NOTES OF CHEMISTRY FOR KARACHI PUBLIC SCHOOL

Notes OF Chemistry For 9TH

Class Batch (2021-22)

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 NOTES OF CHEMISTRY FOR KARACHI PUBLIC SCHOOL

Chapter No 01:

Introduction to
Chemistry

Q.1. Define Chemistry and write the importance of chemistry in daily life.

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Answer:

DEFINITION:
Chemistry is the branch of science which with the properties, composition and structure of
matter. Chemistry also deals with the changes involved in matter. It also deals with the
principles governing the changes with matter may undergo.

OR:
Chemistry is the branch of life which is concerned with the substance of which the matter is
composed the evaluation and the analysis of their properties as reactions and the use of
such reaction to form or develop new substances.

IMPORTANCE OF CHEMISTRY IN DAILY LIFE

 COOKING:
Chemistry explains how food changes as wo cook it, how it rots, how to preserve food,
how our body uses the food that we eat and how ingredients interacts to make food.

 CLEANING:
It is also important in chemistry as it explains how cleaning agents (chemicals) work. We
use chemistry to help us decide what cleaner is best for dishes, laundry ourselves and
our homes. We use chemistry when we use bleaches and disinfectants and even while
using ordinary soap and water. This is Chemistry.

 MEDICINE:
We need to understand the basics of chemistry so that we are able to understand how
vitamins, supplements and drugs (medicines) can help us or harm us. It is also important
in developing and testing new medical treatments and medicines.

 ENVIRONMENT:
Chemistry also helps us to understand and solve the environmental problems. It helps us
to understand what makes one chemical a nutrient and another chemical a pollutant. It
also helps us to figure out how to clean up the environment and what processes and
produce the thing we need without harming the environment.

Q.2. Describe the progress of chemistry during “The Greek Period”.

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Answer:

THE GREEK PERIOD:

Greek philosopher like Plato (347 – 428 B.C), Aristotle (322 – 384 B.C), Democritus (357 -
460 B.C) and many others contributed a lot in number of small ways to the early
development of chemistry. They introduced the concepts of elements, atoms and the
chemical reactions. They thought that all matter was derived from four elements earth, air,
fire and water. These elements have properties of their own such as hot, dry, cold and wet.
According to them, fire was hot and dry, earth was dry and cold, water was cold, hot and
wet and air was cold, wet and hot. The earliest practical knowledge of chemistry was
concerned with metallurgy, pottery and dyes. These crafts were developed with
considerable skill, but with no understanding of the principles involved. Aristotle’s definition
of a simple body as “One into which other bodies can be decomposed and which itself is not
capable of being divided” is closed to the modern definition of element. The Romans
developed the chemical arts still further. They improved metallurgical processes and
introduced the enameling of pottery. However, they developed little theoretical knowledge
in this regard. Their works were all empirical.

IMPORTANT NAMES, DATES AND EVENTS/CONTRIBUTIONS:

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Names/Dates Events/Contributions
 Jabir Ibn Hayyan (721 – 803 A.D)  Father of Alchemy
 Invented methods for the preparations of nitric acid,
hydrochloric acid and white lead.
 Developed methods for the extraction of metal from
ores and dying clothes
 Al-Razi (862 – 930 A.D)  The first one to use opium as anesthesia.
 Divided the substances into living and non-living
origins.
 Prepared ethyl alcohol by the fermentation process.
 Al-Beruni (973 – 1048 A.D)  Determined the densities of different substances.
 Sulfuric acids, hydrochloric acid, nitric acid and silver
Late 16th century nitrate were discovered.
 The Modern Period:
Robert Boyle (1627 – 1691 A.D)  Father of modern chemistry
  First one to propose chemistry as systematic
investigation of matter.
 Joseph Priestly  Discovered oxygen sulfur dioxide and hydrogen
chloride.
 Carl Wilhelm Scheele (1742 – 1799)  Discovered chlorine.
 Henry Cavendish (1731 – 1810)  Discovered hydrogen.
 John Delton (1766 – 1844)  Gave the ideas of atoms and molecules.
 Also gave the concept of atomic weight.
 Jns Jacob Berzelius (1779 – 1848)  Introduced the idea of symbols, formulae and
chemical equations.
 Dimitri Mendeleev (1824 – 1907)  Discovered the periodic arrangement of elements.
 Svante Arrhenius b (1859 – 1927)  Proposed the ionic theory.
 Michael Faraday (1791 – 1867)  Gave the laws of electrolysis

Q.3. Highlight the significant reasons to study chemistry.

Answer:

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SIGNIFICANT REASONS:
There are three significant reasons to study chemistry.
 Practical applications
 Intellectual enterprise
 Useful intellectual tool

PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS:
Chemistry has important practical applications in the society.
 It helps in the development of life saving drugs.
 It touches almost all areas of modern technology.

INTELLECTUAL ENTERPRISE:
Chemistry is an intellectual enterprise. It is a way of explaining our material world.
USEFUL INTELLECTUAL TOOL:
It is an important intellectual tool, in every field for taking important decisions, such as
biology, in the advancement of medicines.

Q.4. Describe the role of chemistry in society.

Answer:

ROLE OF CHEMISTRY IN THE SOCIETY:

Chemistry is a broad scientific field relevance is seen in almost every aspect of society,
including medicines, cooking, environmental processes, cleaning and manufacturing goods.
The role of chemistry in the prevailing society is of enormous benefits.

ROLE OF CHLORINE:
Chlorine is an essential chemical building block, used to make many produces that
contribute to public health and safety advanced technology, nutrition, security and
transportation. Food, water and medicines, computers and cell phones all depend on
chlorine chemistry.

ROLE OF CHLORINE AS A DISINFECT:

Chlorine kills bacteria it is a disinfectant. It is used to treat drinking water and swimming
pool water. Many waters borne diseases like cholera, typhoid fever and dysentery can be
prevented by treating water with chlorine.
ROLE OF CHLORINE COMPOUNDS IN INDUSTRY:
It is also used to make hundreds of consumer products from paper, paints, textiles,
insecticides, flame retardants, drugs, bleaching agents and refrigerants.

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ROLE OF CHLORINE IN MAKING PLASTIC:

About 20% of chlorine produced is used to make PVC. This is a very versatile plastic used in
window frames, car interiors, electrical wiring insulation, water pipes, blood bags and vinyl
flooring.

ROLE OF CHLORINE TO THE LIFE:

The Chloride ion is essential to life. It is mostly present in cell fluid as a negative ion to
balance the positive (mainly potassium) ions. It is also present in extra cellular fluid e.g.
blood to balance the positive (mainly sodium) ions.

ROLE OF CHEMISTRY IN THE MODERN LIFE:

Chemistry plays an important role in the modern world. For Example: food, synthetic, fibers,
plastics, medicines, soaps, detergent, cements, fertilizers, glass and explosives are all the
major gifts of chemistry.

ROLE OF CHEMISTRY IN THE ENVIRONMENT:

Chemistry can help us to understand, monitor, protect and improve the environment
around us. Chemists are developing tools and techniques to make sure that we can see and
measure air and water pollution. They have helped us to build the evidence that shows how
our climate has changed over time.

Q.5. What is a scientific law?

Answer:
SCIENTIFIC LAW:
A theory which is tested again and again and found to fit the facts and from which valid
predictions may made is then known as scientific law or principle.

Q.6. Describe the branches of chemistry.

Answer:

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Organic
Organic
Chemistry
Chemistry

Inorganic
Inorganic
Bio
Bio Chemistry
Chemistry OChemistry
OChemistry

Analytical
Analytical Industrial
Industrial
Chemistry
Chemistry Chemistry
Chemistry

Chemistry

Physical
Physical Nuclear
Nuclear
Chemistry
Chemistry Chemistry
Chemistry

Polymeric
Polymeric Environmental
Environmental
Chemistry
Chemistry Chemistry
Chemistry

BRANCHES OF CHEMISTRY:
There are various branches of chemistry. The main are:

 Physical Chemistry
 Organic Chemistry
 Inorganic Chemistry
 Analytical Chemistry
 Bio Chemistry
 Polymeric Chemistry
 Environmental Chemistry
 Nuclear Chemistry
 Industrial and Applied Chemistry

PHYSICAL CHEMISTRY:
It is the branch of chemistry which deals with the laws and principles governing the
combination of atoms and molecules in chemical reactions. It is a branch of chemistry that
deals with the physical structure of chemical compounds the way that react with other
metal and the bonds that hold their atoms together.
Example: Chemical equilibrium and colloid.

ORGANIC CHEMISTRY:
It is the branch of chemistry that deals with the carbon compounds with the exception of
C02, CO, metal carbonates, bicarbonates and carbides. Actually, it is the chemistry of hydro

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carbonates and their derivates. Most of the consumers product are organic in nature. It is
the branch of chemistry that studies the structure, properties and reaction of organic
compounds which contain carbon in covalent bounding.
Example: Gasoline and Dyes.

INORGANIC CHEMISTRY:
It is the branch of chemistry that deals with the chemistry of elements and their
compounds, generally obtained from non-living organisms i.e. minerals. Inorganic chemistry
actually deals with the synthesis and behavior of an inorganic and organometallic
compounds. This field covers chemical compounds that are not carbon based.
Example: Metal carbonates and cyanides.

ANALYTICAL CHEMISTRY.
It is the branch of chemistry that deals with the study of methods and techniques involved
to determine the kind, quality and quantity of various components in a given substance. It
deals with the study and uses of the instruments and methods used to separate, identify
and quantity matter.
Example: Chromatography and spectroscopy.

BIO CHEMISTRY:
It is the branch of chemistry that deals with the compounds of living organisms i.e. plants
and animals and their metabolism in their living body. Bio Chemistry is both life science and
a chemical science as it explores the chemistry of living organisms and the molecular basis
for the changes occurring in living cells. It used the methods of chemistry.
Example: The study of bio molecules like carbohydrates and lipids.

POLYMERIC CHEMISTRY:
It is the branch of chemistry that deals specially with the study of polymerization and
produces the obtained through the process of polymerization.
Example: Plastic and synthetic fiber.

ENVIRONMENTAL CHEMISTRY:
It is the branch of chemistry that deals with study of interaction of chemical materials and
their effect on the environment of animals and plants. Personal hygiene, pollution and
health hazards are important areas of environmental chemistry.
Example: Contaminations and chemicals from consumers.

NUCLEAR CHEMISTRY:

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It is the branch of chemistry that deals with the study of occurring changes in the nuclei of
atoms, accompanied by the emission of invisible radiations. Nuclear chemistry is the sub-
field of the chemistry dealing with the radioactivity, nuclear processes and transformation in
the nuclei of atoms such as nuclear transmutation and nuclear properties.
Example: Nuclear weapons and nuclear reactors.

INDUSTRIAL CHEMISTRY:
It is the branch of chemistry that deals with the study of different chemical processes
involved in the chemical industries for the manufacture of synthetic products like glass,
cement, paper, soda ash, fertilizer and medicines etc.
Example: Silica Brick and ethylene.

Q.7. Highlight the importance of branches of chemistry.

Answer:

IMPORTANCE OF BRANCHES OF CHEMISTRY:

Every branch of chemistry has its own importance in human life. Chemistry provides the
support structure to all other sciences like physics, biology, geology, environmental science
and engineering.

PHYSICAL CHEMISTRY
 Physical chemistry is essential to understand the other branches of chemistry.
 It provides the basis for understanding thermodynamic influences that drive chemical
reactions forward.

ORGANIC CHEMISTRY:
 Organic chemistry plays an important role in developing flavor enhancer in food
industries as people like to have tastier food.
 Organic chemistry is important as it is the study of life and all the chemical reactions
related to life.

INORGANIC CHEMISTRY:
 Inorganic chemistry is fundamental to many practical technologies including catalysis,
energy conversion, storage and electronics.
 Inorganic Compounds are also found in biological systems where that are essential to
life process.

ANALYTICAL CHEMISTRY:

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 It is important to understand the composition of compounds.

 It is important to check the quality of products analysis of biological samples such as
urine, blood, milk and water.
 It is important in the use of research techniques like chromatography and spectroscopy.

BIO CHEMISTRY:
 Bio chemistry is the backbone of medical science.
 Bio chemistry makes significant contributions in the field of inflammation, cell injury and
cancer.

POLYMERIC CHEMISTRY:
 Product made from polymers are all around us clothing made from synthetic fibers,
polythene cups, plastic bags, epoxy glue, silicon heat valves, and Teflon coated
cookware.

ENVIRONMENTAL CHEMISTRY:
 Environmental chemistry tells us about the environment’s composition.
 It makes us aware that how we can protect our environment from environment hazards.

NUCLEAR CHEMISTRY:
 Nuclear chemistry provides us radio isotopes for the treatment of many diseases.
 It gives atomic energy for the benefit on mankind.

INDUSTRIAL CHEMISTRY:
 Industrial chemistry helps us in the manufacturing of industrial products and their uses.
 Industrial chemistry supplies the farmer pesticides and fertilizers that are essential to
the crop growing.

Q.8. What do you mean by scientific approach in chemistry?

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Answer:

SCIENTIFIC APPROACH IN CHEMISTRY:

Following are the steps of scientific approach in chemistry.
i. Observation
ii. Hypothesis
iii. Theory
iv. Scientific Law

OBSERVATION:
Observation is a basic tool to go fourth for elaborating a phenomenon. It is a worth to
mention that it may vary from person to person according to his own skill of elaboration.

HYPOTHESIS:
A hypothesis is a proposed explanation for an observation. It is a prediction or explanation
that is tested by an experiment. Hypothesis is an idea that proposes a tentative explanation
about phenomenon. It may or may not undergo a change as a result of further
investigations and accumulations of more knowledge or facts.

THEORY:
A scientific theory is a well substantiated explanation of a phenomenon which is based on a
body of facts that have been repeatedly confirm through observations and
experimentations. A good theory predicts new facts and unravels a new relationship
between naturally occurring phenomenon.

SCIENTIFIC LAW:
A theory which is tested again and again and found to fit the facts and from which valid
predictions may be made is then known as a scientific law or principle. It is a statement that
describes an observable, occurrence in nature that appears to be true.

Q.9. Differentiate between Hypothesis and Theory?

Answer:

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HYPOTHESIS THEORY
 Hypothesis is proposed explanation for  Theory is an idea or a set of ideas that is
some phenomenon based on limited intended to explain a phenomenon.
evidence.
 It is not scientifically tested or proven.  It is scientifically tested and proven.
 It is based on limited data.  It is based on a wide range of data.
 It can lead to a theory.  It can be formulated through a
hypothesis.

FILL IN THE BLANKS:

1. The early Greeks believed that everything in the universe was made up of four elements
earth, air, fire, and water .

2. Al-Razi divided chemical substances on the basis of their origins .

3. Organic Chemistry is the branch of chemistry which deals with the carbon compound.

4. Bio chemistry is the branch of medical sciences .

5. PVC which is a plastic is a short name for Poly Vinyl Chloride .

6. Oxygen was discovered by Joseph Priestley .

7. The best disinfect is chlorine (compounds) .

8. The periodic arrangement is the result of Dimitri Mendeleev .

Chemical Combinations:

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Q1. State the laws of chemical combinations.

A: INTRODUCTION:
Chemistry deals with the matter and the changes occurring in it.
The laws of chemical combination describe the basic principles obeyed by interacting
atoms and molecules, interactions that can include many different combinations that
happen in many different ways. This amazing diversity of interactions allows for an
astounding variety of chemical reactions and compounds.
These laws are:
1. Law of conservation of mass
2. Law of constant
composition OR Law of
definite proportions
3. Law of multiple proportions
4. Law of reciprocal proportions

Law of Conservation of Mass

INTRODUCTION:
This law was formulated by Antoine Lavoisier in 1785. He tried to learn
about chemical changes by weighing the quantities of substances used in chemical
reactions. He found out that when a chemical reaction was carried out in a closed system,
the total weight of the system was not changed.

STATEMENT:
This law stated that matter is neither created nor destroyed during a chemical reaction. In
other words, in any chemical reaction, the initial weight of reacting substances is equal to
the final weight of the products.

EXAMPLE:
The law of conservation of mass may be demonstrated by the union of
Hydrogen

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(H2) and Oxygen (O2) to form water. If H2 and O2 are weighed before they unite, it will be
found that their combined weight is equal to the weight of the water (H 20) formed.

(DRAW FIGUR 2.1 ON THE INTERLEAF PAGE OF UNDER THIS EXPLANATION. MAKE SURE
TO COUNT THE NUMBER OF PARTICLES IN EACH BOTTLE. ALL THE HYDROGEN PARTICLES
SHOULD BE OF THE SAME SIZES AND ALL THE OXYGEN PARTICLES SHOULD BE OF THE
SAME SIZES. IN THE OTHER BOTTLE ALL THE WATER MOLECULES SHOULD BE OF THE
SAME SIZES)

PRACTICAL VERIFICATION (LANDOLT EXPERIMENT):

Hans Heinrich Landolt was a German chemist, who with a great skill tested the validity of
the Law of Conservation of Mass.
PROCEDURE:
o A specially designed H – shaped tube was taken.
o One limb of the tube had Hydrochloric Acid (HCL) while the other limb had
Silver Nitrate (AgNO3) in it and the tube was sealed so that the material
could not escape outside.
o The tube was weighed initially in a vertical position so that the solutions
could not intermix with each other.
o The reactants were mixed by inverting and shaking the tube.
o The tube was weighed after mixing i.e. on the formation of white precipitate of
Silver Chloride (AgCl).
OBSERVATION:

It was observed that the weight remained the

same. CHEMICAL EQUATION:
AgNO3 +HCl → AgCl + HNO3

RESULT:
The total mass of the substance before the reaction is equal to the total mass of the
substances after the reaction.
NOTE: DRAW FIGURE 2.2 OF PAGE 13

Law of Constant Composition:

INTRODUCTION;

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The Law of Constant Composition, discovered by a French chemist Joseph Louis Proust in
1799, is also known as the Law of Definite Proportions.

STATEMENT:

This law states that” Different samples of the same compound d always contain the
same elements combined together in the same proportion by mass.”
OR

“The chemical compounds consist of the elements which are present in a fixed ratio by
their mass.”

EXAMPLE;

 Iron sulfide, the compound of iron and sulfur, always contains 56 grams of iron for
every 32 grams of sulfur. By weight, iron sulfide is 36.4% sulfur and 63.6% iron.
Provided the composition is pure, its composition will always be the same.

 Every sample of pure water, though prepared in the laboratory or obtained from rain,
river or water pumps contain one part of hydrogen(H) and 8 parts of oxygen (O) by
mass

H2 O

2:16

1:8 (parts by mass)

 Berzelius heated 10g of lead (Pb) with various amounts of Sulphur(S). He exactly got
11.56g of lead sulphide (PbS) and the excess of Sulphur was left over, when he used
18gm of lead (Pb) with 1.56 of Sulphur (S), he got exactly 11.56gm of lead sulphide
(PbS) and 8gm of lead (Pb) remained unused.

(DRAW FIGURE 2.3 OF PAGE 14 OF THE BOOK)

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