NATURAL DYES

Sources, Tradition, Technology and Science

Dominique Cardon

Archetype
Publications
CONTENTS

Foreword xiii
Acknowledgements xv
About this book xix
Abbreviations and acronyms xxi

PARTI. THE ART OF DYEING 1

Chapter 1. The experience of centuries 3

Dyeing techniques and their chemical principles 4
Direct dyeing • Vat dyes: indigo and shellfish purple • Mordant dyes
When to dye - fibre, yarn or cloth? 6
Fibre or fleece dyeing • Yarn or skein dyeing • Piece dyeing
Recipes: preparation of fibres, mordants and dyes 10
Preparation of the fibres • Mordanting • Dyeing
Kusaki-zome: a Japanese synthesis of ancient tradition and modern chemistry 17

Chapter 2. The discovery and mastery of mordants and mordanting 20

Aluminium mordants 20
Native alums • Manufactured alums • Plants as sources of aluminium
Iron mordants 39
Ferrous sulphate, copperas or green vitriol • Iron acetate • Black mud
Copper mordants 47
Tin mordants 47
Chromium mordants 48

PART 2. DYE-PLANTS 51

Chapter 3. Reds, violets, russets: safflower and quinone dyes 53

Safflower 54
Safflower (Carthamus tinctorius L. Compositac)
Naphthoquinone dye-plants 60
Purple-dyeing Boraginaceae
Alkanet or dyer's bugloss (Alkamia tinctoria (I..) Tausch.) • Hairy onosnia (Onosma
cchioidesL.) • Soghagul (Arncbia euchroma (Royle) I. M. Johnston) • Zi cao or murasaki
(Lithospcrnnim erythrorhizon Siebold & Zuccarini) • Carolina puccoon or hairy puccoon
(Lithospermum caroliiiiense (Walt, ex J.F. Gmel.) MacMill.) • jinin mutum (Arnebia
hispidissitna (Sieber ex Lehm.) DC)
Fawn-dyeing Juglandaceae: walnuts of Europe, Asia and America
Walnul (Juglans regia L.) • Black walnut (Juglans nigra L.) • Butternut tree (Juglans cinerca
L.) o Peruvian or Ecuador walnut (Juglans ncotropica Diels)

CONTENTS v
 Fawn/brown dyeing Ebenaceae: the African equivalents of walnut dyes
Magic gwarri (Euclea divinorum Hiern) • Bluebush (Diospyros lycioides Desf.)
Henna (Lythraceae): the universal dye-plant 83
Henna or Egyptian privet (Lawsonia inennis L.)
Amhraquinone dye-plants 86
Russet-dyeing Polygonaceae: rhubarbs, docks and sorrels
Medicinal or Chinese rhubarb (Rheum ofjicinale Baillon and Rheum palm at um
L.) • Garden rhubarb (Rheum xhybridum Murray) • Himalayan rhubarbs
(Rheum austmlc D. Don., Rheum moorcroftianum Royle, Rheum nobile Hook. f. &
Thorns.) • Monk's rhubarb (Rumex alpinus L.) • Patience dock (Rurnexpatienlia
L.) • Broad-leaved dock (Rumex obtusijolius L.) © Curly or yellow dock (Rumex crispus
L.) • Garden sorrel or sour dock (Rumex acetosa L.) • Mekmoko (Rumex abyssinicus
|acq.) • Canaigre or tanner's dock (Rumex hymenosepalus Torrey)
Reddish-brown to purplish-dyeing Rhamnaceae: buckthorns, pitti and laba
Alder buckthorn (Frangula alnus Miller) • Common buckthorn (Rhamnus cathartica
L.) • Evergreen buckthorn (Rhamnus alaternusL.) • Red creeper, pitli or raklapita
(Ventilago madraspatana Gaertner) • Laba (Ventilago neocaledonica Schlechter)

Chapter 4. A world of reds: Rubiaceae plants rich in red anthraquinone dyes 107
The queen of the reds: dyer's madder 107
Dyer's madder (Rubia tinctorum L.)
European Rubiaceae with red colorants 122
Wilci madder (Rubia peregrina L.) • Dyer's woodruff (Asperula tinctoria L.) • Sweet
woodruff (Galium odoratum (L.) Scop.) • Yellow lady's or Our Lady's bedstraw (Galium
verum L.) • Great lady's or hedge bedstraw (Galium mollugo L.) • Scotch mist (Galium
sylvaticum I.,.) • Northern bedstraw (Galium boreale L.)
Asian Rubiaceae with red colorants 129
Madders (Rubia spp.)
Indian madder or munjeet (Rubia cordifolia L.) • Naga madder (Rubia sikkimensis
Kurz) • Japanese madder or akane (Rubia akane Nakai)
Other Rubiaceae of Asia and Oceania
Chay root (Oldenlandia umbellata L.) • Indian mulberry, al or mengkudu (Morinda
citrifolia L.) • Mengkudu hutan or mengkudu akar (Morinda umbellata L.)
African Rubiaceae with red colorants 150
Ouandu (Morinda geminata DC) • Brimstone tree or oruwo (Morinda lucida
Benth.) • Bongo (Danais jragrans (Lam.) Pers.) • Bongontany (Pentanisiaveronicoid.es
(Baker) K. Schum.)
Rubiaceae of New Zealand with orange colorants 156
Raurekau (Coprosma australis (A. Rich.) Robinson • Other Coprosma spp.
American Rubiaceae with red colorants 159
Dye or stiff marsh bedstraw (Galium tinctorium L.) • Raiz de tenir or relbun (Relbunium
hypocarpium (L.) Hemsl. ssp. hypocarpium) • Other Relbunium spp.

Chapter 5. A wealth of yellows: plants containing flavonoids 167

Yellow dye-plants of major economic importance: from craft to industrial scale 168
Yellow dye-plants containing luteolin
Weld or dyer's mignonette (Reseda luteola L. Resedaceae) • Sawwort (Serratula
tinctoria L. Compositae) • Dyer's broom or dyer's greenweed (Genista tinctoria L.
Leguminosae) • Flax-leaved daphne or Mediterranean mezereon (Daphnegnidium L.
Thymelaeaceae) • Other species of Thymelaeaceae
Avignon and Persian berries: Rhamnaceae giving yellow dyes
Dyer's or rock buckthorn (Rhamnus saxatilis Jacq.) • RJiamnus lycioidesl,. • Other
buckthorn fruit sources of yellow dyes
Yellow dyewoods
Young fustic, Venetian sumac or wig tree (Cotinus coggygria Scop. Anacardiaceae) • Dyer's
mulberry or old fustic (Madura tinctoria (L.) D. Don ex Steud. Moraceae) • Black or
quercitron oak (Quercus velutina Lam. Fagaceae)

vi NATURAL DYES
Flavonoid yellow dye-plants of Asia 202
Lutcolin-containing grasses (Gramineae)
Kobunagusa (Arthraxon hispidus (Thunb.) Makino) • Chinese grass or eulalia (Miscanthus
tinctorius (Sieb. & Steud.) Hackel)
Dyes used by the desert nomads from Arabia to central Asia
Arfaj (Rhanterium epapposum Oliv. Compositae) • Yellow larkspur (Delphinium
semibarbatum Bien. ex Boiss. Ranunculaceae) • Bastard hemp (Datisca cannabina L.
Datiscaceae)
Asian yellow-dyeing Leguminosae and kamala (Euphorbiaceae)
Japanese pagoda tree or Chinese yellow berries (Sophorajaponica L.) • Bastard teak or
Bengal kino (Bulea monosperma Taubert) • Wars or wild hops (Flemingia grahamiana
Wight & Arn.) • Kamala or monkey face tree (Mallotus philippensis (Lam.) Mull. Arg.)
Yellow dyewoods of Asia (Moraceae)
lackfruit (Arlocarpus heterophyllus Lam. and Artocarpus asperulus Gagnepain) • Kayu
kuning or soga tegeran (Madura cochinchinensis (Lour.) Corner)
American yellow dye-plants containing flavonoids 223
Another yellow dyewood of the Moraceae family
Osage orange (Madura pomifera (Rafinesque) C.K. Schneider)
American yellow-dyeing Compositae
Canadian golden rod (Solidago canadensis L.) • Common or rubber rabbitbrush
(Chrvsothamnus nauseosus (Pallas ex Pursh) Britton) • Ch'illka ch'illka (Baccharis
salicijolia (Ruiz & Pavon) Pers.) • Colombian chilca (Baccharis latifolia (Ruiz & Pavon)
Pers.) • Quito chilca {Baccharis (juitensis HBK) • Paliuau or lickseed (Coreopsis
sp.) • Kiko or uchujppirka (Bidens triplinervia Kunth)

Chapter 6. Flavonoids, but not yellow 241

Plant sources of anthocyanin colorants 242
Fruit • Flowers • Leaves
Anthocyanin dyes from fruits
Bilberry, whortleberry, blaeberry (Vaccinium myrtillus L. Ericaceae) • Other species
of bilberry used for dyeing • Elder (Sambucus nigra L. Caprifoliaceae) • Dwarf
elder, danewort (Sambucus ebulus L. Caprifoliaceae) • Grapevine (Vitis vinifera L.
Vitaceae) • Other berries used for dyeing
Anthocyanin dyes from flowers
Hollyhock (Alcea rosea L. Malvaceae) • Roselle or karkadeh (Hibiscus sabdariffa L.
Malvaceae)
Leaves as sources of anthocyanin dyes
Red sorghum or dyer's guinea corn (Sorghum bicolor (L.) Moench subsp. bicolor
Gramineae) • Chica or cricket vine (Arrabidaea chica (Humb. & Bonpl.) B. Verl.
Bignoniaceae)
Logwood 263
Logwood tree (Haematoxylum campechianum L. Leguminosae)
Trees with soluble redwoods: brazilwoods (Leguminosae, Caesalpinioideae) 274
Sappanwood (Caesalpinia sappan L.) • Pernambuco or brazilwood (Caesalpinia echinata
Lamarck) • Pcachwood, nicaragua wood (Haematoxylum brasiletto Karsten)
Trees with insoluble redwoods: red sandalwood, narrawood, barwood, camwood 289
Leguminosae, Papilionoideae, Dalbergiae
Red sandalwood, sanderstree (Pterocarpus santalinus L.) • Narrawood, Andaman redwood
or padauk (Pterocarpus indicus Willd.) • Barwood, African coralwood or African padauk
(Pterocarpus soyauxii Taubert) • Tukula or mkulungu (Pterocarpus tinctorius Welw.)
Leguminosae, Papilionoideae, Sophoreae
Camwood (Baphia nitida Afzel. ex Lodcl.)

Chapter 7. Yellow, but not flavonoids 301

Carotenoid dyes from flowers and fruits 301
Saffron (Crocus sativus L. Iridaceae) • Cape jasmine or Gardenia (Gardenia augusta
(L.) Merrill Rubiaceae) • Night jasmine or Iree of sorrow (Nyctanthes arbor-
tristis L. Oleaceae) • Indian toon or Indian mahogany (Toona ciliata M.J. Roemer
Meliaceae) • Annatto (Bixa orelUina L. Bixaceae) • Tiriba (Cochlospermum tinctorium
Perr. ex A.Rich Cochlospermaceae)

CONTENTS vii
The most popular yellow colorant in the world 318
Turmeric (Curcuma longa L. Zingiberaceae)
A yellow trail connecting Africa, Asia and America: alkaloid dyes 322
Asian sources of berberine yellows
Chinese or Japanese barberry (Herberts thutibergii DC Berberidaceae) • Other species of
Berberis and Mahonia used for dyeing in Asia • Amur cork tree (Phellodendron amurense
Rupr. Rutaceae) • Huangteng (Fibraurea tinctoria Lour, and Fibrattrea recisa Pierre
Menispermaceae)
Plant sources of berberine and other yellow alkaloid dyes in America and Africa
Oregon grape (Mahonia aquifolium (Pursh) Nutt. Berberidaceae) • Other American
species of Herberts and Mahonia used as dyes in America • Goldthread (Copiis trifolia
(L) Salisbury Ranunculaceae) • Blood root or red puccoon (Sanguinaria canadensis L
Papaveraceae) • Gangamau (Cryptolepissanguinolenta (Lindl.) Schltr. Asclepiadaceae)

Chapter 8. Cocaigne to cowboys: indigo plants, indigo blues 335

Chemistry of natural indigo: the formation of indigotin and related substances
from indigo plants 337
Indigo-producing substances in the plants • Chemical process of indigo formation,
constituents of natural indigo
Dyeing with natural indigo 339
Dyeing with fresh leaves of indigo plants • Methods for extracting and preserving plant
indigo • Dyeing with woad or gara balls, couched vvoad or sukumo • Indigo vats of India
and Iran • Indigo vats of Central and South America • The urine vat • The'chemical'
vat • The vats of the future?
Indigo plants 353
The major plant sources of indigo 354
Indigo plants (Indigofera spp., Leguminosae, Papilionoideae)
Indian indigo or common indigo (Indigofera tinctoria L.) • Plat cm Mo (Indigojera
suffruticosa Miller) • Jiquilitc (Indigofera micheliana Rose) • Natal indigo (Indigo/era
arrecta Hochst. ex A. Rich.) • indigofera coerulea Roxb.
Woads (Isatis &\>p., Cruciferae)
Woad (Isatis tinctoria L.) • Chinese woad or tea indigo (Isatis indigotica Fortune ex
Lindley)
Knotweeds (Persicaria/Polygonuin spp., Polygonaceae)
Dyer's knot weed (Persicaria tinctoria (A iron) Spach)
Indigo plants of southeast Asia 386
Indigo-producing Wrightia spp. Apocynaceae
Pala indigo or dyer's oleander (Wrightia tinctoria R. Brown) • Lanshu (Wrightia
iaevis J.D. Hooker) • Water jasmine (Wrightia religiosa (Teijsmann & Binnendijk)
Bentham) • Other Wrightia spp. mentioned as sources of indigo
Indigo-producing Acanthaceae-Acanthoideae of Asia
Rum or Assam indigo (Strobilanthes cusia (Nees) Imlay) • Indigo and blue dye-plants of
the hill tribes of the Golden Triangle
Indigo-producing Asclepiadaceae
Tarum akar or Java indigo (Marsdenia tinctoria R. Brown)
Indigo plants of tropical Africa 397
Indigo-producing Philenoptera spp., Leguminosac, Papilionoideae
Gara or Yoruba indigo or indigo vine (Philenoptera cyanescens (Schumach. & Thonn.)
Roberty) • Gambian indigo {Philenoptera laxiflora (Guill. & Perr.) Roberty)
Indigo and blue dye-plants of tropical America 401
Blue-dyeing Acanthaceae-Acanthoideae
Mohuitli or sacatinta (Justicia spictgera Schdl.) • Cuaja tinta or tint a monies (justicia
colorifera V.A.W. Graham)
Indigo-producing American Eupatorieae
Paraguay indigo or yryvu-retymd (Koanophyllon tinctoritim Arruda ex H. Kost.) • Other
blue-dyeing American Eupatorieae
The indigo plant of the Lama people of Peru
Yangua or llangua (Cybistax antisyphilitica (Martius) Martius)

viii NATURAL DYES

Chapter 9. Into darkness: tannin plants 409
Brown and black dyes from Fagaceae 410
Pedunculate oak (Quercus robur I,.) • Durmasl or sessile oak (Quercus pelraea
(Mattuschka) Liebl.) • Other species of oaks used Tor tanning and dyeing • Gal 1 or
Aleppo oak (Quercus infectorici Oliv.) • Other oak galls used for dyeing • Valonian or
valonea/Walloon oak (Quercus ilhaburensis Decne subsp. macrolepis (Kotschy) Hedge &
Yalt.) • Chestnut or sweet chestnut (Castanea sativa Miller)
'Reds that grow by the river': alders (Alnus spp. Betulaceae) 422
Sticky alder (Alnus glulinosa (L.) Gaertner) • Grey alder (Alnus incana (L.)
Moench) • Red or Oregon alder (Alnus rubra Bongard) • Other species of alders used for
dyeing
Brown and black dyes from conifers (Pinaceae) 427
Eastern or Canadian hemlock (Tsuga canadensis (L.) Carr.) • Western hemlock (Tsuga
heterophylla (Raf.) Sargent)
Brown and black dyes from Anacardiaceae 431
Sicilian sumac (Rhus coriaria L.) • Tizra or Moroccan sumac (Rhuspentaphylla
(|acq.) Desf.) • Chinese sumac (Rhus javanica L.) • Staghorn sumac {Rhus typhina
L.) • Smooth sumac (Rhusglabra L.) • Fragrant sumac (Rhus aromatica Aiton) • Cyprus
turpentine (Pistacia tercbinthus L.) • Mastic tree (Pistacia lentiscus L.) • Pistacia
galls • California pepper tree (Schinus molle L.) • Quebracho Colorado santiagueno or
corondlo (Schinopsis quebracho-colorado (Schltdl.) F.A.Barkley & T. Mey.) • African grape
or npeku (Lannea microcarpa Engl. & K. Krause) • Kuntunkuni or kobewu (Lannea barlcri
(Oliv.) Engl.) • Other species of Lannea used for dyeing
Brown and black dyes from Combretaceae: bogolan and myrobalans 448
African birch or ngalama (Anogeissus leiocarpa (DC) Guillemin & Perrottet) • Indian
sumac or bakli (Anogeissus latijolia Wall.) • Cangara (Combretum glutmosum
Perrottct) • Chebulic myrobalan (Terminalia chebula Retz.) • Belleric myrobalan or
bedda nut tree (Terminalia bellirica (Gaertner) Roxb.) • Terminalia spp. used for dyeing in
Africa
Mangrove dyes and tannins 456
Yellow mangrove or tengar (Ceriops tagal (Perr.) C. Robinson Rhizophoraceae) • Red
mangrove (Rhizophora mangle L. Rhizophoraceae) • Other mangroves used as sources of
tannins and dyes
Brown and black from the pod: dyes and tannins from Leguminosae 461
Egyptian mimosa or babul acacia (Acacia nilotica (L.) Willd. ex Del.) • Wattles: acacias
used as tannins and dyes • Divi-divi (Caesalpinia coriaria (lacq.) Willd.) • Tara or spiny
holdback (Caesalpinia spinosa (Mol.) Kuntze) • Other species of Caesalpinia with tannin-
rich pods
Cutch, betel, cola and cu nau: dye and chewing matter 469
Catch tree (Acacia catechu (L. f.) Willd. Leguminosae) • Gambier bush (Uncaria gambir
Roxb. Rubiaceae) • Dye-yarn or cu nau (Dioscorea cirrhosa Lour. Dioscoreaceae) • Betel
or areca palm (Areca catechu L. Palmae) • Cola nitida (Cola nitida (Vent.) Schott & Endl.
Sterculiaceae)
Pomegranate: the dyers' golden apple 481
Pomegranate (Punicagranatum L. Punicaceae)

Chapter 10. Dyes from lichens and fungi 485

Orchils and litmus: a chemical process 487
Manufacture of orchils; dyeing methods used with lichens and fungi 489
Orchil: from identifying orchil lichens to dyeing with the different kinds of orchils
What is meant by orchil? • Mow to recognise an orchil-producing lichen • Orchil
preparation: Del mode defar Vorizello • Theparelle d'Auvergne and its Scottish cousin
cudbear • Litmus, Dutch or Flemish orchil • 'French purple'
Dyeing wjth 'crotal' or crottle lichens: the boiling water method
Dyeing with fungi
Orchil lichens 495
'Weeds' or 'sea orchils', Roccella spp., Roccellaceae
Orchil lichen (Roccella tinctoria DC) • Canary orchil (Roccella canarieusis Darb. em.

CONTENTS ix
 Vain.) • Lima weed (Roccella fuciformis (L.) DC) • Roccella phycopsis Adi. • Exotic
species of Roccella imported into Europe during the 19th century
'Land' orchils: parelte, corcur, korkje and rock tripes
Crab's eye lichen (Ochrolechia parella (L.) Massal Pertusariaceae) • Parelle dAuvergne
(Perlusaria dealbescens Erichs. Pertusariaceae) • Corcur or cudbear lichen (Ochrolechia
tartarea (L.) Massal Pertusariaceae) • Rock tripe (Lasallia pustulate) (L.) Merat
Umbilicariaceae) • Peppered moon lichen (Melanelia juliginosa (Fr. Ex Duby) Essl.
Parmeliaceae)
Crottles and lichens for dyeing by the boiling water method 514
Crottles: the lichens of Scottish and Irish tweeds
Light crottle or salted shield lichen (Parmelia saxatilis (L.) Ach. Parmeliaceae) • Dark
crottle (Parmelia omphalodes (L.) Ach. Parmeliaceae) • Other species of Parmelia used in
dyeing • Lungwort or oak-rag (Lobaria pulmonaria Hoffm. Lobariaceae) • Yellow wall
lichen or yellow crolal (Xanthoria parietina (L.) Th. Fr. Teloschistaceae)
Dye lichens of the Native Americans (Parmeliaceae)
Wolf moss (Lelharia vulpina (L.) Hue) • Tumbleweed shield lichen (Xanthoparmelia
chlorochroa (Tuck.) ITale) • Beard lichens (Usnea P. Browne ex Adanson including: U.
cavernosa Tuck; U.filipendula Stirton; U. florida (L.) Web. ex Wigg. em. Clerc; U. hirta (L.)
F. H. Wigg.; U subfloridana Stirt.; U. scabrata Nyl.) • Lichen dyes in Peru and Chile
Fungi for dyeing 525
Polypores in historic dye recipes (Polyporales)
Larch agaric (Laricifomes officinalis(\i'ill. ex Fr.) Kotlaba & Pouzar Polyporaceae
s.l.) • Tinder bracket (Forties fomentarius (L. ex Fr.) Fr. Polyporaceae s.l.) • Mulberry
polypore (Polyporus mori (Pollini) Fr. Polyporaceae) • Shaggy bracket or hispidus
canker (Inonotus hispidus (Bull, ex Fr.) Karsten Hymenochaetaceae) • Indian paint
fungus (Echinodontium tinctorium Ellis & Everh. Echinodontiaceae) Cinnamon bracket
(Hapalopilus rutilans (Pers. ex Fr.) Karsten Polyporaceae s.l.) • Cinnabar bracket
(Pycnoporus cinnabarinus (Jacq. ex Fr.) Karsten Coriolaccae)
Mordanting fungus of the deserts
Desert shaggy mane or false shaggy mane (Podaxis pistillaris (L.: Pers.) Fr. Podaxaceae)
The rainbow fungi
Dye-maker's false puffball (Pisolithus arhizus (Scop.: Fr.) Rauschert Sclerodermataceae) •
Bloodred webcap (Cortinarius sanguineus (Wiilf.: Fr.) S. F. Gray Cortinariaceae) • Paxillus
atrotomentosus (Batsch. ex Fr.) Fr. Paxillaceae) • Slimy spike cap (Gomphidiusgluiinosus
(Schaef. ex Fr.) Fr. Gomphidiaceae) • Velvet bolete (Suiilus variegatus (Sw. ex Fr.) O. Ktze.
Boletaceae) • Bovine bolete (Suiilus bovinus (Sw. ex Fr.) O. Ktze. Boletaceae) • Larch
bolete (Suiilusgrevillei (Klotzsch) Singer Boletaceae) • Red cracking bolete (Xerocornus
chrysenteron (Bull.) Quelet. Boletaceae)

PART 3. DYEING ANIMALS: PURPLE-GIVING MOLLUSCS AND RED DYE SCALE

INSECTS 551

Chapter 11. Purple from molluscs 553

Chemistry of purple 554
Precursors of purple in molluscs • Chemistry of colour production from different purple
molluscs ... •
Purple-dyeing techniques 557
Direct dyeing • Purple dyeing in Pliny: direct dye or true'vat dye'? • Technical
developments in purple dyeing: the evidence of archaeological discoveries and dye analyses
Purple-producing molluscs 565
Purple molluscs used by the ancient civilisations of the Mediterranean and the Middle
East
Spiny dye-murex (Holinus brandaris (Linnaeus, 1758) Muricidac, Muricinae) • Banded
dye-murex (Hexaplex (Trunculariopsis) trunculus (Linnaeus, 1758) Muricidae,
Muricinae) • Red-mouthed rockshell (Stramonita haemastoma (Linnaeus, 1766)
Muricidae, Rapaninae) • Thais savignyi (Deshayes, 1844) Muricidae, Rapaninae)
Purple molluscs used by the ancient civilisations of the British Isles and Brittany
Sting winkle or oyster drill (Ocenebra erinaceus (Linnaeus, 1758) Muricidae,
Ocenebrinae) ° Dog-whelk (Nucella lapillus (Linnaeus, 1758) Muricidae, Ocenebrinae)

x NATURAL DYES
 Purple molluscs used by native American peoples
Wide-mouthed rockshell of the Pacific coast (Plicopurpum pntiila subsp. pansa
(Gould, 1853) Muricidae, Rapaninae) • Wide-mouthed rockshell oflhe Atlantic
coast (Plicopurpurapatula (Linnaeus, 1758) Muricidae, Rapaninae) • Kiosque
rockshell (Thais kiosquifonnis (Duclos, 1832) Muricidae, Rapaninae) « Red-mouthed
rockshell of the eastern Pacific (Stramonila biserialis (de Blainville, 1832) Muricidae,
Rapaninae) ° Chanque, loco or pata de burro (Concholepas concholepas (Bruguiere,
1789) Muricidae, Rapaninae) • Chocolate rockshell (Stramonita chocolata (Duclos, 1832)
Muricidae, Rapaninae) • Trinidad rockshell (Thais coronata (Lamarck, 1816) Muricidae,
Rapaninae)
Purple in Japan
Akanishi (Rapana venosa (Valenciennes, 1846) Muricidae, Rapaninae) » Chirimenbora
(Rapatia bezoar (Linnaeus, 1767) Muricidae, Rapaninae) • ibonisJti (Thais clavigera
(Kiister, 1860) Muricidae, Rapaninae)
Purple in Asia: prospects for further research

Chapter 12. Vermilion, scarlet and crimson: scale insect sources of 607
anthraquinone dyes
A mystery resolved: dyer's kermes 609
Dyer's kermes (Kermes vermilio (Planchon, 1864) Homoptera: Coccoidea: Kermesidae)
American cochineals (Homoptera: Coccoidea: Dactylopiidae) 619
Domestic cochineal (Dactylopius coccus (O. Costa, 1835)) • Wild South American
cochineal (Dactylopius ceylonicus (Green, 1896)) • Sylvester cochineals (Dactylopius
confusus (Cockerell, 1893) and Dactylopius opuntiae (Cockerell, 1896))
The crimson-dyeing scale insects of the Old World (Homoptera: Coccoidea:
Margarodidae) 635
Polish carmine scale insect or Polish cochineal (Porphyrophora polonica (Linnaeus,
1758) and Porphyrophora crithmi (Goux, 1938)) • Armenian carmine scale insect or
Armenian cochineal (Porphyrophora hamelii (Brandt, 1S33)) • Sophora carmine scale
insect (Porphyrophora sophorae (Archangelskaja, 1935)) • Egyptian carmine scale insect
(Porphyrophora hirsulissima (Hall, 1924))
Lac insects (Homoptera: Coccoidea: Tachardiidae) 656
Common or Indian lac insect (Kerria lacca (Kerr, 1782)) • Chinese lac insect (Kerria
chinensis (Mahdihassan, 1923))

Appendix: chemical structures of the dyestuff groups 667

Notes 711
List of references 736
Index of scientific names of dye sources 770
Index of vernacular names of dye sources 774

CONTENTS xi