Topic 1: Intro to Methods of Research

UPHSL OUTLINE FOR PROPOSAL/ACTUAL RESEARCH REPORT

1. TITLE PAGE
2. RECOMMENDATION FOR ORAL EXAMINATION
3. APPROVAL SHEET
4. ACKNOWLEDGMENT
5. DEDICATION
6. ABSTRACT
Title
Author
Degree
School
Academic Year
Adviser
No. of Pages
7. TABLE OF CONTENTS
8. LIST OF TABLES (numbered Hindu-Arabic)
9. LIST OF FIGURES (numbered Hindu-Arabic)

CHAPTER 1: THE PROBLEM AND ITS SETTING

Introduction
Theoretical/Conceptual Framework
Operational Framework
Statement of the Problem
Assumptions of the Study
Scope and Delimitation
Significance of the Study
Definition of Terms

CHAPTER 2: REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

(Introductory Paragraph)
State of the Art
(Introductory Paragraph)
Related Literature
(contains both foreign and local literature)
Related Studies
 (contains both foreign and local studies)
Synthesis of the State-of-the-Art
Gap/s to be Bridged by the Present Study

CHAPTER 3: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

(Introductory Paragraph)
Research Design
Sources of Data
Population of the Study
Instrumentation and Validation
Data Gathering Procedure
Statistical Treatment of Data

CHAPTER 4: PRESENTATION, ANALYSIS, AND INTERPRETATION OF DATA

(Introductory Paragraph)

Level I – Trends and Patterns

Level II – Interpretation – meaning of results
Level III – Inferences and Integration of Findings
Level IV – Implications of the results to theory and practice in the discipline and
other disciplines

CHAPTER 5: SUMMARY OF FINDINGS, CONCLUSIONS AND

RECOMMENDATIONS

(Introductory Paragraph)
Summary of Findings
Conclusions
Recommendations

BIBLIOGRAPGY
Books
Journals
Thesis/Dissertations
Orders/Memoranda
Internet, etc.

APPENDICES
 Letters of Request
Questionnaire
Editor’s Certificate
Statistician’s Certificate, etc.

CURRICULUM VITAE

Why do we engage ourselves in research?

We do research to improve the quality of our lives.

“There is no possibility of the world progressing if we do exactly the same things as or

superiors have done”

Research Defined
Research is a process. As a process, it is systematic, organized, objective, critical,
exhaustive, and comprehensive. It is done for the purpose of solving a problem or adding to the
body of knowledge.

Purposes of Research
1. To discover new facts about known phenomena.
2. To find answers to problems which are only partially solved by existing methods and
information.
3. To discover previously unrecognized substances and elements.
4. To provide basis for decisions making in business, industry, education, government, and
other undertakings.
5. To satisfy the researcher’s curiosity.
6. To find answers to queries by means of a scientific method.
7. To acquire a deeper and better understanding about one phenomenon. Ex. Why women
are generally smaller than men.
8. To verify or expand existing knowledge.
9. To improve the educational practices for raising quality of school products.
10. To promote health and prolong life which are evident in nutritional, pharmaceutical, and
medical researches.
11. To make work, communication, and travel faster, easier and more comfortable

Ethical Principles & Guidelines for Researchers

1. Informed Consent
2. Beneficence (to do good) and Nonmaleficence (to do no harm)
 a. Freedom from any Physical & Psychological Harm
b. Freedom from Exploitation
3. Respect for Human Dignity
a. The right to self-determination
b. The right to full disclosure
c. Anonymity and confidentiality
4. Justice and Fairness

Characteristics of Good Research – Authors of various research books identified several

characteristics of good research

Systematic – It is systematic as there are interrelated steps or procedures a researcher has to

observe in solving a problem. It follows an orderly and sequential procedure that leads to the
discovery of truth, solution of a problem or whatever is aimed to be discovered.

Objective – It is not based on guesswork. This is because empirical data have to be gathered by
the researcher before making any conclusion or proposing any solution to an identified difficulty
or problem. All findings and conclusions are logically based on empirical data and no effort is
made to alter the result of the research.

Empirical – All the procedures employed and the data gathered are perceived in the same
manner by all observers. Generalizations are drawn by the researcher upon hard evidence
gathered from information collected from the real-life experiences and observations.

Comprehensive – If a researcher is serious about understanding a phenomenon, he has to

examine and analyze all its aspects or angles before making a generalization or conclusion.

Critical – This means that procedures employed by the researcher must be able to withstand
critical scrutiny by other researchers. Data should be analyzed critically so that there is no error
in the interpretation.

Rigorous – Procedures to be followed in solving a problem should be relevant, appropriate,

justified, and strictly observed.

Valid – Whenever a researcher formulates conclusions, there are based on actual findings.

Verifiable – Other researchers can check on the correctness of its results by replicating the study
based on the methods and procedures employed by the researcher.
Topic 2: Types and Classifications of Research

Types/Classifications of Research

A. As to who undertakes research. Academic research is one conducted by an individual in

fulfilling the requirements for the confinement of an academic title or degree. A research
project is a type of research undertaken by an individual or group of individuals as part
of their professional work or assignment.

B. As to final use or application of research results. Pure or theoretical research is done

for the purpose of formulating a theory, principle, or law with no intended application of
results. Applied or practical research is an inquiry to test or evaluate a theory or
knowledge arrived at, in the solution of a problem or for useful ends.

C. When methodology or research design is used as basis for categorizing research:

1. Descriptive Research. This type of research endeavors to describe systematically,
factuality, accurately and objectively a situation, problem or phenomenon. It seeks to
describe “what is”.
2. Correlational/Associational Research. In this type of research, the investigator tries to
probe the significance of relationship between two or more factors or characteristics.
3. Explanatory Research. In this type of inquiry, the researcher seeks to clarify how and
why a relationship exists between two or more aspects of a situation or phenomenon.
Ex. “why job stress contributes to burnout” or “why low morale can lead to low
productivity”. There are problems which can be investigated systematically through
the explanatory research design.
4. Exploratory Research. This kind of study is undertaken when the investigator is after
probing or exploring areas where little are known about the research problem.
Feasibility and pilot studies fall under this type of research.
5. Experimental Research. One probes into the cause of an effect by exposing one or
more experimental groups to one or more treatments or conditions. Ex. “when a
mathematics professor is after determining the effectiveness of a learning module in
raising the performance of his students, he is actually engaging in experimental
research.
6. Ex-post Facto/Causal-Comparative Research. One delves into analyzing the possible
effect of a factor which cannot be manipulated and controlled. Ex. “a biology student
who is interested in determining the incidence of lung cancer among heavy smokers”
it is a situation where this type of research is appropriate to employ.
7. Historical Research. In historical research, the researcher attempts to reconstruct the
past objectively and accurately or to explain an incident that happened in the past
with the use of data taken from the past.
 8. Ethnographic Research. This type of research is done when the researcher is
concerned with explaining or describing a phenomenon holistically with the use of
multiple data collection techniques.

D. With reference to the field of knowledge where the problem being studies is associated
with research maybe historical, sociological, educational, psychological or medical.

It should be noted, however, that the above classification of research is not absolute.
Various authors have different ways of classifying research.

The Research Process

1. Idea-Gathering Phase. Research begins with an ideas in which the researcher has
interest.
- identify topics that interest you most
- justify why a study on a particular topic is needed
- start reading articles and books
- converse with people who are knowledgeable in the area
- begin thinking about it
2. Problem-Definition Phase. As the ideas generated in the first phase are very general or
vague, you have to redefine them.
- identify and define the variables to be studied;
- develop the theoretical and conceptual framework of the study;
- formulate the major and specific problems to be investigated &
- formulate the hypothesis
3. Procedures-Design Phase. After identifying the problems and hypothesis, decide on the
methods and procedures you will use in the collection and analysis of data.
- decide on what research methodology to employ;
- select the research participants;
- develop and validate data-gathering tools;
- specify the procedures to be observed in the actual collection of data, and
- plan the analysis of data gathered.
4. Data-Collecting Phase. After preparing the research plan, you have to proceed gathering
the data from the subjects of the study, It is in this phase where the procedures devised in
the previous step, are implemented by you rigorously.
5. Data-Analysis Phase. In this particular phase, you analyze the collected data from the
previous step, based on data analysis plan. Appropriate qualitative and quantitative
techniques and procedures are then applied for the data that have been recorded, coded
and tabulated.
 6. Interpretation Phase. Having analyzed the data, you continue to make sense out of them
by interpreting the results.
- compare your findings with the findings of previous studies highlighting
similarities/differences
- provide explanatory concepts for your findings
7. Communication Phase. After completing the data analysis and interpretation, prepare a
written report.
- for publication in a journal, or
- for oral presentation to colleagues or a panel of experts.

Topic 3: Research Ethics

Research Ethics

The following commentary by Nicholas von Hoffman appeared in the Washington Post “we are
so preoccupied with defending our privacy against insurance investigators, dope sleuths, counter-
espionage men, divorce detectives and credit checkers that we overlook the social scientists
behind the hunting blinds who’re also peeping into what we thought were our most private and
secret lives…”

“Ethics is the disciplined study or morality… and morality asks the question … what should
one’s behavior be”.

“Greek ethos ‘character’ is the systematic study of value concepts—good, bad, right, wrong and
the general principles that justify applying these concepts”.

Basically, there are two types of ethics. Descriptive Ethics which asks what does the culture or
society believe is morally correct?

The other type or Perspective Ethics asks:

• How should I behave as a researcher?
• What character traits should I cultivate?

Why is this important?

• You will have many questions to answer and you will need a framework from which t
answer those questions.

Two types of ethical decision-making

• Deductive or principle-based reasoning
• Inductive or case-based reasoning
 • Deductive or principle-based reasoning
- Start with an ethical theory
- Continue with specific principle
- Develop rules
- Make judgements

Deductive Reasoning

Ethical Theory → Principle → Rules → Judgement

Peace → Violence → War

Case Based Reasoning

• Decisions we have made – precedent
• Look back at those decisions and combine them in order to make a judgement
• Judgements reflect back on rules
• Rules reflect on our principles
• Principles reflect back to the ethical theory

• Decisions we have made – avoid war and move to Canada (U.S declares war on
Canada)
• Judgement – defend yourself
• Rule – join Army (protect children)
• Principles – family important
• Ethical theory

Deductive reasoning → Case Based Reasoning

No WAR! Conflict Fight WAR!

Conflict Between Decisions

• When there is an argument
• Go back to the original principles – ask yourself “What were my original principles?”
• Original principles are in conflict or “incoherent”
• There will be conflict
• You will use both types of ethical decision-making to make decisions
• When conflict arises … go back to the original principles and try to create coherence by
dealing with the specific principles

Ethics is about creating a mutually respectful relationship with the research population
• Subjects are pleased to participate
 • Community regards the conclusions as constructive

An ethically insensitive researcher can leave the research setting in pandemonium

• The researcher
• The institution
• The cause that he/she seeks to promote

Failure to treat subjects with respect can result in data that is:
• Misleading
• Inconclusive
• Biased

Scientists involved in the intense and demanding enterprise of research … often overlook the
interests and perspectives of the research subject. Subjects may respond with lies and subterfuge.

The problems encountered in behavioral research by the National Commission included:

• Lack of informed consent
• No debriefing (restoration to an emotional state equal to what was experienced before the
experiment)
• Deception was a standard tool
• Invasion of privacy

The problems encountered in biomedical research by the National Commission included:

• Lack of informed consent
• Disregard for risks encountered by the patient
• Deception
• Beecher – 1966 article was published in New England Journal of Medicine
• Tuskegee – untreated syphilis in black males
• Penicillin and rheumatic fever
• Effect of high levels of blood CO2
• Metastatic melanoma

Scientists attempted to critically examine questionable research practices and to recommend

changes, but could not.

So … the federal government brought numerous violations and issues to the forefront and in
1974 mandated the establishment of Institutional Review Boards (National Research Act)
The role of the Institutional Review Board (IRB) is to determine whether the rights and welfare
of the subjects are adequately protected and whether the study adheres to sound ethical and
scientific principles

Federal regulations have been established in order to provide the standards for monitoring all
research activity related to people who volunteer as subjects for research. Abiding by these
standards ensures the ethical conduct of research.

The Act also created the National Commission for the Protection of Human Subjects of
Biomedical and Behavioral Research (wrote the Belmont Report in 1979)

The National Commission for the Protection of Human Subjects of Biomedical and Behavioral
Research was commissioned to develop guidelines to assure that human research was conducted
ethically.

They were told to look at literature, look at arguments people made, review what ethicists were
saying about research and ask … what are the fundamental principles behind the decisions
people make or should make about research

Belmont Report – 1979

• Respect – treat others as autonomous agents, allow people choice
• Beneficence – acts of kindness that go beyond charity and duty … various obligations
(i.e., to do no harm, promote good)
• Justice – treat people fairly

Applying the Principle of the Belmont Report

Principle Meaning Practice
Respect for Persons Each person has individual Obtain informed consent,
rights protect privacy, maintain
confidentiality
Beneficence Provide benefit, protect from Risk-benefit assessment made
harm, limit risk Standard procedures used
Justice Equitable selection of Includes all groups that may
subjects benefit but does not single out
one group
Two entities within DHHS have authority to oversee the conduct of clinical trials and IRBs
OHRP FDA
Primary duty is to implement policies and Oversees the regulation of drugs, biologics,
regulations that involve humans (Before 2000 devices, foods and veterinary medicines
the office was OPRR)
Relies on an assurance of compliance that is Uses a system of inspections and audits
negotiated with the institution (the Assurance (Inspects the IRB on a routine basis)
document sets forth the means by which the
institution will comply with regulations)
HHS regulations related to IRB FDA regulations related to IRB
responsibilities are codified at 45 CFR 46 responsibilities are codified at 21 CFR 50, 56
and are similar but not identical to HHS
(audits occur approximately every 4 years)

Six Norms of Scientific Research

• Valid research design – takes into account relevant theory, methods, and prior findings
• Competence of researcher – capable to carry out the procedures
• Identification of consequences – assessment of risks and benefits (maximizing benefit
and minimizing risk)
• Selection of subjects – appropriate to the purposes of the study, representative of the
population that will benefit from the research and appropriate in number
• Voluntary informed consent – obtained before study begins, without undue threat or
inducement, with enough information, and agreement to participate
• Compensation for injury – responsibility for what happens to the subject (federal law
requires that subject be informed about compensation, but does not require
compensation)

“The public’s perception of research, its benefits and its risks is shaped by the way research is
conducted”.