SE-94 ARTICLE 22 — RADIOGRAPHIC STANDARDS SE-94

STANDARD GUIDE FOR RADIOGRAPHIC TESTING

SE-94

(Identical with ASTM Specification E 94-93)

1. Scope the responsibility of the user of this standard to establish

appropriate safety and health practices and determine
1.1 This guide covers satisfactory X-ray and gamma-
the applicability of regulatory limitations prior to use.
ray radiographic testing as applied to industrial radio-
graphic film recording. It includes statements about 1.6 If an NDT agency is used, the agency shall be
preferred practice without discussing the technical back- qualified in accordance with Practice E 543.
ground which justifies the preference. A bibliography
of several textbooks and standard documents of other
societies is included for additional information on the
subject. 2. Referenced Documents
1.2 This guide covers types of materials to be in- 2.1 ASTM Standards:
spected; radiographic testing techniques and production E 142 Method for Controlling Quality of Radiographic
methods; radiographic film section, processing, viewing, Testing
and storage; maintenance of inspection records; and a E 543 Practice for Evaluating Agencies that Perform
list of available reference radiograph documents. Nondestructive Testing
NOTE 1 — Further information is contained in Guide E 999, Practice
E 746 Test Method for Determining the Relative Image
E 1025, Test Method E 1030, and Method E 1032. Quality Response of Industrial Radiographic Film
E 747 Test Method for Controlling Quality of Radio-
1.3 Interpretation and Acceptance Standards — Inter- graphic Testing Using Wire Penetrameters
pretation and acceptance standards are not covered E 801 Practice for Controlling Quality of Radiographic
by this guide, beyond listing the available reference Testing of Electronic Devices
radiograph documents for casting and welds. Designa- E 999 Guide for Controlling the Quality of Industrial
tion of accept-reject standards is recognized to be within Radiographic Film Processing
the cognizance of product specifications and generally E 1025 Practice for Hole-Type Image Quality Indicators
a matter of contractual agreement between producer Used for Radiography
and purchaser. E 1030 Test Method for Radiographic Testing of Metallic
1.4 Safety Practices — Problems of personnel protec- Castings
tion against X-rays and gamma rays are not covered E 1032 Method for Radiographic Examination of Weld-
by this document. For information on this important ments
aspect of radiography, reference should be made to E 1079 Practice for Calibration of Transmission Densi-
the current document of the National Committee on tometers
Radiation Protection and Measurement, Federal Regis- E 1254 Guide for Storage of Radiographs and Unexposed
ter, U.S. Energy Research and Development Administra- Industrial Radiographic Films
tion, National Bureau of Standards, and to state and E 1316 Terminology for Nondestructive Examinations
local regulations, if such exist.
2.2 ANSI Standards:
1.5 This standard does not purport to address all PH1.41 Specifications for Photographic Film for Archival
of the safety problems associated with its use. It is Records, Silver-Gelatin Type, on Polyester Base

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PH2.22 Methods for Determining Safety Times of Photo- first determining that these quality levels can be main-
graphic Darkroom Illumination tained in production radiography.
PH4.8 Methylene Blue Method for Measuring Thiosul-
NOTE 2 — The first number of the quality level designation refers
fate and Silver Densitometric Method for Measuring to IQI thickness expressed as a percentage of specimen thickness;
Residual Chemicals in Films, Plates, and Papers the second number refers to the diameter of the IQI hole that must
T9.1 Imaging Media (Film) — Silver-Gelatin Type Speci- be visible on the radiograph, expressed as a multiple of penetrameter
thickness, T.
fications for Stability
T9.2 Imaging Media — Photographic Processed Films, 5.2 If IQIs of material radiographically similar to
Plates, and Papers — Filing Enclosures and Storage that being examined are not available, IQIs of the
Containers required dimensions but of a lower-absorption material
may be used.

3. Terminology 5.3 The quality level required using wire IQIs shall
be equivalent to the 2-2T level of Practice E 1025
3.1 Definitions — For definitions of terms used in unless a higher or lower quality level is agreed upon
this guide, refer to Terminology E 1316. between purchaser and supplier. Table 4 of Test Method
E 747 gives a list of various hole-type IQIs and the
diameter of the wires of corresponding EPS with the
4. Significance and Use applicable 1T, 2T, and 4T holes in the plaque IQI.
4.1 Within the present state of the radiographic art, Appendix XI of Test Method E 747 gives the equation
this guide is generally applicable to available materials, for calculating other equivalencies, if needed.
processes, and techniques where industrial X-ray films
are used as the recording media.
4.2 Limitations — This guide does not take into 6. Energy Selection
consideration special benefits and limitations resulting 6.1 X-ray energy affects image quality. In general,
from the use of nonfilm recording media or readouts the lower the energy of the source utilized the higher
such as paper, tapes, xeroradiography, fluoroscopy, and the achievable radiographic contrast, however, other
electronic image intensification devices. Although refer- variables such as geometry and scatter conditions may
ence is made to documents that may be used in override the potential advantage of higher contrast. For
the identification and grading, where applicable, of a particular energy, a range of thicknesses, which are
representative discontinuities in common metal castings a multiple of the half value layer, may be radiographed
and welds, no attempt has been made to set standards to an acceptable quality level utilizing a particular X-
of acceptance for any material or production process. ray machine or gamma ray source. In all cases the
Radiography will be consistent in sensitivity and resolu- specified IQI (penetrameter) quality level must be shown
tion only if the effect of all details of techniques, such on the radiograph. In general, satisfactory results can
as geometry, film, filtration, viewing, etc., is obtained normally be obtained for X-ray energies between 100
and maintained. kV to 500 kV in a range between 2.5 to 10 half value
layers (HVL) of material thickness (see Table 1). This
range may be extended by as much as a factor of 2
PART I — EQUIPMENT AND PROCEDURE in some situations for X-ray energies in the 1–25 MV
range primarily because of reduced scatter.
5. Radiographic Quality Level
5.1 The quality level usually required for radiography
is 2% (2-2T when using hole type IQI) unless a higher
7. Radiographic Equivalence Factors
or lower quality is agreed upon between the purchaser
and the supplier. At the 2% subject contrast level, three 7.1 The radiographic equivalence factor of a material
quality levels of inspection, levels 2-1T, 2-2T, and 2- is that factor by which the thickness of the material
4T, are available through the design and application must be multiplied to give the thickness of a “standard”
of the IQI Practice E 1025, Table 1. The level of material (often steel) which has the same absorption.
inspection specified should be based on the service Radiographic equivalence factors of several of the more
requirements of the product. Great care should be taken common metals are given in Table 2, with steel arbi-
in specifying quality levels 2-1T, 1-1T, and 1-2T by trarily assigned a factor of 1.0. The factors may be used:

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TABLE 1
TYPICAL STEEL HVL THICKNESS IN INCHES (MM)
FOR COMMON ENERGIES

Energy Thickness, in. (mm)

120 kV 0.10 (2.5)
150 kV 0.14 (3.6)
200 kV 0.20 (5.1)
250 kV 0.25 (6.4)
400 kV (lr 192) 0.35 (8.9)
1 Mv 0.57 (14.5)
2 Mv (Co 60) 0.80 (20.3)
4 Mv 1.00 (25.4)
6 Mv 1.15 (29.2)
10 Mv 1.25 (31.8)
16 Mv and higher 1.30 (33.0)

TABLE 2
APPROXIMATE RADIOGRAPHIC EQUIVALENCE FACTORS FOR SEVERAL METALS
(RELATIVE TO STEEL)

Energy Level

Metal 100 kV 150 kV 220 kV 250 kV 400 kV 1 MV 2 MV 4 to 25 MV 192Ir 60Co

Magnesium 0.05 0.05 0.08

Aluminum 0.08 0.12 0.18 0.35 0.35
Aluminum alloys 0.10 0.14 0.18 0.35 0.35
Titanium 0.54 0.54 0.71 0.9 0.9 0.9 0.9 0.9
Iron/all steels 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0
Copper 1.5 1.6 1.4 1.4 1.4 1.1 1.1 1.2 1.1 1.1
Zinc 1.4 1.3 1.3 1.2 1.1 1.0
Brass 1.4 1.3 1.3 1.2 1.1 1.0 1.1 1.0
Inconel X 1.4 1.3 1.3 1.3 1.3 1.3 1.3 1.3
Monel 1.7 1.2
Zirconium 2.4 2.3 2.0 1.7 1.5 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.2 1.0
Lead 14.0 14.0 12.0 5.0 2.5 2.7 4.0 2.3
Hafnium 14.0 12.0 9.0 3.0
Uranium 20.0 16.0 12.0 4.0 3.9 12.6 3.4

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7.1.1 To determine the practical thickness limits 9.4.2 Thickness of the material radiographed.
for radiation sources for materials other than steel, and
9.4.3 Variation of thickness of the material radio-
7.1.2 To determine exposure factors for one metal graphed.
from exposure techniques for other metals.
9.4.4 Energy spectrum of the radiation used.
9.4.5 The improvement desired (increasing or de-
8. Film creasing contrast). Filter thickness and material can be
calculated or determined empirically.
8.1 Various industrial X-ray film types are available
to meet the needs of production radiographic work.
However, definite rules on the selection of film are
10. Masking
difficult to formulate because the choice depends on
individual user requirements. Some user requirements 10.1 Masking or blocking (surrounding specimens
are as follows: radiographic quality levels, exposure or covering thin sections with an absorptive material)
times, and various cost factors. Several methods are is helpful in reducing scattered radiation. Such a material
available for assessing image quality levels (see Method can also be used to equalize the absorption of different
E 142, Test Methods E 746 and E 747, and Practice sections, but the loss of detail may be high in the
E 801). Information about specific products can be thinner sections.
obtained from the manufacturers.

11. Back-Scatter Protection

9. Filters
11.1 Effects of back-scattered radiation can be re-
9.1 Definition — Filters are uniform layers of material duced by confining the radiation beam to the smallest
placed between the radiation source and the film. practical cross section and by placing lead behind the
film. In some cases either or both the back lead screen
9.2 Purpose — The purpose of filters is to absorb
and the lead contained in the back of the cassette or
the softer components of the primary radiation, thus
film holder will furnish adequate protection against
resulting in one or several of the following practical
back-scattered radiation. In other instances, this must
advantages:
be supplemented by additional lead shielding behind
9.2.1 Decreasing scattered radiation, thus increasing the cassette or film holder.
contrast.
11.2 If there is any question about the adequacy of
9.2.2 Decreasing undercutting, thus increasing con- protection from back-scattered radiation, a characteristic
trast. symbol [frequently a 1 / 8-in. (3.2-mm) thick letter B]
should be attached to the back of the cassette or film
9.2.3 Decreasing contrast of parts of varying
holder, and a radiograph made in the normal manner.
thickness.
If the image of this symbol appears on the radiograph
9.3 Location — Usually the filter will be placed in as a lighter density than background, it is an indication
one of the following two locations: that protection against back-scattered radiation is insuf-
ficient and that additional precautions must be taken.
9.3.1 As close as possible to the radiation source,
which minimizes the size of the filter and also the
contribution of the filter itself to scattered radiation to
12. Screens
the film.
12.1 Metallic Foil Screens:
9.3.2 Between the specimen and the film in order
to absorb preferentially the scattered radiation from the 12.1.1 Lead foil screens are commonly used in
specimen. It should be noted that lead foil and other direct contact with the films, and, depending upon their
metallic screens (see 12.1) fulfill this function. thickness, and composition of the specimen material,
will exhibit and intensifying action at as low as 90
9.4 Thickness and Filter Material — The thickness
kV. In addition, any screen used in front of the film
and material of the filter will vary depending upon the
acts as a filter (Section 9) to preferentially absorb
following:
scattered radiation arising from the specimen, thus
9.4.1 The material radiographed. improving radiographic quality. The selection of lead

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screen thickness, or for that matter, any metallic screen on active surfaces. Grease and lint may be removed
thickness, is subject to the same considerations as from lead screens with a solvent. Fluorescent screens
outlined in 9.4. Lead screens lessen the scatter reaching should be cleaned in accordance with the recommenda-
the film regardless of whether the screens permit a tions of the manufacturer. Screens showing evidence
decrease or necessitate an increase in the radiographic of physical damage should be discarded.
exposure. To avoid image unsharpness due to screens,
there should be intimate contact between the lead screen
and the film during exposure. 13. Radiographic Contrast
12.1.2 Lead foil screens of appropriate thickness 13.1 The various radiation intensities that penetrate
should be used whenever they improve radiographic an object are rendered as different photographic densities
quality or penetrameter sensitivity or both. The thickness in a radiograph. Using transmitted or reflected light to
of the front lead screens should be selected with care view a radiograph, an observed change in film density
to avoid excessive filtration in the radiography of over a background is defined as contrast. Radiographic
thin or light alloy materials, particularly at the lower contrast depends mostly upon subject contrast and film
kilovoltages. In general, there is no exposure advantage gradient.
to the use of 0.005 in. in front and back lead screens
13.2 Subject contrast is the ratio of radiation intensi-
below 125 kV in the radiography of 1 / 4-in. (6.35-mm)
or lesser thickness steel. As the kilovoltage is increased ties transmitted by two selected portions of a specimen.
to penetrate thicker sections of steel, however, there 13.3 The film gradient is the value of the slope of
is a significant exposure advantage. In addition to the tangent line drawn to a particular density point on
intensifying action, the back lead screens are used as the characteristic curve to the abscissa. Film manufactur-
protection against back-scattered radiation (see Section ers can furnish characteristic curves of their products.
11) and their thickness is only important for this
function. As exposure energy is increased to penetrate 13.4 The quality of radiography is influenced by
greater thicknesses of a given subject material, it is many variables; the effects of changes in some of these
customary to increase lead screen thickness. For radiog- variables are illustrated in Fig. 1.
raphy using radioactive sources, the minimum thickness
of the front lead screen should be 0.005 in. (0.13 mm)
for iridium-192, and 0.010 in. (0.25 mm) for cobalt-60. 14. Geometry

12.2 Other Metallic Screen Materials: 14.1 The focus-film distance necessary to reduce
geometric unsharpness to a negligible amount depends
12.2.1 Lead oxide screens perform in a similar upon the film or film-screen combinations, focal-spot
manner to lead foil screens except that their equivalence size, and object–film distance. Geometric unsharpness
in lead foil thickness approximates 0.0005 in. (0.013 is given [see Fig. 2(a)] by the equation:
mm).
12.2.2 Copper screens have somewhat less absorp- Ug p Ft /do
tion and intensification than lead screens, but may
provide somewhat better radiographic sensitivity with where:
higher energy above 1 MV. Ug p geometric unsharpness,
F p size of the radiation source,
12.2.3 Gold, tantalum, or other heavy metal screens t p specimen thickness, when in contact with the
may be used in cases where lead cannot be used. film, and
do p source–object distance.
12.3 Fluorescent Screens — In general, for a given
source of radiation, fluorescent screens should be used NOTE 3 — do and t must be in the same units of measure; the
only when the exposure necessary without them would units of Ug will be in the same units as F.
NOTE 4 — A nomogram for the determination of Ug is given
be prohibitively long. In any event, if fluorescent screens in Fig. 3 (inch-pound units). Fig. 4 represents a nomogram in
must be used, they should be proven capable of achiev- metric units.
ing the required quality level. Good screen–film contact
Example:
is essential for the successful use of fluorescent screens.
Given:
12.4 Screen Care — All screens should be handled
carefully to avoid dents and scratches, dirt, or grease Source–film distance (do) p 40 in.,

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FIG. 1 EFFECTS OF CHANGES IN VARIABLES ON QUALITY OF RADIOGRAPHY

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FIG. 2 EFFECTS OF OBJECT–FILM GEOMETRY

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FIG. 3 NOMOGRAM FOR DETERMINING GEOMETRIC UNSHARPNESS

(Inch-Pound Units)

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FIG. 4 NOMOGRAM FOR DETERMINING GEOMETRIC UNSHARPNESS

(Metric Units)

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Source size (F) p 500 mils, and NOTE 5 — For detailed information of film density and density
Source side of specimen to film distance (t) p 1.5 in. measurement calibration, see Practice E 1079.

Draw a straight line (dashed in Fig. 3) between 500 mils on the F

scale and 1.5 in. on the t scale. Note the point on intersection (P) 15.2.8 Screen type and thickness,
of this line with the pivot line. Draw a straight line (solid in Fig.
3) from 40 in. on the do scale through point P and extend to the 15.2.9 Curies or milliamperes,
Ug scale. Intersection of this line with the Ug scale gives geometrical
unsharpness in millimetres, which in the example is 19 mils. 15.2.10 Time of exposure,
15.2.11 Filter (in the primary beam),
Inasmuch as the source size, F, is usually fixed for a 15.2.12 Time–temperature development for hand
given radiation source, the value of Ug is essentially processing; access time for automatic processing; time–
controlled by the simple do /t ratio. temperature development for dry processing, and
14.2 Because X and gamma radiation is divergent, 15.2.13 Processing chemistry brand name, if appli-
the radiographic image of an object, or of a structure cable.
within an object, will be larger than the object or the
structure itself. The degree of enlargement will increase 15.3 The essential elements listed in 15.2 will be
with decreasing source–object (structure) distance and accurate for isotopes of the same type, but will vary
with increasing object (structure)–film distance [Fig. with X-ray equipment of the same kilovoltage and
2(b)]. milliampere rating.
15.4 Exposure charts should be developed for each
14.3 If the film is not parallel to the object, the
X-ray machine and corrected each time a major compo-
radiographic image will be distorted because different
nent is replaced, such as the X-ray tube or high-voltage
parts of the radiographic image will be enlarged by
transformer.
different amounts. A measure of the degree of distortion
is given by the ratio of the change in image size caused 15.5 The exposure chart should be corrected when
by distortion to the size of the undistorted image the processing chemicals are changed to a different
[Fig. 2(c)]. manufacturer’s brand or the time–temperature relation-
ship of the processor may be adjusted to suit the
14.4 Final acceptance of radiographs should be based
exposure chart. The exposure chart, when using a dry
on the ability to see the prescribed penetrameter image
processing method, should be corrected based upon the
and the specified hole. The unsharpness formula is
time–temperature changes of the processor.
included for information and guidance, and will operate
within practical limits, but is of less consequence as
do /t ratios increase.
16. Technique File
16.1 It is recommended that a radiographic technique
15. Exposure Calculations or Charts log or record containing the essential elements be
maintained.
15.1 Development or procurement of an exposure
chart or calculator is the responsibility of the individual 16.2 The radiographic technique log or record should
laboratory. contain the following:

15.2 The essential elements of an exposure chart or 16.2.1 Description or sketch of the object,
calculator must relate the following: 16.2.2 Material type and thickness,
15.2.1 Source or machine, 16.2.3 Source or focus–film distance,
15.2.2 Material type, 16.2.4 Film type,
15.2.3 Material thickness, 16.2.5 Film density,
15.2.4 Film type (relative speed), 16.2.6 Screen type and thickness,
15.2.5 Film density (see Note 5), 16.2.7 Isotope or X-ray machine identification,
15.2.6 Source or focus-film distance, 16.2.8 Curie or milliampere minutes,
15.2.7 Kilovoltage or isotope type, 16.2.9 Film placement for nonstandard items,

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SE-94 ARTICLE 22 — RADIOGRAPHIC STANDARDS SE-94

16.2.10 Source position for nonstandard items, and method by which identification is achieved shall
be as agreed upon between the customer and inspector.
16.2.11 Penetrameter and shim thickness,
16.2.12 Special masking or filters,
18.1.2 The minimum identification should at least
16.2.13 Collimator or field limitation device, and include the following: the radiographic facility’s name,
the date, part number and serial number, if used,
16.2.14 Processing method. for unmistakable identification of radiographs with the
16.3 The recommendations of 16.2 are not mandatory, specimen. The letter R should be used to designate a
but are essential in reducing the overall cost of radiogra- radiograph of a repair area, and may include -1 , -2,
phy, and serve as a communication link between the etc., for the number of repair.
radiographic interpreter and the radiographic operator.
18.2 Location Markers:

17. Penetrameters (Image Quality Indicators)

18.2.1 Location markers (that is, lead or high-
17.1 The selection and placement of penetrameters atomic number metals or letters that are to appear as
shall be in accordance with applicable standards Method images on the radiographic film) should be placed on
E 142, Test Method E 747, and Practices E 801 and the part being examined, whenever practical, and not
E 1025. on the cassette. Their exact locations should also be
17.2 Another image quality indicator (IQI) may be marked on the surface of the part being radiographed,
found in Test Method E 746 for determining relative thus permitting the area of interest to be located accu-
image quality response of industrial X-ray films at rately on the part, and they should remain on the part
200 KEV. during radiographic inspection. Their exact location
may be permanently marked in accordance with the
17.2.1 However, the E 746 Equivalent Penetrame- customer’s requirements.
ter Sensitivity (EPS) plaque may be used to study the
effects of various radiographic variables on radiographic
system EPS performance. 18.2.2 Location markers are also used in assisting
the radiographic interpreter in marking off defective
17.2.2 For example, multiple X-ray machines may areas of components, castings, or defects in weldments;
be observed for their effect on EPS by holding film also, sorting good and rejectable items when more than
and processing constant and taking image quality expo- one item is radiographed on the same film.
sures with all the X-ray machines. The machines would
be set for the given exposure condition in Test Method
E 746 and film density equalized. By reading the 18.2.3 Sufficient markers must be used to provide
resultant films, the relative EPS variations between evidence on the radiograph that the required coverage
machines may be determined. of the object being examined has been obtained, and
that overlap is evident, especially during radiography
17.2.3 Exposure condition variables may also be of weldments and casting.
studied using this plaque.
17.2.4 While Test Method E 746 plaque can be
18.2.4 Parts that must be identified permanently
useful in quantifying relative radiographic image quality,
may have the serial numbers or section numbers, or
these other applications of the plaque may be useful. both, stamped or written upon them with a marking
pen with a special indelible ink, engraved, die stamped,
or etched. In any case, the part should be marked in
18. Identification of and Location Markers on an area not to be removed in subsequent fabrication.
Radiographs If die stamps are used, caution is required to prevent
18.1 Identification of Radiographs: breakage or future fatigue failure. The lowest stressed
surface of the part should be used for this stamping.
18.1.1 Each radiograph must be identified uniquely Where marking or stamping of the part is not permitted
so that there is a permanent correlation between the for some reason, a marked reference drawing or shooting
part radiographed and the film. The type of identification sketch is recommended.

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PART II — PROTECTION AND CARE OF PART III — PROCESSING FILMS AND

UNPROCESSED FILM VIEWING AND STORING RADIOGRAPHS
19. Storage of Film 22. Film Processing, General
19.1 Unexposed films should be stored in such a 22.1 To produce a satisfactory radiograph, the care
manner that they are protected from the effects of light, used in making the exposure must be followed by
pressure, excessive heat, excessive humidity, damaging equal care in processing. The most careful radiographic
fumes or vapors, or penetrating radiation. Film manufac- techniques can be nullified by incorrect or improper
turers should be consulted for detailed recommendations darkroom procedures.
on film storage. Storage of film should be on a “first
22.2 More detailed information on film processing
in,” “first out” basis.
is provided in Guide E 999.
19.2 More detailed information on film storage is
provided in Guide E 1254.
23. Automatic Processing
23.1 Automatic Processing — The essence of the
automatic processing system is control. The processor
maintains the chemical solutions at the proper tempera-
ture, agitates and replenishes the solutions automatically,
20. Safelight Test and transports the films mechanically at a carefully
20.1 Films should be handled under safelight condi- controlled speed throughout the processing cycle. Film
tions in accordance with the film manufacturer’s recom- characteristics must be compatible with processing con-
mendations. ANSI PH2.22 can be used to determine ditions. It is, therefore, essential that the recommenda-
the adequacy of safelight conditions in a darkroom. tions of the film, processor, and chemical manufacturers
be followed.
23.2 Automatic Processing, Dry — The essence of
dry automatic processing is the precise control of
development time and temperature which results in
21. Cleanliness and Film Handling reproducibility of radiographic density. Film characteris-
tics must be compatible with processing conditions. It
21.1 Cleanliness is one of the most important require- is, therefore, essential that the recommendations of the
ments for good radiography. Cassettes and screens must film and processor manufacturers be followed.
be kept clean, not only because dirt retained may cause
exposure or processing artifacts in the radiographs, but
because such dirt may also be transferred to the loading 24. Manual Processing
bench, and subsequently to other film or screens.
24.1 Film and chemical manufacturers should be
21.2 The surface of the loading bench must be kept consulted for detailed recommendations on manual film
clean. Where manual processing is used cleanliness processing. This section outlines the steps for one
will be promoted by arranging the darkroom with acceptable method of manual processing.
processing facilities on one side and film-handling 24.2 Preparation — No more film should be pro-
facilities on the other. The darkroom will then have a cessed than can be accommodated with a minimum
wet side and a dry side and the chance of chemical separation of 1 / 2 in. (12.7 mm). Hangers are loaded
contamination of the loading bench will be relatively and solutions stirred before starting development.
slight.
24.3 Start of Development — Start the timer and
21.3 Films should be handled only at their edges, place the films into the developer tank. Separate to a
and with dry, clean hands to avoid finger marks on minimum distance of 1 / 2 in. (12.7 mm) and agitate in
film surfaces. two directions for about 15 s.
24.4 Development — Normal development is 5 to 8
21.4 Sharp bending, excessive pressure, and rough min at 68°F (20°C). Longer development time generally
handling of any kind must be avoided. yields faster film speed and slightly more contrast. The

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SE-94 ARTICLE 22 — RADIOGRAPHIC STANDARDS SE-94

manufacturer’s recommendation should be followed in 24.9.2 For specific washing recommendations, con-
choosing a development time. When the temperature sult the film manufacturer.
is higher or lower, development time must be changed.
24.10 Wetting Agent — Dip the film for approxi-
Again, consult manufacturer-recommended development
mately 30 s in a wetting agent. This makes water drain
time versus temperature charts. Other recommendations
evenly off film which facilitates quick, even drying.
of the manufacturer to be followed are replenishment
rates, renewal of solutions, and other specific instruc- 24.11 Residual Fixer Concentrations — If the fixing
tions. chemicals are not removed adequately from the film,
they will in time cause staining or fading of the
24.5 Agitation — Shake the film horizontally and
developed image. Residual fixer concentrations permis-
vertically, ideally for a few seconds each minute during sible depend upon whether the films are to be kept
development. This will help film develop evenly. for commercial purposes (3 to 10 years) or must
24.6 Stop Bath or Rinse — After development is be of archival quality. Archival quality processing is
complete, the activity of developer remaining in the desirable for all radiographs whenever average relative
emulsion should be neutralized by an acid stop bath humidity and temperature are likely to be excessive,
or, if this is not possible, by rinsing with vigorous as is the case in tropical and subtropical climates. The
agitation in clear water. Follow the film manufacturer’s method of determining residual fixer concentrations may
recommendation of stop bath composition (or length be ascertained by reference to ANSI PH4.8, PH1.28, and
of alternative rinse), time immersed, and life of bath. PH1.41.

24.7 Fixing — The films must not touch one another 24.12 Drying — Drying is a function of (1) film
in the fixer. Agitate the hangers vertically for about (base and emulsion); (2) processing (hardness of emul-
10 s and again at the end of the first minute, to ensure sion after washing, use of wetting agent); and (3)
uniform and rapid fixation. Keep them in the fixer until drying air (temperature, humidity, flow). Manual drying
fixation is complete (that is, at least twice the clearing can vary from still air drying at ambient temperature
time), but not more than 15 min in relatively fresh to as high as 140°F (60°C) with air circulated by a
fixer. Frequent agitation will shorten the time of fixation. fan. Film manufacturers should again be contacted for
recommended drying conditions. Take precaution to
24.8 Fixer Neutralizing — The use of a hypo elimina- tighten film on hangers, so that it cannot touch in the
tor or fixer neutralizer between fixation and washing may dryer. Too hot a drying temperature at low humidity
be advantageous. These materials permit a reduction of can result in uneven drying and should be avoided.
both time and amount of water necessary for adequate
washing. The recommendations of the manufacturers
as to preparation, use, and useful life of the baths 25. Testing Developer
should be observed rigorously.
25.1 It is desirable to monitor the activity of the
24.9 Washing — The washing efficiency is a function radiographic developing solution. This can be done by
of wash water, its temperature, and flow, and the film periodic development of film strips exposed under
being washed. Generally, washing is very slow below carefully controlled conditions, to a graded series of
60°F (16°C). When washing at temperatures above radiation intensities or time, or by using a commercially
85°F (30°C), care should be exercised not to leave available strip carefully controlled for film speed and
films in the water too long. The films should be washed latent image fading.
in batches without contamination from new film brought
over from the fixer. If pressed for capacity, as more
films are put in the wash, partially washed film should 26. Viewing Radiographs
be moved in the direction of the inlet.
26.1 Transmission — The illuminator must provide
24.9.1 The cascade method of washing uses less light of an intensity that will illuminate the average
water and gives better washing for the same length of density areas of the radiographs without glare and it
time. Divide the wash tank into two sections (may be must diffuse the light evenly over the viewing area.
two tanks). Put the films from the fixer in the outlet Commercial fluorescent illuminators are satisfactory for
section. After partial washing, move the batch of film radiographs of moderate density; however, high light
to the inlet section. This completes the wash in fresh intensity illuminators are available for densities up to
water. 3.5 or 4.0. Masks should be available to exclude any

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SE-94 1998 SECTION V SE-94

extraneous light from the eyes of the viewer when book, or other record) constituting a record of each job
viewing radiographs smaller than the viewing port or performed, be maintained. This record should comprise,
to cover low-density areas. initially, a job number (which should appear also on
the films), the identification of the parts, material or
26.2 Reflection — Radiographs on a translucent or area radiographed, the date the films are exposed, and
opaque backing may be viewed by reflected light. It a complete record of the radiographic procedure, in
is recommended that the radiograph be viewed under sufficient detail so that any radiographic techniques
diffuse lighting conditions to prevent excess glare. may be duplicated readily. If calibration data, or other
Optical magnification can be used in certain instances records such as card files or procedures, are used to
to enhance the interpretation of the image. determine the procedure, the log need refer only to
the appropriate data or other record. Subsequently, the
interpreter’s findings and disposition (acceptance or
27. Viewing Room rejection), if any, and his initials, should be entered
for each job.
27.1 Subdued lighting, rather than total darkness, is
preferable in the viewing room. The brightness of the
surroundings should be about the same as the area of 30. Reports
interest in the radiograph. Room illumination must be
so arranged that there are no reflections from the surface 30.1 When written reports of radiographic examina-
of the film under examination. tions are required, they should include the following,
plus such other items as may be agreed upon:
30.1.1 Identification of parts, material, or area.
28. Storage of Processed Radiographs
30.1.2 Radiographic job number.
28.1 Radiographs should be stored using the same
30.1.3 Findings and disposition, if any. This infor-
care as for any other valuable record.
mation can be obtained directly from the log.
28.2 Envelopes having an edge seam, rather than a
center seam, and joined with a nonhygroscopic adhesive,
are preferred, since occasional staining and fading of 31. Identification of Completed Work
the image is caused by certain adhesives used in the 31.1 Whenever radiography is an inspective (rather
manufacture of envelopes (see ANSI PH1.53). than investigative) operation whereby material is ac-
cepted or rejected, all parts and material that have been
accepted should be marked permanently, if possible,
PART IV — RECORDS, REPORTS, AND with a characteristic identifying symbol which will
IDENTIFICATION OF ACCEPTED indicate to subsequent or final inspectors the fact of
MATERIAL radiographic acceptance.
31.2 Whenever possible, the completed radiographs
29. Records
should be kept on file for reference. The custody of
29.1 It is recommended that an X-ray log (a log radiographs and the length of time they are preserved
may consist of a card file, punched card system, a should be agreed upon between the contracting parties.

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SE-94 ARTICLE 22 — RADIOGRAPHIC STANDARDS SE-94

APPENDIX
(Nonmandatory Information)

X1. USE OF FLUORESCENT SCREENS layer thickness, is minimized by using screens having
small, evenly spaced crystals in a thin crystalline layer.
X1.1 Description — Fluorescent intensifying screens
Fluorescent screens are highly sensitive to longer wave-
have a cardboard or plastic support coated with a
length scattered radiation. Consequently, to maximize
uniform layer of inorganic phosphor (crystalline sub-
contrast when this non-image forming radiation is exces-
stance). The support and phosphor are held together by
sive, fluorometallic intensifying screens or fluorescent
a radiotransparent binding material. Fluorescent screens
screens backed by lead screens of appropriate thickness
derive their name from the fact that their phosphor
are recommended. Screen technology has seen signifi-
crystals “fluoresce” (emit visible light) when struck by
cant advances in recent years, and today’s fluorescent
X or gamma radiation. Some phosphors like calcium
screens have smaller crystal size, more uniform crystal
tungstate (CaWO4) give off blue light while others
packing, and reduced phosphor thickness. This translates
known as rare earth emit light green.
into greater screen /film speed with reduced unsharpness
and mottle. These improvements can represent some
X1.2 Purpose and Film Types — Fluorescent screen meaningful benefits for industrial radiography, as indi-
exposures are usually much shorter than those made cated by the three examples as follows:
without screens or with lead intensifying screens, be-
cause radiographic films generally are more responsive
to visible light than to direct X-radiation, gamma radia- X1.3.1 Reduced Exposure (Increased Productiv-
tion, and electrons. ity) — There are instances where prohibitively long
exposure times make conventional radiography impracti-
X1.2.1 Films fall into one of two categories: non- cal. An example is the inspection of thick, high atomic
screen type film having moderate light response, and number materials with low curie isotopes. Depending
screen type film specifically sensitized to have a very on many variables, exposure time may be reduced by
high blue or green light response. Fluorescent screens factors ranging from 2× to 105× when the appropriate
can reduce conventional exposures by as much as 150 fluorescent screen /film combination is used.
times, depending on film type.
X1.3.2 Improved Safety Conditions (Field Sites) —
X1.3 Image Quality and Use — The image quality Because fluorescent screens provide reduced exposure,
associated with fluorescent screen exposures is a func- the length of time that non-radiation workers must
tion of sharpness, mottle, and contrast. Screen sharpness evacuate a radiographic inspection site can be reduced
depends on phosphor crystal size, thickness of the significantly.
crystal layer, and the reflective base coating. Each
crystal emits light relative to its size and in all directions
thus producing a relative degree of image unsharpness. X1.3.3 Extended Equipment Capability — Utiliz-
To minimize this unsharpness, screen to film contact ing the speed advantage of fluorescent screens by
should be as intimate as possible. Mottle adversely translating it into reduced energy level. An example
affects image quality in two ways. First, a “quantum” is that a 150 kV X-ray tube may do the job of a 300
mottle is dependent upon the amount of X or gamma kV tube, or that iridium 192 may be used in applications
radiation actually absorbed by the fluorescent screen, normally requiring cobalt 60. It is possible for overall
that is, faster screen /film systems lead to greater mottle image quality to be better at the lower kV with fluores-
and poorer image quality. A “structural” mottle, which cent screens than at a higher energy level using lead
is a function of crystal size, crystal uniformity, and screens.

299