost of the materials itself. The repairs of composites also are not a
simple process compared to intermetallic materials, thus the critical flaws and crack sometimes
might go undetected. When composites materials are used for bonded repairs, it has approximately
short shelf life (in uncured state) and has low coefficient of thermal expansion. Thermoplastic
composites that are used in the manufacture of the interior parts of an aircraft, has a high viscosity
where it requires high temperature and pressure for processing with a high tendency for voids to
occur.

References
1. Poll
ock, T.M., & Tin, S. (2006)
Nickel-Based Superalloys for Advanced Turbine Engines: Chemistry, Microstructure and
Properties.
Journal of Propulsion and Power, 22(2), 361-374.
2. Gay
, D., & Hua, S.V. (2002)
Composite Materials: Design and Applications, 2, 181-185.
3. Gib
son, R.F. (2011)
Principles of Composites Materials Mechanics, 3, 18-21.
4. Ka
w, A.R. (2005)
Mechanics of Composite Materials, 2, 8-12.
5. Jon
es, R. Baker, A.A, Rose, L.R.F, et al. (2002)
Advances in The Bonded Composites Repair of Metallic Aircraft Structure, 1, 19-30.
6. Hu
a, S.V (2009)
Principles of The Manufacturing of Composites Materials, 90-91.
 MECHANICAL BEHAVIOUR OF GLASS FIBRES WITH THE REINFORCEMENT OF
ALUMINIUM OXIDE AND SILICON CARBIDE

Written by MAISARAH AFIQAH BINTI NASARUDDIN (184049)

Of all the composite materials incorporating glass as a continuous or disperse phase, glass
fibre-resin composites are said to be by far the most important one. Composite systems , glass fibre-
resin , have become industrially important in all areas where a high strength-to-weight ratio is
required and in applications where complex shapes of limited number are called for. For the
aerospace components, some of the application of glass fibre reinforced plastic GFRP composites
are like radar, flaps and etc. The Resin transfer moulding is a method of plastic casting in which the
mould is filled with a liquid synthetic resin , which will then be allowed to hardened at room
temperature. The materials used are glass fibre, resins either polyesters or epoxides and silicon
carbide (SiC) and aluminium oxide.

S. Rajesh et al.(2014) did an analysis on the mechanical behaviour of glass fibre/

Aluminium oxide and Silicon Carbide reinforced polymer composites, Manufacturing and
Management ,P598-606 and it was founded that by adding a high strength of Aluminium oxide fibre
will constraint the deformation in the matrix which leads to the reduction of fatigue ductility.
Whereas, VijayaRamnath et al.(2014) concluded that the polyester resin composite produce higher
shear strength which will improved the stiffness and the strength of the materials. However for
Park et al. ,he explained that the fracture toughness of the MMC will be decreased due to the
increase in volume fractions of Aluminium Oxide varying from 5-30% .
 An experiment had been conducted to characterise aluminium oxide and silicon carbide
reinforced polymer
matrix by enhancing it
with samples of resin
such as epoxy and
polyester. From the
experiment, Sujan et al.
had studied the
performance of the
reinforced composite
materials. It has shown that the exhibition of composite materials improved the physical and
mechanical properties , such as low coefficient of thermal expansion, high ultimate strength up to
23.68% high impact strength and hardness.

Table 2 , adopted from (S. Rajesh et al.(2014),601) shows various samples of different composition
to compare the mechanical properties of the four samples

A few
mechanical testing were
done on the composites
such as the biaxial
stresses, tensile test,
impact test and also
hardness test in order to
know the mechanical
properties of the
fabricated composites.
Figure 5 adopted from
(S. Rajesh et al.(2014), 604) shows the result for the tensile test. It can be seen clearly that the
samples that are made with epoxy resin have higher strength compared with the one made with
polyester resin. After obtaining the data from other mechanical testing, it shows that composites
with epoxide resin have greater strength as compared to the composites with polyester resin.

Reference
1. Ga
y D. & Suong V. (2007). Composite Materials: Design and applications (2nd ed.).CRC Press

2. S.
Rajesh et al.(2014) ,mechanical behavior of glass fibre/ Aluminium oxide and Silicon Carbide
reinforced polymer composites, Manufacturing and Management ,598-606

3. Pat
el P.,Bhavin S.,Saurin S., Tejas P.(2015), Experimental Analysis and Prediction of Kerfwidth in
Laser Cutting of Glass Fibre Reinforced Plastic Composite Material, Manufacturing and
Application, 139-146

4. V.S
. & Bhagwat J.(2015), Study on Jute and Glass Fibre Reinforced Polypropylene and Epoxy
Composites,Vol1, 5-10

5. A.P
. Chakraverty, U.K. Mohanty,S.C. Mishra & B.B. Biswal (2014), Evaluation of GFRP
Composites under the exposure to Up and Down-Thermal Shocks,Advanced Science Letters,
Vol.20, 671-675

FIBERS FOR POLYMER-MATRIX COMPOSITES FOR CARBON FIBERS

Written by MUHAMMAD AFIQ BIN AHMAD WIRZAN (178744)

1. Overview

As a result of their strong sense interatomic bonds, elements low atomic number, such as C, B, A1
and Si, may in rigid, low-density materials are formed. These materials are to be performed for the
elements themselves or of their compounds or with oxygen or nitrogen. [1]

The strong bonding [2] inhibit plastic flow, at least at temperatures below approximately half the
melting temperature. Since these materials are not to facilitate capable of stress concentrations due
to plastic flow, they will be markedly weakened by sub microscopic open fault, in particular those
to the surface. Thus, it is only when they usually made in the form of fibers, which can be realized
the inherent high strength of these materials. [3, 4]

2. Manufacture.
Carbon fiber is widely used for airframe, engines and other aerospace application. Table 1 below
shown the High Modulus ( HM , type I) , high strength ( HS , type II ) and intermediate modulus
( IM , Type III ).

Table 1 - Typical Properties for the Major Types of Commercial Carbon Fibers [1]

“Graphite is a form of carbon that is strong covalently bound plane parallel to the hexagonal base in
three dimensional lattices. Weak ties atom scattering Van der Waals ' enables easy slip basal plane,
the basis for the lubricating properties of graphite.” [1]

Carbon fibers are made of organic precursor material through the process carbonization. The bulk
of the carbon fibers used in aerospace and other structures application, made of polyacrylonitrile
(PAN) fibers. [5] Carbon fiber is also performed with various forms of field. [6]

3. PAN-Based fibers.

Polyacrylonitrile (PAN), also known as Creslan 61, is a synthetic, semi- crystalline organic polymer
resin, a linear formula (C3H3N) n. Although it is a thermoplastic, it is not liquid under normal
conditions. [7] PAN is acrylic textile fibers produced by wet or dry spinning from basic polymer or
copolymer which is produces round smooth fibers whereas wet spinning produced many of cross-
sections. There are several advantages in the non-circular cross-section for example, the larger the
surface area relative, the stronger the effective bond. The fibers are stretched during the process of
spinning. The greater the strain occurs, the smaller diameter fiber and more options molecular
orientation along the fiber axis. [1]

4. Pitch-Based Fibers.

Pitch is the precursor materials are relatively inexpensive to manufacture carbon fiber. [6] however,
despite the low cost fiber can be produced from isotropic pitch; they have mechanical properties
rather poor. The main advantages of this process route processing PAN, is that there is no the
tension required to develop or maintain a desired molecular orientation achieve a high modulus and
strength. A very high value of Young's modulus and heat and electricity conductivity can be
obtained from the fiber pitch as shown Table 2. [1] Therefore, it is widely used in space- based
applications where ultra–high stiffness and conductivity is very advantageous.

Table 2 – Detail of the mechanical properties of Carbon Fibers (The temperature Column is the
Nominal Maximum Operating Temperature in an Inert Environment) [1]

5. Why use composite material in aircraft structures?

Carbon Fiber is used in a large number of industries, in a variety of ways, due to its many
advantages including long lasting durability and strength. Carbon Fiber is used for Aerospace,
Aircraft, Automotive, Sport Equipment, and Medical Equipment to name a few. Its versatility,
strength, and durability make it valuable in many industrial applications. Some of its major benefits
include 70% Lighter than steel, 40% lighter than aluminium, high strength to weight ratio, high
corrosion resistance, application flexibility and low mass and provide a smooth surface, improve
fuel efficiency, less maintenance and repair costs.

Reference

1. Composite Materials for Aircraft Structures Second Edition “Fibers for polymer-matrix
Composites” written by Alan Baker, Stuart Dutton and Donald Kelly (year 2004)

2. Kelly, A., Strong Solids, 3rd ed., Clarendon Press, Oxford, UK, 1986.

3. Watt, W., and Perlov, B. V., (eds.), Handbook of Composites: Volume 1 Fibers, 1985, edited by
A. Kelly, and Y. N. Rabotnov, Series Ed. North Holland,
4. Chawla, K. K., "Fibers," Composite Materials: Science and Engineering, Spinger- Verlag, 1987,
Chap. 2.

5. Shindo, A., "Polyacrylonitrile (PAN)-Based Carbon Fibers," Comprehensive Composite

Materials, edited by A. Kelly and C. Zweben, Vol. 1, Elsevier, 2000.

6. Diefendorfe, R. J., "Pitch Precursor Carbon Fibers," Comprehensive Composite Materials, edited
by A. Kelly and C. Zweben, Vol. 1, Elsevier, Cambridge 2000.

7. A. K. GUPTA, D. K. PALIWAL, P. BAJAJ. Journal of Applied Polymer Science, Vol. 70,

2703–2709 (1998)

SUMMARY / CONCLUSION

This report provided a review on composites for aircraft structures. The main reason,
composite materials are selected for the components because of weight savings for its relative
stiffness and strength. For example, carbon fiber reinforced composite material can be up to five
times stronger than 1020 stainless steel while it is only one-fifth of the weight. Aluminium (6061
grade), the composite modulus and up to seven times are much closer to weight carbon fiber
composite, although still a little heavier, but twice as strong.

The biggest advantage of modern composites is that they are strong and light. By choosing a
suitable combination of matrix and reinforcing material, a new material be made that the
requirements of a particular application met exactly. Composites also offer design flexibility, since
many of them can be moulded into complex shapes. The disadvantage is often the cost. Although
the resulting product is more efficient, the raw materials are often expensive. However, they
provide opportunities for the production of lighter cars and planes (the less fuel than the heavier
vehicles, we will use now). The new Airbus A380, the world's largest passenger aircraft, makes use
of advanced composites in its design. Over 20% of the A380 is increasingly made of composite
materials, mainly plastic with carbon fibers. The design is the first large-scale use of glass-fiber
reinforced aluminium, a new composite material that is 25% stronger than conventional aircraft
aluminium but 20% lighter.

All composite materials, the glass as a continuous or disperse phase are fiberglass -
Composites be by far the most important because of high strength-to-weight ratio. Resin transfer
moulding or plastic casting will be allowed hardened at room temperature which needed by using
glass fibre, resins either polyesters or epoxides and silicon carbide and aluminium oxide. A few
mechanical testing were done on the composites and as result the samples that are made with epoxy
resin have higher strength compared with the one made with polyester resin. It means that
composite with epoxy resin have higher strength compared from composite with polyester.

For a polymer matrix composite (PMC) consists of a thermosetting or thermoplastic resin

with fibers, which increases very much stronger and stiffer than the matrix. PMC are attractive
because they lighter, stronger and stiffer than conventional unreinforced polymers or metals, with
the added advantage that their properties and can be met to the needs of a particular application.
High-fiber reinforcements are of the greatest interest for military and aerospace composite
applications such as carbon fibers. Were developed as a high-performance carbon fibers, their high
cost limits their use on high value military aerospace systems. The result of the early military
composite development programs can be seen in system fielded by each of the military services
today. For example, more than 350 parts of the F-22 Raptor, a share of 25 percent of the structural
weight, are carbon-epoxy composites. Furthermore, the development Joint Strike Fighter 25-30
percent will be composite weight. The army now uses carbon thermoplastic composites in large-
scale production of clogs for the M829A3 ammunition. Carbon fibers is expected that an even
greater role in the aerospace industry application system of the future to play.