.4.

Constructing Truth Tables

Now let us try to construct a truth table. Follow the steps, as
shown in the examples that follow.

Examples:

1. Construct the truth table for the compound statement

(p ∨ q) ∧ ~ p.
Solution:

Step 1: Start with the standard truth table form.

Step 2: Write the truth values of the disjunction p ∨ q on a new
column.
Step 3: Negate p, then write the results on the next column.
Step 4: Using the truth values of p ∨ q (in step 2) and ~p (in
step 3), perform
the conjunction of (p ∨ q) ∧~p to produce the truth values.
Write the results in the last column.

p q p ∨ q ~p (p ∨ q) ∧~p
T T T F F
T F T F F
F T T T T
F F F T F
 2. Construct the truth table for the compound statement
(p → q) ↔ (~q ∨~p).

Solution:
Step 1: Start with the standard truth table form.
Step 2: Negate p and then write the results on a new column.
Step 3: Negate q and then write the truth values in the next
column.
Step 4: Write the truth values of the conditional p → q on
another column.
Step 5: Using the truth values from negated p (in step 2) and
negated q
(in step 3), determine the truth values of ~q ∨~p.
Step 6: Using the truth values of p → q (in step 4) and ~q ∨~p
(in step 5),perform the biconditional of (p → q) ↔ (~q ∨~p) to
produce the truth values.
Write the results in the last column.

p q ~p ~q p → q ~q ∨~p (p → q) ↔ (~q ∨~p)

T T F F T F F
T F F T F T F
F T T F T T T
F F T T T T T

Try this!
Construct a truth table for the proposition (p → ~q) ↔ (~p ∨ q).
2.4.5 Tautology, Contradiction, and Contingency

A tautology is a proposition where the truth values are always

true in all possible cases.
A contradiction is a proposition where the truth values are
always false in all possible cases.
A contingency is a proposition where the truth values are not
always true nor always false.

Examples:
1. Show that ~p ∨ (~q →p) is a tautology.

Solution:
Step 1: Start with the standard truth table form.
Step 2: Negate p and then write the results on a new
column.
Step 3: Negate q and then write the truth values on another
column.
Step 4: Using the truth values from negated q (in step 3) and
p (in step 1),
determine the truth values of ~q →p.
Step 5: Using the truth values of negated p (in step 2) and
~q →p (in step 4),
perform the disjunction of ~p ∨ (~q →p) to produce their
truth values.
Write the results in the last column.

p q ~p ~q ~q →p ~p ∨ (~q →p)
T T F F T T
T F F T T T
F T T F T T
F F T T F T

It shows that the truth values of ~p ∨ (~q →p) are always true.
Thus, ~p ∨ (~q →p) is a tautology.
 2. Is the proposition p ∧ (p→ ~p) a tautology, a contradiction,
or a contingency? Look at the table below.

p ~p p → ~p p ∧ (p → ~p)
T F F F
F T T F

Since the truth values of p ∧ (p → ~p) are always false, then it is a

contradiction.

3. Is (p ∧ ~q) ∧ (p ∨ q) a tautology, a contradiction, or a

contingency?

p q ~q p ∧~q p∨q (p ∧~q) ∧ (p ∨ q)

T T F F T F
T F T T T T
F T F F T F
F F T F F F

Since the truth values of (p ∧ ~q) ∧ (p ∨ q) are not always true nor
always false, then (p ∧ ~q) ∧ (p ∨ q) is a contingency.

Try this!

Tell whether the proposition (q ∨ ~p) →p is a tautology, a

contradiction, or a contingency.
2.4.6 Logical Equivalence

Two statements having the same truth values in all possible

cases are logically equivalent.

Symbolic form: p <=> q or p ≡ q (read as p and q are logically

equivalent)

Examples:

1. Show that p → q and ~p ∨ q are logically equivalent.

Solution:

Step 1: Begin with the standard truth table form.

Step 2: Negate p and then write the results on a new column.
Step 3: Write the truth values of p → q in the next column.
Step 4: Using the truth values of negated p (in step 2) and q (in Column
2), perform the disjunction of ~p ∨ q to produce the truth values. Write
the result in the last column.

p q ~p p→q ~p ∨ q
T T F T T
T F F F F
F T T T T
F F T T T

Since p → q and ~p ∨ q have the same truth values in all possible

cases, they are logically equivalent. In symbolic form:
p → q ⇔ ~p ∨ q or p → q ≡ ~p ∨ q.
 2. Is ~p ∧~q logically equivalent to p ∨ q? Use the truth table to
show your answer.

p q ~p ~q ~p ∧~q p∨q
T T F F F T
T F F T F T
F T T F F T
F F T T T F
Since the truth values of ~p ∧ ~q in all cases are not the same as the truth
values of p ∨ q, then ~p ∧ ~q is not logically equivalent to p ∨ q or in
symbols, ~p ∧ ~ q ⇎ p ∨ q.
3. Verify if ~(p → q) is logically equivalent to p ∧ ~q.

p q ~q p→q ~ (p → q) p ∧ ~q
T T F T F F
T F T F T T
F T F T F F
F F T T F F

From the truth table, we can see that ~ (p → q) have same truth
values as p ∧ ~ q. Therefore, they are logically equivalent.

Try this!
Is q ∧ ~p logically equivalent to ~p ∨ q? Use the truth table
to show your answer.
2.4.7 The Converse, the Inverse, and the Contrapositive

Every conditional statement has three related statements.

They are called the converse, the inverse, and the contrapositive.

The converse of p → q is q → p.
The inverse of p → q is ~p → ~q.
The contrapositive of p → q is ~q → ~p.

You can form the above statements by using the following guide:

• The converse of p → q is formed by interchanging the

antecedent p with the consequent q.

• The inverse of p → q is formed by negating the antecedent p

and negating the consequent q.

• The contrapositive of p → q is formed by negating both the

antecedent p and consequent q and then interchanging
these negated statements.

Examples:
Write the converse, inverse, and contrapositive of the
following conditional statements:

1. If I get the loan, then I will buy a new motorbike.

2. If you are smart, then you get the job.
Solution:

1. If I get the loan, then I will buy a new motorbike.

P q

Converse: If I buy a new motorbike, then I get the loan.

Inverse: If I don't get the loan, then I won't buy a new motorbike.

Contrapositive: If I don't buy a new motorbike, then I don't get the loan.

2. If you are smart, then you get the job.

Converse: If you can get the job, then you are smart.

Inverse: If you are not smart, then you cannot get the job.

Contrapositive: If you cannot get the job, then you are not smart.

Try this!

Tell the converse, the inverse, and the contrapositive of the

conditional statement, "If it is Saturday, then school is closed”.
Truth Table for the Conditional and its Related Statements

The truth table for conditional and its related statements is shown below.

Conditional Converse Inverse Contrapositive

p q ~p ~q
p→q q→p ~p → ~q ~q → ~p
T T F F T T T T
T F F T F T T F
F T T F T F F T
F F T T T T T T

The table also shows that any conditional statement is

equivalent to its contrapositive, and its converse is equivalent to
its inverse.

Notation:
p → q ≡ ~q → ~p
q → p ≡ ~p → ~q