EDO UNIVERSITY IYAMHO

Department of Electrical/Electronic Engineering

EEE 315 Physical Electronics
Instructor: Engr. (Dr.) Amhenrior Henry E, email: [email protected]
Lectures: Tuesday, 8am – 10 am & Wednesday, 1pm – 2pm, Engineering Drawing Studio,
Phone: (+234) 8032107220; Office hours: Wednesday, 8.30am to 9.30am,
Office: First room by the left, right wing, ground floor, Engineering & Medical. Sc. Building.

Teaching Assistants: None

General overview of lecture: This lecture is intended to give students an introduction to the
course-physical electronics and the basic understanding of atoms and its structure. It covers the
basic definitions pertaining the particles in an atom, the various atomic models, mathematical
analysis of the Bohr model of an atom, the valence electron, free electrons in materials and line
spectral of hydrogen atom.

Prerequisites: Students are expected to have good knowledge of atomic physics/chemistry and be
familiar with some concepts such as free electrons, emissions, atomic model, excitation etc.
Students are also expected to have basic mathematical analytic skills in science and related areas.

Learning outcomes: At the end of this course, it is expected that students:

i. will have a better understanding of the electronic structure of electronic materials,
ii. will have a better understanding of the mathematical base of electronics,
iii. will be able to explain the basis for the classification of elements and materials,
iv. will be able to explain the difference between valence electron and a free electron,
v. will understand the meaning of intrinsic and extrinsic semiconductor as well as doping,
vi. will be able to explain the meaning of line spectral in relation to hydrogen atom.

Assignments: In this course, we shall have three (3) assignments for each student and a Test after
the midway of the semester. The assignments are systematically structured to prepare the students
for the Test and the examination at the end of the semester.

Grading: The continuous assessment of this course will have a total of 30% with attendance
accounting for 10%, assignment accounting for 10% and Test accounting for 10%. The semester
examination will account for 70% of the grade/mark.

Textbook: The recommended textbook for this class are as stated:

1. Title: Principles of Electronics
Authors: V.K. Mehta and Rohit Mehta
Publisher: S. Chand & Company Ram Nagar, New Delhi-110 055 (Multicolour Illustrative
Edition)

2. Title: Semiconductor Physical Electronics

Authors: Sheng S. Li

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 Publisher: Springer (Second Edition)
ISBN 10: 0-387-28893-7
ISBN 13: 978-0387-28893-2

3. Title: Semiconductor Physics and Devices- Basic Principles (Fourth Edition)

Author: Donald A. Neamen
Publisher: McGraw-Hill Publishers
ISBN: 1-558600-320-4

Main Lecture: Below is a description of the contents.

1. Introduction
Electronics as a word is gotten from the fact of the availability of electron in every material.
Therefore electronics is mainly about the use of these electrons in devices and machine to achieve
some particular result. Electronics is that aspect of electrical engineering that is saddled with the
use of the production, flow and control of electron (electricity) as well as their behavior and effects
in vacuum (empty compartment), gaseous environment, semiconductors and with devices using
such electrons. Electronics is usually associated with low voltage current.

Electronic devices
An electronic device is one that permits current to run through a material either in a vacuum or gas
or semiconductor. These devices exhibit certain important characteristics and actions that permits
their use in a certain ways in various industries.

Common function/behaviour of electronic devices

(i) Rectification. This is the transformation of alternating signals usually referred to as AC such
as power, voltage current etc. into a direct current signals. These transformation is usually with
high efficiency. Example of such a device is the diode.
(ii) Amplification. This is a way by which the strength of a signal is increase from one level to
another e.g. from a weak signal to a strong signal. This usually achieve by electronic device known
as amplifier. An example of such a device that can amplify is the transistor in a common emitter
configuration.
(iii) Control. Electronic devices are able to guide and monitor the behavior of some other devices
by regulating some of the properties of those devices find wide applications in automatic control.
The control of current, voltage, frequency etc. by electronic devices can be used to control the
action of some other devices as the motor
(iv) Signal attenuation. Electronic device that can act on an input signal to reduce the strength or
power of a signal is called an attenuator. In an attenuator, the output signal strength is lower than
the input signal.

2. Atoms and Their Structure

Every object or material is made up of very minute particles known as atoms. The atoms are the
smallest entity and the unit of all matters. The atom is made up of a nucleus with positive charge
proton located at the center of the atom called nucleus and moving around it in an orbit is the
negatively charged particles known as the electrons. Also located at the nucleus of the atom is the
neutron which is no charge. In other to have a good understanding of the principles of current and

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voltage and their behavior, a reasonable fundamental knowledge of the atom and its structure is
needed. The easiest form of atom is that of the hydrogen which is basically composed of one
proton and one electron.

Figure 1: Structure of an atom

(Source: Dr. Ibrahim Aljubouri, Engineering Collage Electrical Engineering Dep)

(a) Nucleus. It is located at the core part of an atom and holds the protons and the neutrons. The
proton is particle that is positively charged, while the neutron is a particle that has no charge, but
possesses a mass that is the same as that of the proton. This make the nucleus of an atom to be
entirely positive in charge. The total number of protons and neutrons is the atomic weight. The
electrons is of negligible weight in relation to the weight of protons or neutrons.

Therefore, Atomic weight = no. of protons + no. of neutrons

(b) The Orbit (Shell). This is the outer portion of the atom which contains only the electrons. The
electron has a negative charge with a negligible mass. This charge is equal and opposite to that of
the proton. Again, in an ordinary condition, electrons are equal to proton in an atom. Therefore,
the atomic number is the number of electrons or protons in an atom. The revolving numbers of
electron in an orbit is mathematically given as 2n2.

Where n = number of the orbit in an atom.

Structure of Elements
It is an established fact that the atom comprise of three basic particles namely the proton, the
neutron and the electron. The variation in the properties and behavior of various elements is a
result of the difference in the number as well as the arrangement of these atomic particles within
the various atoms. For example, the arrangement of copper atom varies significantly from that of
carbon and so there is a difference in the properties of the two element.

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 Figure 2: Structure of copper atom
(Source: Dr. Ibrahim Aljubouri, Engineering Collage Electrical Engineering Dep)

The atomic structure can be easily built up if we know the atomic weight and atomic number of
the element. Thus taking the case of copper atom,
Atomic weight = 64
Atomic number = 29
Therefore, No. of protons = No. of electrons = 29
and No. of neutrons = 64 - 29 = 35

Copper is about the about commonest metal in use in the industries especially in those that deal
with electrical and electronics devices. An analysis of the atomic structure of copper will show
why it is versatile in industrial applicability. From Figure 2.2, it possess 29 electrons orbiting the
nucleus, and the last electron (29th electron) stands alone in its last shell, the 4th shell
Note
1. The 4th shell can contain a total of 2n2 = 2(4)2 = 32 electrons, but unfortunately this shell
is having only a single electron. This renders the outermost shell to be incomplete.
2. This makes the atom to be unstable as atoms with complete octet (in line with 2n2) are
usually stable and therefore can react with other atoms and element under certain
conditions.
3. This particular electron in the outermost shell is far from the nucleus with less exerting
force from the nucleus as compare with the electrons in the lower shells closer to the
nucleus. This force on the outermost orbit is given by Coulomb’s law as follows:
𝑄 𝑄
𝐹 = 𝑘 𝑟1 2 2 (N)
Where F is in newton (N),
k = a constant = 9.0 x 109 N·m2/C2,
Q1 and Q2 are the charges in coulombs
r = distance between the two charges in meters.

The above equation shows that the coulombic force between the nucleus and the electron in the
outermost shell is inversely proportional to the distance between the two particles. The implication

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of this is that as the distance between them increases, the force F become weaker in holding the
electron to the atom. So, when a little external force is applied to the outermost shell electron by
way of absolving enough energy from the environment, it will leave the parent atom by breaking
the weak force from the nucleus to become a free electron. There are nearly 1.4 x 1024 free
electrons in 1 cubic in. of copper at room temperature. Atoms of different elements exhibit varying
degree of properties depending on the arrangement of the electrons in the shells and the number of
electrons in the outermost shell.

Basic Parameter of Electron (Charged Particles)

The basic parameters of an electron is as follows
(i) Charge on an electron, e = 1.602 x10-19 c
(ii) Mass of an electron, m = 9.11 x10-31 kg
(iii) Radius of an electron, r = 1.9 x 10-15 m
(iv) Radius of an atom, r = 10-15 m
(v)The ratio e/m of an electron is 1.77 x10-11 c/kg.

The implication of this is that the mass of an electron is very little as compared to its charge. As a
result of this property of electron, the mobility of the electron is very high and can be easily
influenced by both the electric and the magnetic fields.

1. Valence Electrons
The valence electrons are the electrons in the outermost or last shell in an atom. The outermost
shell usually can accommodate a maximum of 8 except the first shell. The force of attractions
between the valence electrons and the nucleus is usually smaller than the force between the lower
level octet shells.

On the basis of the above,

(i) If the valence electrons in an atom is less than half octet, the element is most cases a metal and
a conductor.

(ii) If the valence electrons in an atom is greater than half octet, the element is most cases a non-
metal and an insulator.

(iii) If the valence electrons in an atom is half an octet (i.e. exactly 4), the material stands in
between metals and non-metals.

2. Free Electrons
Valence electron which moves randomly in an atom are called free electrons. The diagrammatic
representation is as shown in Figure.

The free electrons can be removed easily from the atom by free electron acquiring a little amount
of external energy. The free electrons determine to a very large extent a material’s electrical
conductivity.

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 (a) Free electron in an un-energised material (b) Free electron in conduction

Figure 3: Free electrons

2.2. Atomic Models
(a) Thomson’s Atomic Model
The model postulated the following:

 An atom looks like a sphere with a mass of positive charge and the negatively charged
electrons embedded in the sphere.
 Both the positively and negatively charged particles are equal in magnitude and this makes
the atom to be electrically neutral.
 This atomic model present an atom as a spherical plum pudding.

Limitations of Thomson’s Atomic Model

 The atomic model did not show how the positively charged mass holds the negatively
charged electrons in its mass. Again, it did not explain the stability of the atom.
 The model did not show or discuss the nucleus of an atom.
 It could not explain the Rutherford scattering experiment.

(b) Rutherford atomic model

This model postulated the following

 An atom is made up of particles which are positively charged. Most parts of the atomic
mass was centered in a very little portion of the atom called the nucleus. This nucleus was
later discovered to consist of the neutron and proton.
 The nucleus of an atom is encircled by electrons which are negatively charged and revolves
round the nucleus at the center in a fixed circular pathway called the orbit with a very high
speed.
 Like the Thomson model, it explained the electrical neutrality of an atom as the electrons
are negatively charged particle and the densely concentrated nucleus is positively charged.
An electrostatic force of attractions holds the nucleus and electrons in the orbit together.
 The nucleus size of the atom is very little as compare to the size of an atom in totality.

(c) Bohr’s Atomic Model

Neils Bohr, a Danish Physicist in 1913 gave an atomic model that is summarized as follows:
i. An atom is made up nucleus which is positively charged and a circular orbit with electrons
of negative charge revolving in the orbit.
ii. The electrons are only permitted in a certain orbit (n = 1, 2, 3 …) i.e. orbits of certain radii
are allowed.

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 iii. The atom can only possess a certain level of discrete energies i.e. the energy of the orbit is
quantized.
iv. The electron stationary state determined by the fact that the angular momentum of the
electron in this state is quantized and it is an integral multiple of h/2π. Thus

𝑛ℎ
𝑚𝑣𝑟 =
2𝜋
where n is an integer.

Bohr’s Atomic Model Calculations

In deriving these equations, let
εo = Permittivity of free space = 8.854 x10-12 farad/m
h = Planck’s constant = 6.625 x 10-34 J-s
Z = Atomic number (For Hydrogen Z = 1)
m = Mass of electron
n = Number of orbit
k = Constant
v = Linear velocity
r = Distance of electron from the nucleus

1. Radius of orbit
𝜀𝑜 𝑛2 ℎ2 𝑛 2 ℎ2
𝑟= ≈
𝜋𝑚𝑒 2 4𝜋2 𝑚𝑘𝑍𝑒 2
Where n = 1, 2, 3 …

2. Energy
Potential Energy = Coulomb Potential
𝑒2
𝑈=−
4𝜋𝜀𝑜 𝑟
Kinetic Energy
1
= 𝑚𝑣 2
2
Total Energy (TE)

𝑚𝑒 4
𝐸𝑛 = − 8𝜀 2 𝑛2 ℎ 2
𝑜
3. Wave number

1 1 1
= 𝑅𝐻 (𝑛 2 − 𝑛 2 )
𝜆 1 2

𝑚𝑒 4
𝑅𝐻 = 8𝜀 2 ℎ3 𝑐
= 10.97 × 106 𝑚−1 this is called Rydberg’s constant
𝑜
1
Wave number 𝑣 =
𝜆
4. Total distance covered by electron in one revolution 𝑑 = 2𝜋𝑟

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 And
𝜀𝑜 𝑛 2 ℎ 2
From (3) 𝑟=
𝜋𝑚𝑒 2

2𝜀𝑜 𝑛2 ℎ2
∴𝑑= 𝑚𝑒 2

2.4 The Hydrogen Line spectrum

Radiations from atoms of low-pressured gas under the influence of intense potential difference
consisting of a set of distinct electromagnetic wavelength is referred to as line spectrum. It is
essentially a movement of electron from higher energy levels to lower energy levels in an atom. A
set of distinct wavelengths arriving an energy level from a higher level are known as "series." This
is as shown in the Figure below.

Figure 4: hydrogen atom line spectral

The Limitation of the Bohr model of one-electron atom

1. Bohr’s model can only account for an atom that possesses one electron (hydrogen). It could
not validly be extended to a two or more electron atoms to arrive at the same analysis from
those of hydrogen.
2. The model fails to account for the mutual actions between electrons in the same atom.
3. The model could not account for the uncertainty principle.

Solved Example
Determine the energy of an electron moving from n= 3 to n= 1. Comment on the direction of
movement of the energy involved.

Solution:
1 1 1 1
∆𝐸 = 𝐸𝑅 (𝑛 2 − 𝑛 2 ) = 2.18 × 10−18 𝐽 (𝑛 2 − 𝑛 2 )
2 1 𝑖 𝑓
1 1
∆𝐸 = 2.18 × 10−18 𝐽 ( 2 − 2 )
3 1

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 1
∆𝐸 = 2.18 × 10−18 𝐽 ( − 1)
9
∆𝐸 = −1.94 × 10−18 𝐽

Energy was radiated as the value of the energy is negative in sign and electrons transited from a
higher energy level (n= 3) to lower energy level (n =1). As a result, energy is lost.

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