Direct Time Study
Sections:
1. Direct Time Study Procedure
Chapter 13
2. Number of Work Cycles to be Timed
3. Performance Rating
4. Time Study Equipment
1
Direct Time Study - Defined
Also known as “stopwatch time study”
Direct and continuous observation of a task using a
stopwatch or other timekeeping device to record the time
taken to accomplish the task
While observing and recording the time, an appraisal of
the worker’s performance level is made to obtain the
normal time for the task
The data are then used to compute a standard time for
the task after adding the PFD allowances
It is much more appropriate for repetitive tasks (batch
and mass production)
2
Direct Time Study Procedure
1. Define and document the standard method
2. Divide the task into work elements
Steps 3&4 are performed simultaneously, several times.
3. Time the work elements to obtain the observed time Tobs
4. Evaluate worker’s pace relative to standard performance to
obtain normal time Tn
Called performance rating (PR)
Tn = Tobs(PR)
Then the values collected in steps 3 and 4 are averaged.
5. Apply allowance factor to compute standard time
Tstd = Tn(1 + Apfd)
3
1- Document the Standard Method
We first start with methods engineering study: determine the
“one best method”
o Seek worker’s advice if possible
Documentation should include:
• All of the steps in the method (hand & body motions)
• Special tools, gauges, equipment and equipment settings (e.g.,
feeds and speeds) if applicable
• workplace layout, working conditions, even a videotape of the
method
• Irregular elements and their frequency
• You should guarantee that all the items given above are
standardized 4
13.1
Form to document
the standard
method
5
2- Divide Task into Work Elements
Work element is Series of motion activities that are grouped
logically together
Has a unified purpose in the task
Guidelines for defining the work elements (see page 346):
• Each work element should consist of a logical group of motion elements
• Beginning point of one element should be the end point of the preceding element
• Each element should have a readily identifiable end point
• Separate irregular elements (non-frequent element) from regular elements
• Separate manual elements from machine elements
• Separate internal elements (during machine work) from external elements
6
3- Time the Work Elements
Each element should be timed over several
work cycles to obtain a reliable average
Stopwatch timing methods:
1. Snapback timing method Flyback –
stopwatch is reset to zero at the start of
each work element
2. Continuous timing method – stopwatch is
allowed to run continuously throughout the
duration of the work cycle
7
Advantages of Each Timing Method
Advantages of snapback method:
Analyst can readily see how element times vary from
cycle to cycle
No subtraction necessary to obtain individual
element times
Advantages of continuous method:
Elements cannot be omitted by mistake
Regular and irregular elements can be more readily
distinguished
Manipulation and resetting of the stopwatch is
reduced
8
13.2
Direct Time
Study Form
9
4- Performance Rating
Analyst judges the performance or pace of the worker
relative to the definition of standard performance used by
the organization
Standard (normal) performance PR = 100%
(Standard)
Slower pace than standard PR < 100% (poorer
performance)
Faster pace than standard PR > 100% (Better
performance)
Normal time Tn = Tobs(PR)
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Performance Rating (leveling)
Most common performance rating method is based on
speed or pace
Elemental rating vs. overall rating
• If the work cycle is relatively short (less than 1 minute) and the work
content is similar throughout the cycle, then rating the entire cycle
(overall rating) makes sense
• Otherwise elemental rating is more appropriate.
11
5- Apply Allowances
A PFD allowance is added to the normal time
to compute the standard time
Tstd = Tn (1 + Apfd)
where Apfd = allowance factor for personal time,
fatigue, and delays
The function of the allowance factor is to inflate
the value of standard time in order to account
for the various reasons why the worker loses
time during the shift
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Example 1
Given: A direct time study was taken on a manual work
element using the snapback method. The regular cycle
consisted of three elements, a, b, and c. Element d is an
irregular element performed every five cycles.
Work element a b c d
Observed time (min) 0.56 0.25 0.50 1.10
Performance rating 100% 80% 110% 100%
Determine
(a) normal time
(b) standard time for the cycle using Apfd=0.15
Solution:
(a) Normal time:
Tn = 0.56(1.00) + 0.25(0.80) + 0.50(1.10)
+ 1.10(1.0)/5 = 1.53 min
(b) Standard time:
Tstd = 1.53(1 + 0.15) = 1.76 min 13
Example 2
The snapback method was used in a direct time study of a
task that include a machine cycle. Elements a, b, c and d are
performed by the operator, and element m is a machine semi-
automatic cycle. Element b is an internal element performed
simultaneously with element m, and element d is an irregular
element performed once every 15 cycles. Observed times
and performance ratings are given in the table below, the
PFD allowance is 15%, and the machine allowance is 20%.
Determine (a) normal time, (b) standard time for the work
cycle.
Work element a b c d
Observed time, operator (min) 0.22 0.65 0.47 0.75
Performance rating 100% 80% 100% 100%
Machine element m
Observed time, machine (min) idle 1.56 idle idle
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Example 2
Solution:
(a) Normal time:
Tn = 0.22(1.00) + Max {0.65(0.80), 1.56} + 0.47(1.10) + 0.75(1.0)/15
= 0.22 + Max {0.52, 1.56} + 0.47 + 0.05
= 2.30 min
(b) Standard time:
Tstd = (0.22 + 0.47 + 0.05)(1 + 0.15)
+ Max {0.52(1+0.15), 1.56(1+0.20)}
= 0.85 + 1.87
= 2.72 min 15
Cycle-to-Cycle Time Variations
Result from the following:
1. Variations in hand and body motions
2. Variation in the placement of parts and tools
3. Variations in the quality of the starting work units
4. Operator mistakes
5. Timing errors by analyst
6. Variations in worker pace
16
Number of Cycles to be Timed
Let Te – work element time
x =individual values of observed times collected during the study
x = observed average value of the element time
n: number of observations of an element that are needed
k = acceptable fraction of x
Objective: Identify the true value of Te within a certain confidence
interval.
We want to be 100(1-)% confident that Te lies within ±10% of Te.
After several cycles, calculate sample standard deviation s
x x
2
s=
n 1
Using the Student t distribution,
2
t / 2 s
n=
kx 17
Example 3
A time study analyst has collected 10 readings
on a particular work element of interest and
would like to consider how many more cycles
to time. Based on the sample, the mean time
for the elements is 0.40 min and the sample
standard deviation is 0.07 min. At a 95%
confidence level, how many cycles should be
timed to ensure the actual element time is
within ± 10% of the mean?
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Example: solution
We have 10-1=9 degrees of freedom in the t distribution, t/2 at the
95% confidence level (/2=0.025) is 2.262.
2 2
t / 2 s 2.262(0.07)
n n 15.7 16
kx (0.1)(0.40)
Since 10 cycles have already been timed, the analyst needs data
from 6 more cycles.
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Chracteristics of a Good Rating System
Consistency among tasks
A worker who can perform at 125% on one task should be
able to do the same on other tasks
Consistency among analysts
Easy to explain and easy to understand
Based on a well-defined concept of standard performance
Observe several cycles and different workers before rating
Rate performance during the observation
Worker notification
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4. Time Study Equipment
1. Stopwatch
Mechanical stopwatches
Electronic stopwatches
Scales
1.Decimal minutes
2.Decimal hours
2. Video cameras
Provides visual and audio record of method used by
worker
3. Computerized techniques in direct time study
Use of PCs and personal digital assistants (PDAs)
With this PDA, you can study
elements, time, performance rate, and
statistical confidence intervals can be
created, edited, managed, and
downloaded to a spreadsheet 21
More Examples
The standard time is to be established for a manual work cycle
by direct time study. The observed time for the cycle averaged
4.80 min. The worker’s performance was rated at 90% on all
cycles observed. After eight cycles, the worker must exchange
parts containers, which took 1.60 min, rated at 120%. The PFD
allowance for this class of work is 15%.
Determine (a) the normal time and (b) the standard time for the
cycle. (c) If the worker produces 123 work units during an 8-
hour shift, what is the worker’s efficiency?
Solution:
(a) Normal time Tn = 4.80(0.90) + 1.60(1.20)/8
= 4.32 + 0.24 = 4.56 min
(b) Standard time Tstd = 4.56(1 + 0.15) = 5.244 min
(c) Standard production rate = 8(60)/5.244= 91.5 ≈ 92 units/shift
Worker efficiency Ew = 123/92 = 1.34 = 134%
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More Examples
The continuous timing method in direct time study was used to
obtain the element times for a worker-machine task as indicated
in the table below. Element c is a machine-controlled element
and the time is constant. Elements a, b, d, e, and f are
operator-controlled and external to the machine cycle, and were
performance rated at 80%. If the machine allowance is 25%,
and the worker allowance for personal time, fatigue, and delays
is 15%.
Determine (a) the normal time and (b) standard time for the
cycle. (c) If the worker completed 360 work units working 7.2
hours on an 8-hour shift, what was the worker’s efficiency?
Element a b c d e f
Observed time (min) 0.18 0.30 0.88 1.12 1.55 1.80
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More Examples
Solution:
(a) Observed times must be determined for each element:
Observed time for element b = 0.30 – 0.18 = 0.12 min
Observed time for element c = 0.88 – 0.30 = 0.58 min, etc.
Element a b c d e f
Observed time (min) 0.18 0.30 0.88 1.12 1.55 1.80
Tobs (min) 0.18 0.12 0.58 0.24 0.43 0.25
Tn (worker) = 0.80(0.18+0.12+0.24+0.43+0.25) = 0.976 min
Tn (whole cycle) = 0.976 + 0.58 = 1.556 min
(b) Tstd = 0.976(1 + 0.15) + 0.58(1 + 0.25) = 1.847 min
(c) Standard production = 8(60)/(1.847) = 260 units
Ew = 360/260 = 1.385 = 138.5%
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