3.

1: Signal Processors
Let's start the discussion by watching the video below about Signal Processing.

What is Signal Processing?

A basic instrument system consists of a sensor, a processor, and a receiver. This module is about the
processor and the receiver. The technology used in signal processing is also important for automatic
control systems.

Signal Processing and Conditioning

We must now examine how to process the output of the transducers into the form required by
the rest of the instrument system. These may also be transducers but in this case, Secondary
Transducers. They work on the following standard signal ranges.

Electric 4 - 20mA

Pneumatic 0.2 to 1 bar

Digital standards
 Older electrical equipment used 0 to 10 V

The vast array of instrumentation control and equipment available uses many forms of the signals.
Below is the summary:

ELECTRICAL - voltage, current, digital

MECHANICAL - force and movement

PNEUMATIC AND HYDRAULIC - Pressure and flow

OPTICAL - high-speed digital signal transmission

RADIO - analog and digital transmission

ULTRAVIOLET - similar application to radio over short ranges

The processor may do the following things:

1. Change the level or value of the signal (e.g. voltage level)

2. Change the signal from one form to another
3. Change the operating characteristics with respect to time
4. Convert analog and digital from one form to the other

Processors which change the level or value of the signal.

Amplifiers

Amplifiers may amplify voltage, current, or both in which case it is a power amplifier.

Amplifier gain may be expressed as a ratio or in decibels. The letter W indicates it refers to
power gain. The gain in dbW is given by
P ower output
Gain(dbW) = 10 log10 P ower input

To illustrate the above principle please refer to the sample problem below.

Sample Problem no. 1

Calculate the power gain of an amplifier which has an input of 5 mW and an output of 6 Watts.

Solution

Pin = 5 mW

Pout = 6 Watts
 Gain = G = 10 log10 6

0.005

G = 10 log 1200

G = 30.79 dbW

In practice, an amplifier generates some noise and the input and output terminals have a
resistance that governs the ratio of current to voltage. A model is shown in which a noise
generator is indicated an input and output resistors.

Since electric power into a resistive load is given as

2

P =I2 R  =   VR

Then
2

Gain(dbV) = 10log10   = 20 log10

V out V out

V
2
in V in

The letter V indicates it is a voltage gain.

To illustrate the above principle please refer to the example problem below.

Sample Problem no. 2

Calculate the gain of a voltage amplifier with an input of 2 mV and an output of 10 V.

Solution

G = 20log10 10

0.002

G = 73.98 db V

Differential Amplifiers

These have two inputs and the difference between them is amplified. The electronic symbol is

Voltage Gain = 20 log10 V out

V 2 −V 1
To illustrate the above principle please refer to the sample problem below.

Sample Problem no.3 

Find the output voltage if the gain is 15 db.

Solution

Input = 5 - 2 = 3 V

Gain = 15 db

15 = 20 log10 V out

Antilog 0.75 = V out

Vout = 16.87 V

Attenuators

Sometimes a signal is too big and must be reduced by attenuating it. Electrical signals are
attenuated with resistors which dissipate the electric power as heat. Step down transformers
and gearboxes, for example, are not strictly attenuators because they reduce the level, not the
power. The gain of an attenuator in db is negative as the next example shows.

To illustrate the above principle please refer to the sample problem below.

Sample Problem no.4

Calculate the voltage gain of an attenuator with an input voltage of 12 V and an output voltage
of 2 V.

Solution

G = 20 log10 12
2

G = -15.56 db V

The term amplification is often used when the level of a signal is increased but not the power.
Strictly speaking, such devices should be called Transformers. For example, an AC electric
transformer may increase the voltage but not the power.

Transformers

Electrical
 Many devices only change the level of a signal without changing the power. A voltage amplifier
is one example. An electrical transformer for alternating voltages basically consists of two
windings, a primary and a secondary. The coils are wound on a magnetic core.

The relationship is
V1 T1
=
V2 T2

To illustrate the above principle please refer to the sample problem below.

Sample Problem no. 5

A transformer has 1200 turns on the primary coil and 200 on the secondary. If the input is 110 V
a.c. what is the ideal output?

Solution
V1 T1
=
V2 T2

110 1200
=
V2 200

V2 = 18.33 V a.c.

Mechanical

Mechanical transformers are levers and gearboxes which change movement, force, speed, and
torque but not the power. They are used in many instruments (e.g. a mechanical pressure
gauge and the nozzle flapper system)

The gear ratio is in direct proportion to the pitch circle diameters (mean diameters) or a number
of teeth on each wheel.

The lever movements at the ends are in direct proportion to the length each side of the fulcrum.
 Hydraulic

The hydraulic pressure amplifier shown increases the pressure in direct proportion to the areas
of the pistons. It is also called an intensifier.

To illustrate the above principle please refer to the sample problem below.

Sample Problem no. 6

The large piston is 40 mm in diameter and the smaller piston is 10 mm in diameter. Calculate
the pressure ratio.

Solution

The force on the input piston = Force on the output piston

F = A1p1 = A2p2
π 2
D1 2
p2 A1 4
D1
= = =
p1 π 2 2
A2 D2 D2
4

p2 2
40
= = 16
p1 2
10

 
3.2: Signal Converters
Signal Converters

In this module, we will study the different signal converters.

Let's watch the video below regarding signal converters.

Signal converters change the signal from one form to another. wherever possible, these are the
standard inputs and outputs ranges.

Nozzle-Flapper and Differential Pressure Cells

 The nozzle-flapper system is a widely used differential pressure cells. This is widely used in the
control of air-operated pipeline valves.

Electrical DP Cells

These provide the same functions as the pneumatic versions but given an output of 4 - 20mA
using electrical pressure transducers. They are typically used with DP flow meters.

Current/Pressure Conversions

The picture below shows typical units for converting 4 - 20 mA to 0.2 - 1 bar and vise versa.
They contain adjustments for range and zero. They are widely used for converting the standard
pneumatic and electrical signals back and forth. They can also be adjusted to work with
nonstandard inputs to convert them into standard form.

Analog-Digital Conversion
 So many modern systems now use digital signals that it is important to appreciate how analog
signals are processed into digital form and vise versa. Analog to digital conversion is a
process of turning an analog voltage or current into a digital pattern that can be read by a
computer and processed.

Digital to analog conversion is a process of turning a digital pattern from a computer into an
analog voltage or current.

Revision of Binary Numbers

A number may be represented in digital form by simply setting a pattern of voltages on a line
high or low. It is normal to use 4, 8, 16 or 32 lines. An 8-bit binary pattern is shown below.

The total pattern is called a word and the one shown is an 8-bit word. The pattern may be
stored in an 8-bit register. A register is a temporary store where the word may be manipulated.

Bit zero is called the least significant bit (LSB) and the bit with the highest value is called the
most significant bit (MSB).

Each bit has a value of zero when off(low) or the value shown when on (high). The maximum
value for an 8-bit word is hence 255.

Sample Problem no. 4

Write down the value of the digital number shown below.

Solution

Digital value = 0 + 2 + 0 + 8 + 0 + 0 + 64 + 128 = 202

Digital to Analog Converters 

These are devices for converting a binary number into an analog voltage. The change in the
binary value from zero to a maximum corresponds with a change in the analog value from 0 to
 a maximum.

Resolution

When a digital number is converted into a voltage, each increment of the binary value
corresponds with an increment in the voltage output. The value of this output is resolution.

To illustrate the above principle please refer to the sample problem below.

Sample Problem no. 5

Determine the resolution of an 8-bit register converted into a voltage in the range 0 to 10 V. What is
the digital value that represents a value of 4 volts.

Solution

Analog range = 0 - 10 V

for an 8-bit register,

Digital range = 0 - 255

Therefore,

Resolution =  255
10
= 0.039216, 

Digital value =  0.039216

4
= 102

Adder Type Converter 

One way to convert a digital pattern into an analog voltage is with the adder type shown below.
The diagram shows a 5-bit pattern.

The output voltage is controlled by the state of the I/O switches (these might be a register). The
output of the summing amplifier is
V ref
Vo =  2
( 16
1
+
1

8
+
1

4
+
1

2
)
+ 1
 1

16
is the least significant bit and 1 is the most significant bit.

The maximum number represented by the digital number is 31 for the 5-bit system shown. An
increase of one produces a voltage increment of 1/32 V. The maximum voltage output is
31V/32.

To illustrate the above principle please refer to the sample problem below.

Sample Problem no. 6

If S1 and S4 are on and the others off and Vref = 10, what is the voltage output?

Solution

Vo =  V2 ( 16
1
+
1

8
+
1

4
+
1

2
+ 1 )

Vo =  10
2
( 16
1
+ 0 + 0 +
1

2
+ 0 )

Vo = 2.8125 V

Ladder Type

Another way to convert a digital signal into an analog signal is with the ladder-type illustrated below.

The output voltage is given by

V ref
Vo = 2
( 16
1
+
1

8
+
1

4
+
1

2
+ 1 )

 
3.3: Signal Conditioners
Signal Conditioners

Signal Conditioners are the processors that change the characteristics of the signal.

Filters

This is used with electric signals to remove unwanted. For example, a signal may contain AC
and DC signals. A simple capacitor will filter out the DC signal.

Multiplex System

A modern industrial information transmission system requires that many channels be sent from
one place to another using either a single frequency of transmission or a single pair of wires
such as a telephone line.

Buffers and Stores

Very often a signal value needs to be stored. This is usually done by converting them into a
digital number and storing them in a memory chip. If a system receiving or sending serial data
but the incoming data is arriving quicker than it can be processed, then the incoming signals
are put into a temporary store called a buffer where they wait to be processed. 

 
3.4: Signal Receivers
Signal Receivers

The input of an instrument system is sensed with a primary transducer and then processed or
conditioned before being sent on the last item in the chain which is similar receiver. The signal
receiver may be;

an indicator
a chart recorder
a plotter
a printer
an alarm
a computer

Each of these is a complete system in its own right and may itself contain further conditioning.
They are usually designed to operate from standard signals. In control systems, the signal
receiver might be an actuator.

Indicators

Indicators may be analog or digital.

Analog indicators have a scale and a pointer that moves along the scale to indicate a value.

Digital indicators may be a display of numerals which change in fixed steps.

Chart Recorder

Chart recorders keep a record of the measurements over a period of time. The recorder may
use paper strips or polar charts. The paper moves one way and the marker pen moves at right
angles to this.
Plotters and Printers

Plotter draw graphs or charts. The pen recorders described above are types of plotters
specifically for recording a signal over a long time period. The term plotters usually refer to a
system where the paper is stationary and the pen is able to move in the x and y directions.

Alarms

The purpose of an instrument may be to set off an alarm such as bell, siren, flashing light, and
so on. They are switched on by the signal processor. An example is a smoke detector.

Computers

Computer technology is taking over many roles performed by traditional equipment. The signal
is processed into digital form, in other words into numbers.

 
Module 3 Quiz
Due
Sep 17 at 11:59pm
Points
10
Questions
1
Available
Sep 17 at 2:30pm - Sep 18 at 11:59pm
1 day
Time Limit
20 Minutes

Instructions
Direction: Answer the following to the best of your ability. You are given 20 minutes of time to finish your
activity. Good luck and Godbless. Stay safe as always so that we can see each again soon when
pandemic has end.

Attempt History
Attempt Time Score
LATEST Attempt 1
20 minutes 5 out of 10


Correct answers are hidden.

Score for this quiz:

5 out of 10
Submitted Sep 17 at 7:40pm
This attempt took 20 minutes.

Partial Question 1 5
/ 10 pts

Match the item according to the illustration.

        
Type of loop   Closed loop

Manipulated variable   Steam flow

Process type   Heating

Controlled variable   water temperature

Controller type   Proportional + Integral

Signal from the controller   Proportional + Integral

to control valve

Signal from the transmitter   Proportional + Derivativ

to controller

Disturbance   Leakage

Control valve   Controlled variable

opening/closing

Signal from the sensor   Proportional

Quiz Score:
5 out of 10
LIST OF COMPONENTS
QUANTITY COMPONENTS
1 Double-Acting Cylinder
2 One-way Flow Control Valve
1 5/2-way single-solenoid valve
1 Compressed air supply
PNEUMATIC CIRCUIT
DOUBLE-ACTING CYLINDER
ELECTRICAL CIRCUIT
DIRECT CONTROL
ELECTRICAL CIRCUIT
INDIRECT CONTROL
ELECTRICAL CIRCUIT
DOMINANT OFF LATCHING SWITCH
WHEN BOTH BUTTONS ARE PUSHED, THE
RELAY COIL IS NOT ENERGIZED.
ELECTRICAL CIRCUIT
DOMINANT ON LATCHING SWITCH
WHEN BOTH BUTTONS ARE PUSHED, THE
RELAY COIL IS ENERGIZED.
APPLICATION
• VERTICAL SWITCHING POINT FOR BRIQUETTES
LIST OF COMPONENTS
QUANTITY COMPONENTS
1 Double-Acting Cylinder
2 One-way Flow Control Valve
1 5/2-way single-solenoid valve
1 Compressed air supply
PNEUMATIC CIRCUIT
DOUBLE-ACTING CYLINDER
ELECTRICAL CIRCUIT
DIRECT CONTROL
ELECTRICAL CIRCUIT
INDIRECT CONTROL
AUTO-RETRACT
AUTO-RETRACT
4.1: Models for Instrument Systems
A mathematical model relates the input and output of a system or sub-system. In other words, it is a
formula relating the input and output. The instrument is usually drawn as a block with the input and
output shown. The mathematical model is written inside the block. The general symbol for signals is 
θ but specific symbols may be used. The suffix denotes the input and o the output.

When the input and output is a simple ratio, the model is just a number representing the ratio of
θo
output to input. It is often denoted by G especially if it is a gain. In such case G =  θ . If the input and
i

output have different units, then G has units also.

Sample Problem no. 4.1-1

Find the output if the input is 10 mW. The gain is a ratio and not in decibels.

Solution
θo
G=
θi

θo
50 = 10 mW

θo = 500 mW

Sample Problem no. 4.1-2

Find the output if the input is 50 C.

Solution
θo
G=
θi

μV θo
2 C
= 50 C

θo = 100 μ V

 
Some sensors have non-linear equations and we cannot represent the relationship with a simple
ratio so must use the full operation with a simple ratio so must use the full equation. For example, a
differential pressure flow meter has an equation

Flow rate = C (ΔP )1/2 

Where

C = constant

ΔP = differential pressure

Sample Problem no. 4.1-3

The input and output of the D.P. meter is related by the law 

Q = C (ΔP )1/2 

Where
3

Q = input flow rate, 

m

C = constant

ΔP = differential pressure
3

Determine the flow rate when ΔP = 250 Pa and C = 0.0004 m

s
.
Pa

Solution

Q = C (ΔP )1/2 
3

Q = 0.0004 m
s
(250)1/2 
Pa

Q = 0.00632
m

 
4.2: Models for Complete Systems
A complete instrument system is made up of several sub-systems connected in series. The best way
to deduce the input or output of a complete system is a step by step analysis of the information
passing through. Consider the case of a D.P. flow meter. The meter converts the flow rate into
differential pressure. The D.P. is then converted into current and the current is indicated on a meter.

Sample Problem no. 4.2-1

The equations for each sub-system in the above system are as follows.

Flowmeter ΔP = 2 x 106 Q2 where ΔP is in bar and Q is in

3
m
s
.

P/I converter I = 20 ΔP where I is a mA and p is in bars

Meter θ = 14 I where θ is in degrees and I in mA.

3

Calculate the output angle if the flow rate is 0.0004  ms

Solution

Step I

Calculate the differential pressure.

ΔP = 2 x 106 Q2 = 2 x 106 (0.0004 )2 = 0.32 bar

Step II

Calculate the current

I = 20 ΔP = 20 (0.32) = 6.4 mA

Step III

Calculate the output angle of the needle in the dial.

θ1 = 14 I = 14 (6.4 mA) = 89.6 o

θo
In many cases, each block may have a model that can be written as a ratio of output to input G =  .
θi

This is not always true. In such cases, we can easily work out the model for the complete system as
follows. Consider three systems with model equations G1, G2, and G3 connected in series.
By definition
θ1 θ2 θo
G1 = θi
, G1 = θ1
, G1 = θ2

θo
Now consider that if the three make up a single system the overall transfer function is Goverall =
θi

θ1 θ2 θo θo
If we multiply G1 x G2 x G3 we have ( θ ) ( θ ) ( θ ) = θ =Goverall
i 1 2 i
4.3: Instrument Errors
Instrument Errors

Any given instrument is prone to errors either due to aging or due to manufacturing tolerances.
Here are some of the common terms used when describing the performance of an instrument.

Range

The range of an instrument is regarded as the difference between the maximum and minimum
reading. For example, a thermometer that has a scale from 20 to 100C has a range of 80C.
This is also called the full scale deflection (f.s.d.).

Accuracy

The accuracy of an instrument is often stated as a percent(%) of the range or full scale
deflection. For example a pressure gauge with a range of 0 to 500 kPa and an accuracy of plus
or minus 2% f.s.d. could have an error of plus or minus 10 kPa. When the gauge is indicating
10 kPa the correct reading could be anywhere between 0 and 20 kPa and the actual error in
the reading could be 100%. When the gauge indicates 500 kPa the error could be 2% of the
indicated reading.

Sample Problem no. 4.3-1

Repeatability

If an accurate signal is applied and removed repeatedly to the system and it is found that the
indicated reading is different each time, the instrument has poor repeatability. This is often
caused by friction or some other erratic fault in the system.

Stability

Stability is most likely to occur in instruments involving electronic processing with a high degree
of amplification. A common cause of this is adverse environmental factors such as temperature
 and vibration. For example, a rise in temperature may cause a transistor to increase the flow of
current which in turn makes it hotter and so the effect grows, and the displayed reading drifts.
In extreme cases, the displayed value may jump about. This, for example, maybe caused by a
poor electrical connection affected by vibration.

Time Lag Error

In any instrument system, it must take time for a change in the input to show up on the
indicated output. This time may be very small or very large depending upon the system. This is
known as the response time of the system. If the indicated output is incorrect because it has
not yet responded to the change, then we have a time lag error.

A good example of a time lag error is an ordinary glass thermometer. If you plunge it into hot
water, it will take some time before the mercury reaches the correct level. If you read the
thermometer before it settled down, then you would have a time lag error.

Reliability

Most forms of equipment have a predicted life span. The reliable it is, the less chance it has of
going wrong during its expected life span. The reliability is hence a probability ranging from
zero (it will definitely fail) to 1.0 (it will definitely not fail).

Drift

This occurs when the input to the system is constant but the output tends to change slowly. For
example, when switched on, the system may drift due to the temperature change as it warms
up.
4.4: Instrument Calibration
Instrument Calibration

Most instruments contain a facility for making two adjustments. These are

The RANGE adjustment

The ZERO adjustment

In order to calibrate the instrument, an accurate gauge is required. This is likely to be a

secondary standard. Instruments calibrated as a secondary standard have themselves been
calibrated against a primary standard.

Procedure

An input representing the minimum gauge setting should be applied. The output should be
adjusted to be correct. Next, the maximum signal is applied. The range is then adjusted to give
the required output. This should be repeated until the gauge is correct at the minimum and
maximum values.

Calibration Errors

Range and Zero Errors

After obtaining the correct zero and range for the instrument, a calibration graph should be
produced. This involves plotting the indicated reading against the correct reading from the
standard gauge. This should be done in about ten steps with increasing signals and then with
reducing signals. Several forms of error could show up. If the zero or range is still incorrect the
error will appear as shown

Hysteresis and Zero Error

 Hysteresis is produced when the displayed values are too small for increasing signals and too
large for decreasing signals. This is commonly caused in mechanical instruments by loose
gears and linkages and friction. It occurs widely with things involving magnetization and
demagnetization.
 The calibration may be correct at the maximum and minimum values of the range but the graph
joining them may not be a straight line. This is a nonlinear error. The instrument may have
some adjustments for this and it may be possible to make it correct at mid-range as shown

 
LIST OF COMPONENTS
QUANTITY COMPONENTS
2 Double-Acting Cylinder
4 One-way Flow Control Valve
2 5/2-way single-solenoid valve
1 Compressed air supply
PNEUMATIC CIRCUIT
DOUBLE-ACTING CYLINDER
ELECTRICAL CIRCUIT
DIRECT CONTROL
ELECTRICAL CIRCUIT
INDIRECT CONTROL
PNEUMATIC CIRCUIT
DOUBLE-ACTING CYLINDER
DISPLACEMENT DIAGRAM
SEQUENCE

• A+ >> A1 >> B+ >> B1 >> B- >> B0 >> A- >> A0 >> RESET

ELECTRICAL CIRCUIT
SINGLE LOOP
ELECTRICAL CIRCUIT
WITH CONTINUITY