Introduction to Work Measurement

Sections:
1. Time Standards and How They Are
Chapter 12 Determined
2. Prerequisites for Valid Time Standards
3. Allowances in Time Standards

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 Some Definitions
 Work measurement – evaluation of a task
in terms of the time that should be allowed by
an average worker to perform the task

• 4 techniques

• Focus on human work

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 Some Definitions
 Standard time (allowed time) – amount of time
that should be allowed for an average worker to
process one work unit using the standard method
and working at normal pace

• It includes some additional time is called allowance to

provides for the workers:

- To provide for the workers personal needs

- To reduce fatigue
- Unavoidable delay during the shift

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 Some Definitions
 Time study – all the ways in which time is
analyzed in work situations.

 How much time it should take to accomplish a

given task.

 Both terms (work measurement and time

study) can be used interchangeably.

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When Are Time Standards Beneficial?
 Characteristics of industrial situations in which
time standards would be beneficial:
1. Low productivity: significant opportunities for
improvement

2. Repeat orders: once the time standard is set for the

first, it can be used for successive ones
3. Long production runs: reduced average cost of work
measurement

4. Repetitive work cycles: work measurement can be

justified more readily

5. Short cycle times: requires less time to set standards

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 Functions of Time Standards

 Defines a fair day’s work.

 They provide a means to convert workload into staffing and

equipment needs

 They allow alternative methods to be compared objectively

 They provide a basis for wage incentives and evaluation of

worker performance

 They provide time data for:

o Production planning and scheduling
o Cost estimating
o Material requirements planning
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 Methods to Determine Time Standards

 Vary in terms of
 accuracy and reliability of the values derived from the method
 amount of time required to apply the corresponding method

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Methods to Determine Time Standards
 Estimation
 Judgment of a person who is familiar with the job
 Subjective
 Least accurate method

 Historical records
 Records on the actual times and production quantities for
previous identical or similar job orders - “Time card”
 Average time per part
 Improvement over estimates
 Limitation: No indication of efficiency measures

 Work measurement techniques

 Time consuming
 More accurate than estimation and historical records

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 Work Measurement Techniques
1. Direct time study (DTS)

2. Predetermined motion time system (PMTS)

3. Standard data systems (SDS)

4. Work sampling

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Task Hierarchy & Work Measurement

Pyramidal Structure of Work

Work measurement techniques measure

work at different levels of this hierarchy

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 1. Direct Time Study
 Direct observation of a task using a stopwatch to record the
time taken to accomplish a task.

 The task is usually divided into work elements and each work
element is timed seperately.

 During the observation, the analyst evaluates the worker’s

pace - performance rating

 Normal time
Tn=Tobs(PR)
where Tn = normal time, min;
Tobs= observed time, min;
PR = performance rating of the worker’s pace

 Standard time
Tstd =Tn(1+Apfd)

Apfd = allowance factor for personal time, fatigue and delay 11

2. Predetermined Motion Time Systems
 A database of normal times of basic motion elements
(therbligs) such as reach, grasp, move etc.

 Conditions under which the motion elements (work variables)

are performed are important.

 Example: normal time for object reach

 Distance moved
 Weight of the object being moved

 The analyst list all of the basic motion elements that comprise
the task; then normal times for basic motion elements are
summed up to obtain the normal time for the task.

 Advantages:
 No need for performance rating
 Can be applied before production starts

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 3. Standard Data Systems
 A compilation of normal time values for work elements
used in the tasks performed in facility

 Used to establish time standards for tasks composed of

work elements similar to those in the database

 Source of data: direct time study, PMTS, work sampling,

historical data

 Effect of work variables should be included

 Tables
 Charts
 Mathematical equations

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 4. Work Sampling
 A random sampling technique to estimate the proportions of
time spent in different activities

 Identify activities clearly.

 Example: machine setup, production, idleness

 Multiple subjects (entities) can be included

 Observations
 Random: minimize bias
 Large in number: to achieve statistical accuracy

 Objectives:
 Setting time standards
 Estimating resource utilization
 Determining allowance factors

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 Computerized Work Measurement
(work study methods)

 Facilitates collection of data

 Performs routine computations

 Organizes time standards files and databases

 Retrieves data in predetermined motion time

systems and standard data systems

 Assists in the preparation of the documentation

 Methods descriptions
 Reports
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 Prerequisites for Valid Time Standards
Time to perform a task depends on various factors:
• Worker (gender, strength, physical capability and mental abilities etc.),
• Worker’s pace (speed, skill, experience),
• Method used (hand tools, equipment, hand & body motion, wok
environment)
• Work unit (nature of work or task)
Factors that must be standardized before a time standard can be set
(except for the worker)

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 Average Worker & Standard
Performance
 Average worker
 is a person who usually perform tasks similar to the task
being measured.

 Gender factor, if the work is performed mostly by men ( not

women), then the average worker is male ( not female)
 Age factor

 Have learned the task (experience and skill), practiced

and proficient at it

 Is capable of performing the task consistently

throughout the shift with safety condition and without
fatigue

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 Standard (Normal) Performance
 Standard Performance is a pace (quantity & quality) of
working that can be maintained by an average worker
throughout an entire work shift without harmful effects on
the worker’s health or physical well-being.

 Normal performance refers to 100% pace while the

worker is working without including the breaks period or
any delay.

 Standard performance refers to 100% pace with the

breaks period and any other delay during the shift.

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 Normal time / Standard time
 Normal time: Time it takes to perform a task under the
normal (standard) (100%) performance

 Normal time is also called: Normalized time OR basic

time

 Normal time does not include allowances for time losses

(breaks or delay)

 Standard time minus allowances time = Normal time

 Standard time: Normal time + allowance

Normal time (1 + Apfd)

Tstd =Tn(1+Apfd) 19
 Distribution of Worker Performance
Variations among workers →performance variations

Worker performance is expressed in terms of

daily output

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 More on Standard Performance
 Standard performance is commonly defined to
be a pace that can be readily attained by the
majority of workers

 Companies want most workers to be able to

achieve the standard performance easily.
 A typical policy is to define standard
performance so that an average worker is
able to work at a pace that is 130% of that
pace
o Thus, most workers are able to easily
achieve standard performance

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 How a Standard Time is Defined
Distribution of worker performance, indicating
how standard time is defined so that it can be
readily achieved by most workers

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4.80*1.30 8 * 60 / 100
 Standard Method
 Determining the optimum method for processing a work unit

 “One best method”: the safest, quickest, most productive,

and least stressful to the worker

 Must include all of the details on how the task is performed,

including:
o Procedure - hand and body motions
o Tools (hand tools, power tools, fixtures and gauges)
o Equipment
o Workplace layout (what are the locations of the parts, tools)
o Irregular work
o Working conditions (is the work performed outside or inside)
o Setup (what setup of physical tools & equipment are required)

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 Allowances in Time Standards
 Normal time is adjusted by an allowance factor
Apfd to obtain the standard time

 Purpose of allowance factor (Apfd) is to

compensate for lost time due to work
interruptions and other reasons during the shift.

 Standard time:
Tstd = Tn(1 + Apfd)

where pfd = personal time, fatigue, and delays

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 Reasons for Lost Time at Work
Work-related interruptions Non-work-related interruptions

 Machine breakdowns  Personal needs (e.g.,

 Waiting for materials or parts restroom breaks)
 Receiving instructions from  Talking to co-workers about
foreman matters unrelated to work
 Talking to co-workers about  Lunch break (not included in
work-related matters Apfd)
 Rest breaks for fatigue  Smoke break
 Cleaning up at end of shift  Drink break
 Personal telephone call

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 PFD Allowance (Cont.)

 Personal time
 Rest room breaks, phone calls, water fountain stops, cigarette
breaks (5% typical)
 For example: A larger value will be approporiate if the work
environment is hot

 Fatigue (Physical fatigue OR Mental fatigue)

 Rest allowance to overcome fatigue due to work-related low or
medium stresses and conditions (5% or more)
 For example: If the work is physiologically very demanding
(heavy workload), then relaxation time should be allowed
periodically for the body to recover (in this case use 20%
allowance)

 Delays
 Random, unavoidable interruptions
 Machine breakdowns, foreman instructions (5% typical)
 Usually management is responsible for these delays.
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 Calculate the PFD Allowance Time
(Relaxation allowances)
 Direct calculation includes:

Personal needs 5%

5%
(Low or Medium
PFD Allowance Fatigue Fatigue)
(Physical or
(% of normal time) Mental)
20%
(High Fatigue)

Delay 5%

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 Factors causing Fatigue in Workers

1- Physical Factors
• Standing, Abnormal body position (Awkward posture), Use of force,
Expenditure of muscular energy

2- Mental & cognitive Factors

• Concentration & attention, mental strain, Monotony, Eye strain, Noise

3- Environmental & work Factors

• Poor lighting, Noise, Fumes, Heat, Atmospheric conditions (Ventilation), Dusts,

Dirt, Wet

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 Other Types of Allowances
 There are other reasons for adding allowances, which are not
as common as PFD allowances. They are applied in addition to
Apfd

 Contingency ِ‫ طوارئ‬allowance
 Additional allowance due to a problem with the task (e.g., raw
material problem ) - not greater than 5%
 Temporary basis – after solving the underlying problem, it will
disappear

 Policy allowance: They are based on company policy

 Machine allowance - (set by company policy as a part of the wage
incentives.)

 Training allowance – for teaching new workers (for workers whose

responsibilities include teaching other workers)

 Learning allowance – learning a new task (for workers who are

learning a new job, or new employees)

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 Contingency Allowances

Problem area Problems and examples

Materials or Starting materials or parts are out of specification, and extra time is
parts needed to correct the nonconformance (e.g., oversized casting that
requires an extra machining pass or slower feed rate).
Process Manufacturing process is not in statistical control, and additional
time is required to inspect every piece rather than inspect on a
sampling basis.
Equipment Equipment is malfunctioning or breaking down more frequently
than what is provided by the unavoidable delay factor, and
additional time is needed to compensate the worker to make
adjustments, lubricate the machine more frequently, or other extra
task(s) not included in the standard time.

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 How to Allow for Lost Time
 Two approaches used by companies:

1. Scheduled rest breaks during the shift

o Typical - one 15-minute break in mid-morning and
another in mid-afternoon

2. A PFD allowance factor is added to the normal time

o This allows the worker to take a break on his/her
own time
o PFD is called Relaxation Allowances represented
in % value
o Relaxation allowance OR PFD are calculated to
allow the worker to recover from fatigue

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 Example: Standard time
 Problem # 12.3 (page 340)
The ABC Company uses a standard data system to set time standards. One of the time study
analysts listed the three work elements for a new task to be performed in the shop and then
determined the normal time values to be 0.73 min, 2.56 min, and 1.01 min. The company uses
a PFD allowance factor of 16%. Determine the standard time for the task.

Solution:
Tstd = Tn(1 + Apfd)

Normal time Tn = 0.73 + 2.56 + 1.01 = 4.30 min

Standard time Tstd = 4.30(1 + 0.16) = 4.988 min

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 Example: PFD Allowance factor
 Problem # 12.5 (page 341)
In the WS&FP plant, workers punch in at 8:00 a.m. and punch out at 5:00 p.m. The
labor-management agreement allows one hour for lunch, which is not counted as part of the
8-hour shift. In determining the allowance for computing time standards, two 12 min breaks are
included (personal time and fatigue), one in the morning and one in the afternoon; and 35 min
are included as lost time due to interruptions and delays. What PFD allowance factor should
be added to the normalized time to account for these losses in the computation of a standard
time, so that if the worker works at standard performance, he/she will earn exactly eight
standard hours?

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 Example: PFD Allowance factor
 Solution

Tstd = Tn(1 + Apfd)

Tstd = 8 h = 8 x 60 = 480 min

Allowance time = 2x12 + 35 = 59 min
Tn = 480 – 59 = 421 min
480 = 421 (1 + Apfd)
Apfd = 0.14 (or 14%)

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 PROBLEM # 12.7 (Page 341)

The work shift at the ABC Company runs from 7:30 a.m. to
4:15 p.m. with a 45 min break for lunch from 11:30 to 12:15 p.m. that
does not count as part of the work shift (workers are not paid for
this time). The company provides two 12-min rest breaks during
working hours (paid time), one in the morning and one in the
afternoon. The company also allows 25 min per day for personal
needs (paid time). In addition, a work sampling study has shown
that on average, unavoidable delays in the plant result in 20 min lost
time per worker per day (paid time). Determine the PFD allowance
factor for the following two management policies on allowances:
(a) the two 12-min breaks are both scheduled breaks that all
workers take at the same time (not included in the allowance time)
and (b) the two 12-min breaks are included in the allowance factor
so that workers can take their breaks whenever they please.
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 PROBLEM # 12.7 (Page 341)

Solution
(a) Allowance time = 25 min (personal) + 20 min (delay) = 45 min
Rest Breaks = 2x12 = 24 min (excluded from standard time)
Standard time (Tstd) = 480 – 24 = 456 min
Normal time (Tn) = 456 – 45 = 411 min
Tstd = Tn (1+ Apd)
Allowance factor Apd = (456/411) – 1 = 0.1095 = 10.95%

(b) Allowance time = 25 min (personal) + 20 min (delay) = 45 min

Rest Breaks = 2x12 = 24 min (included in standard time)
Standard time (Tstd) = 480 min
Normal time (Tn) = 480 – 45 – 24 = 411 min
Tstd = Tn (1+ Apfd)
Allowance factor Apfd = (480/411) – 1 = 0.1679 = 16.79%
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