Weight and Balance

Loading Definitions
There are four kinds of weight and balance questions on the Flight Engineer test: (1) figuring the payload,
(2) computing the center of gravity of three weights, or an aircraft, (3) computing the effect of adding or
subtracting weight, and (4) computing the effect of shifting weight.

Empty Weight of an aircraft includes the weight of the airframe, engines, all permanently-installed
equipment, unusable fuel and undrainable oil. Empty weight does not include usable fuel or oil, crew,
passengers or other payload.
Basic Operating Weight (BOW) is applicable to transport category aircraft. BOW includes empty weight
plus the required crew and other standard operating items such as meals and water.
Payload -- the weight of the passengers, baggage and cargo.
Zero Fuel Weight -- BOW plus the payload.
Ramp Weight (taxi weight) -- the zero fuel weight plus all the usable fuel on board.
Takeoff Weight -- the ramp weight less the fuel burned during start and taxi. Note: all calculations for the
current flight engineer test assume zero fuel burn for taxi and use ramp weight and takeoff weight as
the same value.
Landing Weight -- the takeoff weight of the aircraft less the fuel burned and dumped en route.

There are maximum structural limits that must be observed for the zero fuel weight, ramp weight,
takeoff weight and landing weight.

Payload Computations
There are several problems which require you to compute the maximum allowable payload.

For example:
BOW...............................................................101,500 lbs
Maximum zero fuel weight..............................138,000 lbs
Maximum takeoff weight.................................184,200 lbs
Maximum landing weight................................142,500 lbs

What is the maximum payload which can be carried if the total fuel load is 52,000 pounds and 45,500
pounds of fuel will be burned en route?
1. Fill in the six known weights. The heaviest possible landing weight will give you the greatest payload,
so use 142,500 pounds, which is the aircraft's maximum landing weight. In this case, the computed
takeoff weight is greater than the maximum takeoff weight.
2. Since all maximum limits must be observed, the maximum takeoff weight must be used for the next
step.
3. Compute the zero fuel weight by subtracting the fuel load from the takeoff weight. In this case the
zero fuel weight is less than the maximum. The lower number must be used for the next step to avoid
exceeding the maximum takeoff weight.
4. Subtract the zero fuel BOW from the trip zero fuel weight to determine the maximum allowable
payload for this trip.
132,200 - 101,500 = 30,700 lbs

Definitions MAC/Datum
The Mean Aerodynamic Chord (MAC) is the average distance from the leading edge to the trailing edge
of the wing. The MAC is specified for an aircraft by determining the average chord of an imaginary wing
which has the same aerodynamic characteristics as the actual wing.
The Datum is an imaginary vertical plane or line from which all measuring of distance on the airplane
is done.
 Arm is the horizontal distance in inches from the datum to the center of gravity on an item. For
example, if the rear baggage compartment is 1,066 inches from the datum, the arm of any item placed
there is 1,066 inches. Station is generally considered to be the same as the arm.
LEMAC stands for Leading Edge of Mean Aerodynamic Chord. Its position is expressed in inches
aft of the datum.
TEMAC stands for Trailing Edge of the Mean Aerodynamic Chord. It is also defined in inches aft of
the datum. Since TEMAC is always aft of LEMAC, it will always be a larger number than LEMAC.
Trim Station (TS) 0.0 is a point aft of the datum, which is a new zero reference. In some of the test
questions, loading stations are referenced to the 0.0 TS. For example, a loading station at TS-229" is 229
inches ahead of the 0.0 trim station. The location of the 0.0 trim station is always given in the test
question data when trim station is used.

Center of Gravity (CG) Location

The center of gravity of an airplane is computed along its longitudinal axis. The CG location can be
expressed in inches aft of the datum, inches aft of LEMAC or as a percentage of MAC. Allowable center
of gravity locations always fall between LEMAC and TEMAC. The center of gravity position of large
aircraft is normally expressed as a percent of the mean aerodynamic chord aft of LEMAC. If the CG were
at LEMAC it would be at 0% of MAC. If it were at TEMAC it would be at 100% of MAC.

Weight x Arm = Moment

The basic formula used for all center of gravity computations is:
Weight x Arm = Moment

Moment, which is expressed in pound-inches, is the effect a weight has on the CG location. If cargo is
moved from the aft cargo hold to the forward, the arm of the cargo would decrease and so the total
moment would decrease. When the total moment decreases and the weight remains the same, the CG
must move forward. This is true of even small weight shifts within the aircraft. If the landing gear moves
forward when retracted, the CG will move forward a small amount because of the decrease in the total
moment. If the landing gear retracts rearward, the CG will move rearward.

Total Moment ÷ Total Weight = CG

The location of the center of gravity in inches aft of the datum is found by using the formula:
Total moment ÷ Total weight = CG (in inches aft of datum)

For example, compute the CG of the following:

Weight X............................1,330 pounds at 117" aft of datum
Weight Y............................1,110 pounds at 110" aft of datum
Weight Z...............................750 pounds at 210" aft of datum

1. Compute the total weight and total moment.

Weight x Arm = Moment
X 1,330 x 117 = 155,610
Y 1,110 x 110 = 122,100
Z + 750 x 210 = + 157,500
Total 3,190 435,210
2. Total moment ÷ Total weight = CG
435,210 ÷ 3,190 = 136.43"

Notice that the formula uses total moment. If you are given a moment index, you must multiply either the
index or the CG times the reduction factor to get the correct CG.

Index Units
The distance from the datum to the CG is the arm of the entire aircraft. Suppose an aircraft weighs
150,000 pounds with the CG located 920" aft of the datum. The total moment of the aircraft is computed:
 Weight x Arm = Moment
150,000 x 920 = 138,000,000 pound-inches

A Moment Index is moment divided by a constant such as 100, 1,000 or 10,000. The moment of
138,000,000 pound-inches could also be expressed as a moment index of 138,000 if a reduction factor of
1,000 is applied, or as 13,800 with a reduction factor of 10,000. The advantage of using an index is that it
simplifies weight and balance computations for large aircraft where heavy weights and long arms would
otherwise result in unmanageably large numbers.
Weight x Arm ÷ Reduction factor = Index units

Computing Aircraft CG and % MAC

The CG of a loaded aircraft can be computed using the Weight x Arm = Moment formula. The tables in
FAA Figure 31 are available for the turbojet questions. The tables show the moment index for various
weights at all the loading stations. The arm is given for each station. For the passengers, the arm is
printed at the top of the moment index column. The cargo arms are above the weight columns. The fuel
loading tables show the arm for each fuel load. If you multiply weight times the arm, be sure to divide the
moment by the reduction factor (1000) to get the moment index. This is necessary when the weight in the
question is not on the chart; in this case, the formula becomes:
Weight x Arm ÷ 1,000 = Moment Index (Moment/1,000)

In most computations you will be given a CG location in inches aft of the datum that you will express
in percent of MAC. To do this, you need to know (1) the distance, in inches, from LEMAC to the CG and
(2) the length of MAC in inches.
You can find the distance from LEMAC to the CG by finding the difference between the distance from
datum to LEMAC and the distance from datum to the CG. The length of MAC is the difference between
LEMAC and TEMAC.
The CG in percentage of MAC is computed by dividing the CG (in inches aft of LEMAC) by the length
of MAC and multiplying by 100 to make it a percentage. Assume that the CG is at 924.2" aft of the datum
and that MAC runs from station 860.2" (LEMAC) to 1040.9" (TEMAC).

1. Compute the length of MAC.

TEMAC - LEMAC = 1040.9 - 860.2 = 180.7"
2. Compute the distance of the CG aft of LEMAC.
CG - LEMAC = 924.2 - 860.2 = 64.0"
3. Compute the percent of MAC.
CG aft of LEMAC ÷ MAC x 100 = 64.0 ÷ 180.7 x 100 = 35.4%

For example:
Determine the CG in percent of MAC. Refer to FAA Figure 31.
Basic Operating Weight.................................................105,000 pounds
Basic Operating Index (Moment / 1000)....................................92,827.0
MAC ..........................................................................860.2 to 1040.9
Passenger Load:
Fwd Comp...................................................................................Full
Aft Comp.....................................................................................Full
Fuel Load:
Tanks 1 and 3 (each).................................................10,500 pounds
Tank 2.......................................................................26,000 pounds
Cargo Load:
Fwd Hold.....................................................................2,500 pounds
Aft Hold.......................................................................1,500 pounds

1. Determine the loaded weight and moment index using the tables. Interpolate as necessary, or multiply
Weight x Arm and divide by 1,000, if the exact weight and moment index are not given.
Weight Moment /1000
 BOW 105,000 92,827
Fwd Pax 4,930 2,869
Aft Pax 22,610 23,243
Tank 1 10,500 10,451
Tank 3 10,500 10,451
Tank 2 26,000 23,767
Fwd Hold 2,500 1,700
Aft Hold 1,500 1,749
Total 183,540 167,057
2. Compute the CG in inches aft of datum using the formula:
Total Moment/Index x Reduction Factor ÷ Total Weight = CG
CG = 167,057 x 1,000 ÷ 183,540 = 910.2"
3. Determine the CG distance aft of LEMAC.
CG = 910.2 - 860.2 = 50.0"
4. Calculate the CG in percent of MAC.
Distance aft of LEMAC ÷ MAC x 100 = 50.0 ÷ 180.7 x 100 = 27.7%

If the number of passengers is not listed on FAA Figure 31, multiply by 170 to get the weight; then use
Weight x Arm ÷ 1,000 = Moment/Index.

Adding/Subtracting Weight and Computing CG in Inches From % MAC

Anytime weight is added or subtracted from an aircraft, the center of gravity will move. Consider the
following problem:

What is the location of the CG if 1,460 pounds are removed from station 1500?
Aircraft Weight......................171,520 lbs
CG Location..........................Station 820

1. Compute the current total moment for the loaded aircraft.

Weight x Arm = Moment
171,520 x 820 = 140,646,400
2. Compute the change in moment and determine the new weight and moment.
Weight x Arm = Moment
171,520 x 820 = 140,646,400
- 1,460 x 1,500 = - 2,190,000
170,060 = 138,456,400
3. Compute the new CG by dividing total moment by total weight.
138,456,400 ÷ 170,060 = 814.16

An alternate method of doing this computation is to use the formula:

Weight added or removed ÷ new weight = CG change ÷ distance from Weight Station to old CG

or:

CG (change) = Weight added (or subtracted) x distance to old CG ÷ new weight

1. Weight subtracted = 1,460 lbs
2. Distance to old CG = 1,500 - 820 = 680"
3. New weight = 171,520 - 1,460 = 170,060 lbs
4. CG change = -1,460 x 680 ÷ 170,060 = -5.84" (weight removed aft of the CG moves the CG forward)
5. New CG = 820 - 5.84 = 814.16"

Either solution will yield the correct answer.

You may be given a problem in which the CG is in the percent of MAC. You need to convert that to a
distance from LEMAC and to distance aft of datum. Use the following formulas:
 MAC x % MAC = Distance of CG from LEMAC
100
and
Distance of CG from LEMAC + LEMAC = Distance of CG aft of datum

For example, assume the following:

MAC = 180.7"
LEMAC = 860.2"
CG = 32.7% MAC
1. Compute distance of CG aft of LEMAC.
180.7 x 32.7 = 59.1" aft of LEMAC
100
2 Compute the distance of the CG aft of datum.
860.2 + 59.1 = 919.3" aft of datum

Maximum Weight Addition

Adding weight will change the CG position. At times it is necessary to compute the maximum weight that
can be added without exceeding a CG limit. To do this, use a variation of the formula:

Weight added ÷ old weight = CG change ÷ distance from weight station to new CG

or:
Weight added = Old weight x CG change ÷ Distance from weight station to new CG

For example:
How much weight could be added at station 1600 without exceeding the aft CG limit?
Aircraft weight...........................83,000 pounds
CG location.....................................Station 900
Aft CG limit.....................................Station 905

1. Determine the known values of the formula assuming that the CG will move to the aft limit.
Old weight = 83,000 lbs
CG change = 905 - 900 = 5"
Distance from weight station to new CG = 1600 - 905 = 695"
2. Apply the formula.
Weight added = 83,000 x 5 ÷ 695 = 597.1 lbs

Shifting Weight
A problem involving a weight shift is essentially the same as one in which weight is added or subtracted.
Weight is subtracted from one station and the same amount of weight is added in another. The total
weight remains the same but the moment changes: increasing if the weight is moved rearward, or
decreasing if it is moved forward.

For example:
What is the new CG location if 800 pounds of cargo are moved from the forward cargo hold to the aft
cargo hold?
Airplane gross weight...............................................150,000 pounds
CG prior to shift..........................................998.0 inches aft of datum
Arm of forward hold....................................667.0 inches aft of datum
Arm of aft hold............................................1,160 inches aft of datum

1. Compute the current total moment.

Weight x Arm = Moment
150,000 x 998.0 = 149,700,000
2. Compute the new moment.
 Weight x Arm = Moment
150,000 x 998.0 = 149,700,000
- 800 x 667.0 = - 533,600
+ 800 x 1,160.0 = + 928,000
150,000 = 150,094,400
3. Calculate the new CG location.
New CG = 150,094,400 ÷ 150,000 = 1,000.6"

An alternate method of solving the problem is by using the formula:

CG change = Weight shifted x Distance shifted ÷ Total weight

In the previous problem:

Weight shifted = 800 pounds
Distance shifted = 1,160.0 - 667.0 = 493.0"
Total weight = 150,000 pounds
CG change = 800 x 493 ÷ 150,000 = 2.6"
New CG = 998.0" + 2.6" = 1,000.6"

When the original CG and the answers are in % MAC, convert the CG change to % MAC by dividing
it by MAC and multiplying by 100. Then, add or subtract that percentage from the original CG in % MAC.

Computing Required Weight Shift

Occasionally it is necessary to compute the maximum amount of weight that can be shifted and still keep
the CG within limits. At times, the CG is out of limits and it is necessary to compute the minimum amount
of weight that has to be shifted to get back in. This can be done using the formula:

CG change = Weight shifted x Distance shifted

Total weight
or
Weight shifted = Total weight x CG change
Distance weight is shifted

For example:
The gross weight of the aircraft is 155,000 pounds. How much weight must be moved from station 1028.0
to station 582.0 to move the CG forward 1.2 inches?

Total weight...............................................................................155,000 pounds

CG change................................................................................................... 1.2"
Distance weight is shifted.............................................1,028.0 - 582.0 = 446.0"
Weight shifted...................................................155,000 x 1.2 ÷ 446.0 = 417 lbs

Another example:
A cargo aircraft loaded to maximum takeoff gross weight of 165,000 pounds is tail heavy. How many 50-
pound boxes must be moved from the 1,200-inch station to the 710-inch station to move the CG forward
3.2 inches?

Total weight...............................................................................165,000 pounds

CG change................................................................................................... 3.2"
Distance weight is shifted.......................................................1200 - 710 = 490"
Weight shifted..............................................165,000 x 3.2 ÷ 490 = 1,077.55 lbs
Number of boxes...................................................1,077.55 ÷ 50 = 21.55 boxes

Since it is not possible to move a fraction of a box, and since 21 boxes would not move enough weight
forward, the minimum number of boxes is 22.