ADVANCES IN FOOD RESEARCH. VOL.

32

CHEMISTRY OF MAILLARD REACTIONS: RECENT STUDIES

ON THE BROWNING REACTION MECHANISM AND THE
DEVELOPMENT OF ANTIOXIDANTS AND MUTAGENS

MITSUO NAMIKI

Department of Food Science and Technology

Nagoya University
Nagoya, Japan 464

I. Introduction
11. Browning Reaction Mechanism
A. Introduction
B. Reactions during the Initial Stage
C. Sugar Fragmentation during the Initial Stage and a New Browning Reaction
Mechanism
D. Reactions during the Intermediate Stage
E. Nonsugar Maillard Browning Reaction
F. Chemistry of Melanoidins
111. Antioxidants and the Maillard Reaction
A. Introduction
B. Reaction Conditions for Induction of Antioxidative Activity
C. Structure-Antioxidative Activity Relationship
D. Application
IV. Mutagen Formation
A. F'yrolysate Mutagens
B. Mutagens of Aqueous Maillard Reactions
C. Nitroso Mutagens
D. Antimutagenesis
V. Trends in Continuing Research
A. Browning Reaction Mechanism
B. Reactants
C. Antioxidants
D. Mutagens
References

1 I5
Copyright 0 1988 Academic Press, Inc.
All nghts of reproduction in any form reserved.
116 MITSUO NAMIKI

I. INTRODUCTION

The interaction between amino and carbonyl compounds resulting in complex

changes in biological and food systems, called the “amino-carbonyl reaction,”
has exerted a strong influence on human existence throughout the ages as evi-
denced in, among other phenomena, the formation of humus on the earth’s
surface and the browning and flavor changes associated with the processing and
cooking of foods. Although unaware of this reaction prior to its discovery, in
1912, by Louis-Camille Maillard, its importance was nonetheless felt, most
often in the enhancement of food flavor by heating treatment (i.e., cooking) and
sometimes in inferior food quality (e.g., browning).
As mentioned by Maillard (1912b), Ling (1908) first noted the enhancing
effects of heating at 120-140°C on the flavor and browning of malt. Maillard’s
discovery of the amino-carbonyl reaction was made in the course of his studies
on the synthesis of peptides under physiological conditions (Maillard, 191l), and
he succeeded in synthesizing glycine peptides by heating a glycerol system
where aldose instead of alcohol was used in the amino acid reaction.kAs a result,
Maillard found marked development of color and flavoring (Maillard, 1912a; cf.
Kawamura, 1983).
Since that time these reactions, often called Maillard reactions, continue to be
a significant focus of attention in the chemistry of foods. During the past 75
years, numerous works have been published on the Maillard reactions. As sum-
marized and reviewed by Hodge (1953), the interest of researchers was at first
limited to the browning and flavoring of foods. Later, studies on the effects of
the reactions on nutritional and physiological properties, as well as changes in
the physicochemical properties of proteins and antixoidative activity, began to
increase in number. Recent studies of these reactions have widened to include
problems of food safety (e.g., mutagen formation), the chemistry of proteins in
vivo, and diabetic and geriatric studies.
Why are the amino-carbonyl reactions so important in food and biological
systems and the subject of growing scientific interest?
Regarding food quality, let us suppose a synthetic and nutritionally complete
food is prepared by mixing polysaccharides (e.g., starch), pure proteins, lipids,
vitamins, and minerals. Such a food containing no low-molecular-weight com-
pounds may be adequate for feeding experimental animals but utterly tasteless to
humans. The kind of food we wish to have in our daily diet usually contains large
amounts of low-molecular-weightcompounds (such as amino acids, sugars, and
fatty acids). Not only do these components make food taste good but, as a result
of amino-carbonyl reactions, they are also the source of appetizing smells and
colors when the food is properly cooked, processed, or stored. Throughout the
long history of food culture, humans have acquired various techniques for select-
ing and combining materials and processing conditions to control these reactions.
 CHEMISTRY OF MAILLARD REACTIONS 117

Fermented Oriental foods, notably soy sauce and miso (bean paste)-which are
composed of amino acids, peptides, proteins, and sugars whose complex interac-
tions during processing result in fine flavors and colors-are good examples.
It is interesting to note that research on the Maillard reaction in Japan has been
conducted, for the most part, with emphasis on the coloring and flavoring which
occur in soy protein foods, a major source of protein in the Japanese diet; the
Maillard reaction is thus very desirable in making food more appetizing. In
America and Europe, however, research has focused on the undesirable effects
of coloring as a result of the Maillard reaction in dairy products, a major source
of protein in the Western diet.
The following chemical aspects also underscore the importance of the amino-
carbonyl reactions in food and biological systems. Despite the great abundance
and complexity of possible biological compositions, the main constituents of all
biological systems, as well as those of foods (which are, after all, derived from
biological materials and consumed with or without some kind of processing), are
only of three types: proteins, polysaccharides, and lipids. The functional groups
of their structural units-amino acids, monosaccharides, fatty acids, and alco-
hols-are limited to the following four groups: - C O O H , -OH, -NH,, and
-CHO. These groups are directly responsible for the formation of polymeric
biological constituents by one-step reversible condensation reactions mediated
by enzymes. This reversibility is apparent in the enzymatic polymerization of
amino acids, which goes as far as to form, for example, proteins as the final
product. However, the combination of - C H O and -NH, is quite different (see
Fig. 1). Although the first step of the nonenzymatic reaction between these
groups is reversible (formation and decomposition of glycosyl-amino products),
its products undergo Amadori rearrangement to form ketosyl-amino products,
which undergo complex irreversible reactions involving dehydration, rearrange-
ment, scission, and so on to yield decomposed and polymerized products includ-
ing flavor constituents and melanoidins. The physicochemical and physiological
functions of proteins are naturally affected by these reactions. This irreversibility
and complexity involving the two functional groups - C H O and -NH, are
unique features of the initial stage of the Maillard reaction and distinct from the
combinations formed by the other functional groups.
Given the importance and complexity of the reaction, numerous articles have
appeared over the years; more than 500 directly related to the Maillard reaction
are listed in Chemical Abstracts for the past 10 years, and more can be found that
deal indirecfly with the reaction in food systems.
In response to this growing interest, the First International Symposium on the
Maillard Reaction was held in 1979 in Sweden under the auspices of the Interna-
tional Union of Food Science and Technology (IUFST) and other organizations.
The proceedings of the first (1979, Sweden), second (1982, United States), and
third (1985, Japan) symposia have been published [Eriksson, ed. (1981), Waller
118 MITSUO NAMIKI

Reactions betwreii furirtiorial groups

( t.. II 7 y in a tIc )
HCOOH t R ’ - N t I i 5 RCONIIII’ P e p t l d c , Protc~1iI
HCOOH R’-Oll IICOOR’ kdt

RCHO + R’-OH + I?-OR’ G ly c o s i d r

Po I y s a cc h ii I-I d e
(R-OH)
( None n z y m a tic )

RCHO + R ’ - N I ~ ~ R C H = N H ’ + Amador-i p r o d u c t
S c i s s i o n protiucts

.I
Ma i 1l a r d r e a c t ion
p r o d 11c ts

FIG. I . Reactions between main functional groups in food and biological constituents.

and Feather, eds. (l983), and Fujimaki et al., eds. (1986), respectively). Many
reviews have also appeared, two of them, concerning mainly the chemistry of
nonenzymatic browning, in this series (Reynolds, 1963, 1965). The most recent
review, also in this series, treats the Maillard reaction as related to the develop-
ment of flavor (Danehy, 1985).
As can be seen in Table I, the Maillard reaction covers a broad spectrum
reaching into a number of various fields. In this article, however, no attempt is
made to cover the advances in all of these diverse albeit related fields. Only
chemical studies on quality changes in foods effected by the amino-carbonyl
reactions, particularly the browning reaction mechanism and the formation of
antioxidants and mutagens, are reviewed. Nutritional aspects and physicochemi-
cal quality changes involving proteins are not discussed.
Flavor formation is, of course, an important part of the chemistry of the
amino-carbonyl reaction. Since there are several articles which list the vast
number of volatile flavor compounds generated by the Maillard reaction (Hur-
rell, 1982; Maga, 1982; Shibamoto, 1983a; Fors, 1983) and relatively little work
has been done on the study of the mechanism of flavor formation by Maillard
reactions in foods since the reviews by Hodge (1967) and Hodge et af. (1972),
discussion of the chemistry of flavor formation is excluded from this article.
 CHEMISTRY OF MAILLARD REACTlONS 119

TABLE I
MAILLARD REACTION IN FOOD AND BIOLOGICAL SYSTEMS

Reactant
Amino acid, peptide, protein, amine, ammonia + Reducing sugar, carbonyl compounds (from
oxidation of fatty acid, ascorbic acid, and polyphenol)
Influencing factors
pH, temperature, moisture content, heavy metal ions, oxygen, light, sulfite and other constituents

Chemistry Browning reaction mechanism,

isolation and identification of intermediate products,
structure and properties of melanoidin
Food technological aspects Flavor development,
physicochemical quality changes,
antioxidant,
control of browning
Nutritional aspects Loss of amino acid (lysine, arginine etc.),
loss of nutritive value,
antinutritive properties,
metal ion chelation
Toxicology Mutagen formation,
Antimutagenesis
I n vivo Diabetic diseases,
aging, etc.

II. BROWNING REACTION MECHANISM

A. INTRODUCTION

As is well known, the rate of coloration, the color produced, and the product
properties of the browning reaction (the most characteristic consequences of the
Maillard reaction) are strongly dependent on the nature of the reactants and the
reaction conditions, especially pH and temperature. For example, the browning
rates of aldoses in general are higher than those of ketoses, those of pentoses are
higher than those of hexoses, and two- and three-carbon sugar analogs brown
very rapidly. Basic amino acids generally brown more easily than acidic amino
acids in the following order: lysine > p-alanine > a-alanine > glutamic acid.
Alkaline pH and higher temperatures greatly enhance the reactions and result in
changes in the product distribution.
Despite the number of chemical studies, these phenomena have not yet been
explained in full due to the high reactivities of the reactants and products, the
120 MITSUO NAMIKI

intertwining reaction routes, and the diversity of products. At present, attempts

to establish an inclusive, general reaction mechanism would be largely futile,
and separate explanations must be given for each individual reaction. However,
the reviews by Hodge (1953, 1967) on the early stages of the formation of the
precursors to the various browned matter present an extremely well-organized
review of the subject and include numerous data. These works serve their pur-
pose well as far as the processes of the initial stages are concerned. However,
essentially no new findings have been added in the more than 30 years since the
first review was written despite rapid developments in the research techniques
necessary to isolate and identify the reaction products. Based on Hodge’s gener-
ally accepted scheme (Fig. 2), an attempt is made here to describe step-by-step
the new findings on each stage of the browning reaction.
Hodge divided his scheme of browning into three stages. (1) An initial stage
(reactions A and B) involving the formation of glycosyl-amino products fol-
lowed by an Amadori rearrangement. ( 2 ) An intermediate stage (reactions C, D,
and E) involving dehydration and fragmentation of sugars, amino acid degrada-
tion, and others. (3) A final stage (reactions F and G ) involving aldol condensa-
tion, polymerization, and the formation of heterocyclic nitrogen compounds and
colored products.
According to the accepted view, the key step is the Amadori rearrangement
(reaction B), which irreversibly produces ketosyl compounds that enolize and
lead to the complex reactions in the intermediate stage. Until recently it was
believed that this part of the reaction sequence was common to all Maillard
reactions and that different individual reactions occurred in the later stages. Each
stage will be described in the following sections.

B. REACTIONS DURING THE INITIAL STAGE

The scheme proposed by Hodge for the initial stage of the Maillard reaction is
shown in Fig. 3. The first step of the reaction is the simple condensation between
the carbonyl group (as the aldehyde form of the reducing sugar) and the free
amino group of amino acid, protein, or amine, to give an N-substituted
glycosylamino compound followed by the reversible formation of the Schiff base
derivatives (Fig. 3a). This condensation reaction is initiated by an attack of a
nucleophilic amino nitrogen, with an unshared electron pair, on the carbonyl
carbon. The reaction usually requires an acidic catalyst. Protonation of the car-
bony1 group should enhance its reactivity to the nucleophilic reagent. while
protonation of the nitrogen of the amino group inhibits the attack on the carbonyl
carbon. The favorable combination of the reactants is shown in Fig. 4. In this
step, the maximum rate occurs when the product of the concentrations [>C=O]
[RNH,] is maximum. These concentrationsvary in the opposite direction with pH,
 CHEMISTRY OF MAILLARD REACTIONS 121

oldose
sugar ' omino
compound

Amodori reorrongement
I

-3HP 0 ,,
i \
c
t a-amino acid @
Schiff base
of HMF or reductones Streckcr degrodation
furfural ~

T i

FIG. 2. Review of Maillard reaction pathways (Hodge, 1953).

so the rate of condensation reaches maximum at a weakly acidic pH in the reaction

involving aldose and amine.
The remaining steps for formation of the Schiff base usually occur faster than
the first combination step. The increase in the nucleophilic strength of the amine
increases the rate of the carbonyl-amine reaction, but has almost no effect on the
equilibrium (Feeney et al., 1975).
With aromatic aldehydes, the equilibrium is shifted in favor of Schiff base
formation, but aliphatic aldehydes, which possess a hydrogen atom on the carbon
adjacent to the carbonyl group, do not generally yield Schiff bases. In the case of
sugar, the Schiff base may be an intermediate which rapidly cyclizes to the N -
122 MITSUO NAMIKI

RNH
a KNH RN I
I II HC

Aldorc in Addition SchiB bare N-Substituted

aldehyde form compound (not isolated) glycorylaminc

b
RNH RNH RNH
I I
CH CHI

I
CHIOH CHIOH CHrOH
N-substitutrd Cation of Enol form N-Substiiutcd
aldmylainine SchiB base 1-amino-I -dcoxy-
I-ketore, kcto form

FIG. 3 . The initial stage of the Maillard reaction (Hodge, 1967).

substituted glycosylamine. Up to this step, the reaction ‘is reversible because the
glycosylamine can be hydrolyzed, in aqueous solution, into the parent com-
pounds. The formation of the N-substituted glycosylamine is usually very fast
and the product is unstable; especially in an aqueous system, it is susceptibile to
reverse hydrolysis as well as to additional irreversible reactions (even at room
temperature). The glycosylamines derived from amines show a certain stability,
while those from amino acids are difficult to isolate because they are immediate-
ly converted into the Amadori products, N-substituted 1-amino- 1-deoxy-2-ket-
oses. However, the isolation of the N-glycosylamino derivatives of amino acids
is possible using an amino acid ester or metal salt.
This Amadori rearrangement of the N-substituted glycosylamines, the most

(D
NH,R
C=OH t :NHz-R ‘C’
/ u ‘OH

8 ..
NHR
H -H@ \

’
‘OH R
/C=N-R

FIG. 4. Condensation of carbonyl compounds with amino compounds.

 CHEMISTRY OF MAILLARD REACTIONS 123

important in the Maillard reaction, is believed to be the only reaction in the

second step of the initial stage. The Amadori reaction is catalyzed by weak acids,
where the protonation of the Schiff base and the subsequent protonic shift con-
stitute the critical step; the amino acids serve as their own acid catalysts so the
reaction is rapid even in the absence of added acid.
It should be noted here that the reactions in the initial stage of the Maillard
reaction are all favored by acidic conditions and are apparently not compatible
with the observed fact that neutral or alkaline conditions promote the browning
reactions. A group of reactions involving the early scission of sugar molecules,
which was recently reported by this author’s group, may serve to at least comple-
ment the existing, widely recognized scheme. This is described in the following
section.
C. SUGAR FRAGMENTATION DURING THE INITIAL STAGE AND A
NEW BROWNING REACTION MECHANISM
1. Development of Novel Free Radicals during the Initial Stage
It is generally agreed that the Amadori compounds in the Maillard reaction
mixture could exist as enaminol structures. The reducing power of the reaction
mixture, probably attributable to such reductones, increases with browning
(Kirigaya et al., 1968), and the browning products have been shown to possess
antioxidative activity. A representative reductone, ascorbic acid, has been
shown to have a free radical structure as the intermediate of its oxidation process
by electron spin resonance (ESR) spectrometry, and it also acts as a kind of
antioxidant (Bielski, 1982). On the other hand, the presence of fairly stable free
radicals was observed in the amino-carbonyl reaction of ninhydrin with amino
acids (Yuferov et al., 1970) as well as in the highly alkaline solutions of some
reducing sugars (Lagercrantz, 1964). These facts suggest that the Maillard reac-
tions may involve a free radical process or produce some kind of free radical
product. However, no studies have indicated the presence of free radical in the
Maillard reaction except for that of Mitsuda et al. (1965). They showed the
presence of a stable free radical in the melanoidin from glucose and glycine
heated for a long time by detection of a broad singlet ESR spectrum that may
exist in the unsaturated structure of the polymerized product as is found in humus
(Tollin et al., 1963; Steelink and Tollin, 1962).
In 1973, Namiki et al. found a novel free radical in a very early stage of the
sugar-amino acid reaction mixtures. The free radical showed an ESR spectrum
with a clear hyperfine structure and was apparently different from that observed
in the melanoidin (Namiki and Hayashi, 1975, 1981, 1983; Namiki et al. 1977).
Figure 5 shows the results of reactions of D-glucose with a-or P-alanine. The
important characteristics are as follows. ( 1 ) The ESR signal was detected soon
after the reaction mixture was heated, and the relative intensity of signal in-
124 MITSUO NAMlKl

E
C
0
N
9
(

to
.-C
C

e
3
m

Heating time (min)

FIG. 5 . Free radical formation and browning in the reaction of D-glucose with a-alanine or p-
alanine or p-alanine, and ESR spectra of the reaction mixtures (Namiki and Hayashi, 1983). 0, ESR
signal with hyperfine structure; - - - -,ESR signal with broad line; A,browning. The hyperfine ESR
spectra at peaks (1) and (2) are shown on the right side.

creased rapidly very early in the reaction when the mixture was not yet signifi-
cantly colored. (2) After reaching a maximum peak, the intensity of the ESR
signal decreased with heating time and was accompanied by a gradual increase in
browning, a disappearance of the hyperfine structure, and a gradual increase of
the broad singlet in the ESR spectra. (3) The intensity and speed of the ESR
signal with browning was stronger and faster for p-alanine than for a-alanine. (4)
The hyperfine structure of the ESR signal for these two systems apparently
differs in splitting number.
The development of similar ESR spectra was observed for almost all reaction
mixtures of sugar-amino compounds, indicating that the formation of a novel
free radical product is a normal process of the Maillard reaction and occurs at an
early stage. The results of the reactions of various sugars with a- and P-alanine
are summarized in Table 11. The sugars and their related carbonyl compounds all
gave essentially the same types of ESR hyperfine structure, i.e., the hyperfine
structures split into 19 lines in the sugars with a-alanine systems, while those
with @-alanine systems split into 25 lines (except in the case of three-carbon
sugars-the spectra of three-carbon sugars were more complex and resembled
each other).
 CHEMISTRY OF MAILLARD REACTIONS 125

TABLE I1
ESR SPECTRAL DATA ON FREE RADICALS AND BROWNING IN THE REACTION OF SUGAR
AND OTHER CARBONYL COMPOUNDS WITH a- AND P-ALANINE*.~

ESR Spectra

Splitting line number Intensityc Browning.'

a-Alanine
D-Glucose 19 + +
D-Fructose 19 f +
D- Arabinose 19 + ++
D-xylOSe 19 + ++
D-Ribose 19 + ++
Glycolaldehyde 19 +++ +++
P-Alanine
D-Glucose 25 ++ ++
D-Fructose 25 2 ++
D- Arabinose 25 ++ +++
D-xylOSe 25 ++ +++
D-Ribose 25 ++ +++
Glyceraldehyde -35 +++ ++++
Dihydroxyacetone -35 +++ ++++
Glycolaldehyde 25 ++++ +++++
3-Deoxyglucosone 25 + +++
5-H ydroxymethylfurfural ++
Furfural +++
Glyoxal 25 ++ +++
Crotonaldehyde +++
Propionaldehyde +
Namiki and Hayashi (1983).
Aqueous solutions (each 3 M)were heated in boiling water bath.
c +++, High; ++, moderate; +, low; 2 , insignificant.
Carbonyl compounds that are highly reactive in the formation of a free radical
are also effective in browning, while carbonyl compounds, such as furfural and
crotonaldehyde, show high activity only for browning. This suggests that the
presence of an enediol or a potential enediol grouping in the carbonyl compounds
as a reducing sugar is necessary for the radical formation. Glycolaldehyde
showed extremely high activity in both free radical formation and browning.
With the exception of certain compounds such as aniline, cysteine, and eth-
ylamine, radical formation was observed only in the case of the primary amino
compounds.
The radical formed even under weakly acidic conditions and, like browning,
increased markedly with pH, although the radical product was rather stable under
acidic conditions. Interestingly, the radical was produced without necessarily
126 MITSUO NAMIKI

removing oxygen from the system. It appeared to be fairly stable within the
reaction mixture, but it disappeared rapidly when air was bubbled through the
system (Namiki and Hayashi, 1975).

2. Structure of Novel Free Radical Products

Based on many ESR experiments on the various amino compound-sugar

systems, Hayashi et al. (1977) found that, as shown by a- and (3-alanine, the
difference in the hyperfine structure depends upon the difference in the number
of protons on the a carbon of the amino compound and not upon the carbon
number of the common sugar. They also found that all spectra have in common
splittings that arise from interactions of the free radical with two equivalent
nitrogen atoms and four equivalent protons in addition to an even number of
equivalent protons with different splitting constants. These assignments led to
the assumption that the radical products are N,N’-disubstituted pyrazine cation
radical derivatives, as shown in Fig. 6.
This is strongly supported by the fact that the hyperfine structure, as well as g
value of the ESR spectrum of the reaction mixture of ethylamine with D-glucose,
was in good agreement with those of the ESR spectrum of the radical from
synthesized N,N’-diet-hylpyrazine (Curphey and Prasad, 1972). Despite a vast
number of pyrazine derivatives in the Maillard reaction products, the presence of
such N,N’-disubstituted pyrazinium derivatives has rarely been demonstrated.
This is probably due to their high instability, which makes them difficult to track.
Milic and others (Milic et a / . , 1980; Milic and Piletic, 1984) also conducted
ESR studies on this kind of free radical developing at an early stage of the
Maillard reaction in model systems of 2-, 3-, and 4-aminobutylic acids with D-
glucose. The results of their ESR spectral analyses are consistent with the pre-
viously mentioned assignments of the free radical products. Their studies also
included the investigation of the kinetics of the formation of the free radicals.

3. Formation Process of the Free Radical Products

The novel pyrazine derivatives have no substituents on the ring carbons, so the
plausible formation mechanisms are limited to the following two pathways: (a)
formation of a two-carbon enaminol compound by sugar fragmentation and
subsequent dimerization, or (b) bimolecular condensation of the enaminol of the
Amadori products followed by elimination of the substituted sugar residues.
Investigations of these possible pathways (Hayashi and Namiki, 1981; Namiki
and Hayashi, 1983) indicated (1) that the free radical developed rapidly prior to
(or simultaneously with) the formation of the Amadori product and then began to
decrease while the Amadori product continued to increase and 3-deoxyosone was
produced thereafter, and (2) that the glycosyl amino compound alone resulted in
marked free radical formation while no free radical was formed from the
 CHEMISTRY OF MAILLARD REACTIONS 127

ppH-OH H
CH=NR H-C=N-R H C - N R glycol-
fHo +RNHz I aldehyde
yHoH -HzO
* I (enol type)
CHOH CHOH
I I I
R' R' R'
sugar reverse-aldol reaclion

conden-
sation

dialkyl- dial kyl- dial kyl-

dihydro- pyrazine pyrazi ni um
pyrazine radical compound

glycol - glyoxal glyoxal glyoxal

aldehyde mono- di-
a1 kylimine a1 kyl imine a1 kyl imine
FIG.6. A possible pathway for formation of the free radical product, sugar fragmentation prod-
ucts, and browning in the reaction of sugar with amino compounds (Namiki and Hayashi, 1983;
Hayashi er al., 1986a).

Amadori product alone or with amine or sugar. In addition, as mentioned pre-

viously, glycolaldehyde showed especially high activity in both free radical
formation and browning. These results indicate that the novel free radical is
produced before the Amadori rearrangement and possibly via the pathway (a).
This is quite interesting since the occurrence of changes such as fragmentation
prior to Amadori rearrangement had never been considered in the Maillard reac-
tion mechanism and required substantiation.

4. Sugar Fragmentation at an Early Stage of the Maillard Reaction

The proposed scheme of radical formation involves sugar fragmentation to

give a very reactive enaminol compound for browning. Sugar fragmentation and
the role of fragmentary low-molecular-weight carbonyl compounds in browning
have been noted by Hodge (1953):

The fission products of the sugars very conceivable in their potential for browning. Fragments
which retain the a-hydroxycarbonyl grouping will undergo browning alone in aqueous solutions;
128 MITSUO NAMIKI

and, in the presence of amino compounds, the browning is greatly accelerated. The most highly
reactive compounds are glycolaldehyde, glyceraldehyde, pyruvaldehyde, dihydroxyacetone, acetoin,
and diacetyl. . . . [Ep. 9351

He proposed the formation of pyruvaldehyde and other carbonyl compounds

from 1-deoxyglucosone, the product (through 2,3-enolization) of the Amadori
compound, and also postulated that cleavage would occur at the C-LIC-3 posi-
tion of the sugar to give two-carbon carbonyl products by a reverse aldol mecha-
nism (Hodge, 1953). However, the formation of such carbonyl compounds at an
early stage of the Maillard reaction was not chemically demonstrated, and their
role in browning, especially concerning two-carbon products at a very early stage
of the Maillard reaction, was not clarified.
Hayashi and Namiki ( 1980) demonstrated the production of a two-carbon
fragmentary product at an early stage of the Maillard reaction by isolating and
identifying glyoxal and its diimine derivatives in glucose-alkylamine mixtures
by thin-layer chromatograpy (TLC), gas-liquid chromatography (GLC), mass
spectroscopy (MS), and nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) analyses. Quan-
titative measurements indicated that the production of the two-carbon sugar
fragmentation product increased after the production of the glycosyl amino com-
pound, and that this was followed by free radical formation and subsequent
browning. Formation of the four-carbon product, the residual of hexose fragmen-
tation, was also demonstrated to occur almost in parallel with the two-carbon
product formation (Namiki and Hayashi, 1983).
It should be noted here that glyoxal was known to be an artifact on the TLC
from glyoxal diimine in the reaction mixture, and neityer compound is the direct
precursor of the pyrazine radical because glyoxal showed only weak activity in
radical foimation with amines and glyoxal diimine itself is inactive. However,
when ascorbic acid was added at an early stage (prior to free radical formation
and browning) to the glucose-alkylamine reaction mixture, an intense ESR
spectrum of the pyrazine radical appeared instantaneously, together with marked
browning (Hayashi et al., 1985a). The same fact was also observed when ascor-
bic acid was added to the glyoxal dialkylimine solution. The initial two-carbon
fragmentary product of sugar, the precursor of the free radical formation and
browning, is assumed to be glycolaldehyde monoimine or its enaminol. The
N,N’-disubstituted pyrazinium salt was shown to be highly unstable in aqueous
systems and produced instantaneous browning. Possible pathways for the forma-
tion of the novel free radical, browning, and the production of glyoxal diimine
derivatives were proposed as shown in Fig. 6 (Namiki and Hayashi, 1983;
Hayashi er af., 1985a).
It should be noted that the evidence indicating the formation of the fragmen-
tary products at an early stage of the Maillard reaction was obtained mainly in
glucose-alkylamine systems. Systems employing alkylamines usually react fast-
 CHEMISTRY OF MAILLARD REACTIONS 129

er and more intensely to give the free radical product and to produce browning
than do ordinary amino acids; this may be due to the tendency of amine-catalyzed
reverse aldol condensation reactions to give higher amounts of intermediate
fragmentary products, which results in more intense browning as well as in a
higher yield of glyoxaldiimine, especially in ethanol reaction systems (Hayashi
et al. 1985a). The formation of glyoxal diimine derivatives was also observed in
the reactions of glucose and amino acids, e.g., glycine, lysine, arginine, and p-
alanine, although in amounts smaller than amine derivatives (Hayashi er al.,
1985a).
As early as 1962 Kitaoka and Onodera reported sugar fragmentation into one-
and two-carbon products in the reaction of 1,Zdiamino-sugar derivatives and
suggested its occurrence at an early stage browning of the Maillard reaction.
However, they started from diaminated sugar derivatives formed by further
amine addition of Amadori products and differs from the sugar fragmentation
described previously.

5. Formation of Three-Carbon and Other Sugar Fragmentary Products

Strictly speaking, the discussion which follows may be better placed under the
intermediate rather than the initial stage of the Maillard reaction. However, while
the evidence is far from complete, there exists a good possibility that the forma-
tion of the C, compound occurs in the early stage.
As mentioned previously, Hodge (1967) proposed the formation of fragmen-
tary products such as methylglyoxal and diacetyl from 1-deoxyglucosone, which
is formed from the Amadori product through 2,3-enolization and deamination,
although no clear evidence has been presented on this process.
Recently, Hayase and Kato (1986) investigated the formation of low-mo-
lecular-weight products of the glucose-n-butylamine reaction system by GLC
analyses. The results showed that at pH 4.0 the ether extractable products are
mainly heterocyclic compounds which are assumed to be formed from the
Amadori product through 1,2-enolization. On the other hand, large amounts of
low-molecular-weight fragmentation products, such as N-butylformamide and N-
butylacetamide were produced very rapidly and abundantly at pH 1 1.4 while no
heterocyclic compounds were produced. The reaction at pH 6.5 already showed
a tendency to increase the fragmentation products. Hayase and Kato proposed
that these low-molecular-weight amides are formed from glyoxal and diacetyl,
respectively, and that diacetyl is formed through the scission of the C-2/C-3 and
C-4/C-5 bonds of glucose after 2,3-enolization of the Amadori product. Produc-
tion of N-butylformamide was observed as the first and most abundant product in
the GLC, especially at a pH above 6.5. If, indeed, this indicates the formation of
glyoxal or other two-carbon products at an early stage of the Maillard reaction, it
is very interesting in light of the results obtained by Namiki and Hayashi (1983).
130 MITSUO NAMIKI

Diacetyl was detected as a main product in the headspace gas analysis of the
reaction at pH 6.7. Formation of the acetamide derivative did not appear to occur
via diacetyl, but from the C, compound or methylglyoxal. In any case, the
results are interesting because diacetyl and glyoxal are known to be active inter-
mediates in browning and, moreover, active cross-linking agents in the poly-
merization of proteins by the Maillard reaction (Cho et al., 1986).
Meanwhile, Hayashi and others (Hayashi et al., 1986a; Hayashi and Namiki,
1986b) directly observed the formation of C, compound in the sugar-amine
reaction by isolation and identification of the diimine derivative of methylglyox-
al. This was noted at a very early stage of the reaction, closely following the
formation of two-carbon product and together with the Amadori product. Heat-
ing of glucose alone at pH 9.3 did not produce a detectable amount of meth-
ylglyoxal, indicating that the fragmentation occurred by the Maillard reaction. In
this case, the reaction of the Amadori product with n-butylamine rapidly pro-
duced the C, compound in a manner similar to that of the glucose-n-butylamine
system. A clear difference was observed between the reaction of glucose with n-
butylamine and t-butylamine, especially in the production of the C, compound,
which was significantly suppressed and delayed in the latter case, probably due
to the bulky structure of t-butylamine. These results are difficult to explain from
the scheme proposed by Hodge, in which the C, is formed by the scission of 1-
deoxyosone, and suggest the presence of a new pathway of sugar fragmentation
to give C, imine by a reverse aldol-type reaction of the additionally aminated
Amadori product. C, carbonyl compound formation in the n-butylamine system
may occur mainly via a newly proposed pathway, while that in the t-butylamine
system may possibly occur according to the scheme of Hodge.

6. Role of Sugar Fragmentation Products in Browning Reaction

It has been demonstrated previously that sugar fragmentation producing the C,

and C, carbonyl compounds or their imine derivatives occurs at an early stage of
the Maillard reaction. In order to evaluate the role of sugar fragmentation in
browning, it is necessary to quantify the yields as well as the browning abilities
of the main fragmentation products. However, little research has been done on
these aspects of the Maillard reaction, perhaps because until recently sugar
fragmentation at an early stage of the reaction was not taken into account.
Moreover, it is often difficult to measure accurately the amounts of active inter-
mediates in the complicated processes of the reaction, especially glycoaldehyde
in alkaline solution.
Recently, Hayashi and Namiki (1986a) quantified C, and C, carbonyl prod-
ucts in a glucose-P-alanine reaction mixture by the o-phenylenediamine method
using GLC and showed that the production of these products was greatly influ-
enced by pH: production was negligible at acidic pH, observable at neutral pH,
 CHEMISTRY OF MAILLARD REACTIONS 131

TABLE I11
RELATIVE BROWNING ACTIVITY OF CARBONYL
COMPOUNDS
IN THE MAILLARD REACTION WITH P-ALANINE~
Sugar and analogous carbonyl compounds
Sugar or Reaction Browning
carbonyl temperature activity Relative
compounds ("C) ( 1 /min) value

Glucose 95 0.019 1
Fructose 95 0.014 0.74
Xylose 95 0.166 8.74
Xylose 80 0.037
Methylgl yoxal 80 2.77 654.3
GIyceraldehyde 80 8.33 1967
Glyoxal 80 0.515 121.6
Glycolaldehyde 80 8.93 2109

Main intermediate products

Browning
activity Relative
Materialsb (I/min) value

Glucose + P-Ala 0.028 1

Glucosylamine 0. I38 4.93
Amadori product 0.023 0.821
Amadori product + P-Ala 0.072 2.57
Glucosone + P-Ala 0.666 23.7
3-Deoxyglucosone + P-Ala 3.85 137.5
~~~

a Hayashi and Namiki (1986a).

Mixtures (I M each) were heated for 20 min in a boiling
water bath.

and increased greatly at alkaline pH (although the yields were very low compared
to that of the Amadori product). The production of these fragmentation products
increased rapidly very early in the reaction, and then decreased when browning
and Amadori product formation started to decrease rapidly.
The fragmentation products of C, and C, carbonyl compounds are assumed to
be glycolaldehyde, glyoxal, glyceraldehyde, methylglyoxal, etc., or their imine
derivatives. These are well known to be very active compounds in Maillard
browning, but no quantitative evaluation has been done on their browning abil-
ity. Hayashi and Namiki (1986a) evaluated their browning activity and compared
it with that of xylose and glucose at 80 and 95°C respectively. As shown in Table
111, low-molecular-weight carbonyl compounds showed extremely high brown-
132 MITSUO NAMIKI

ing ability, i.e., the relative values of glycolaldehyde and glyceraldehyde are
about 2000 times greater than that of glucose. The high values of the fragmenta-
tion products, despite their low yields in the reaction, correspond to the browning
observed at the early stage of the Maillard reaction. In other words, the browning
observed at the early stages of the Maillard reaction with pH at and above neutral
may be caused mainly by the fragmentation pathways.

D. REACTIONS DURING THE INTERMEDIATE STAGE

What is called the “intermediate stage” in Hodge’s scheme (1967) of the

Maillard reaction involves a series of reactions which starts with the Amadori
rearrangement products (i .e., 1-amino- 1-deoxy-2-ketose derivatives produced
from glycosyl amino compounds in the initial stage) to produce melanoidins.
Compared to the relative simplicity of the first stage, the facts accumulated by
the numerous studies on the second stage are chaotic and await systematization
via some universally recognized dominant pathway(s) of melanoidin formation.
Obviously, this situation has arisen because the high reactivities of almost every
product in this stage result in complex paths, all of which, in turn, lead to a
complex mass of colored polymers called melanoidins. We know very little of
the chemistry of melanoidins despite the advanced analytical techniques cur-
rently available.
A number of studies on the products of this stage, especially the precursors of
pigments, overlap to a large extent with studies on the production of flavors and
antioxidants as well with those on protein modification as a result of the reactions.
In this review, the emphasis is mainly on the formation of colored products.

1 . Amadori Rearrangement Products

Amadori products, the key intermediate in Maillard reactions, are obtained

from glycosylamino products (Gottschalk, 1952) and sugar-amino compound
model systems (Abrams et a l . , 1955; Finot and Mauron, 1969), and the Amadori
products from aromatic amines and sugars are especially easy to isolate in a pure
and stable state (Baltes and Franke, 1978). Amadori products are also isolated
from treated foods, e .g ., freeze-dried fruits (Anet and Reynolds, 1957), liver
extracts (Heyns and Paulsen, 1959), and soy sauce (Hashiba, 1978).
Recently, due to their very important effects on the physical, nutritive, and
physiological properties of proteins, a number of studies have been done on
Amadori product formation by sugar-protein reactions in food and biological
systems. Major studies include Adrian (1974), Bayns et al. (1986), Erbersdobler
(1986), Mauron (1981), Mester et al. (1981), and Monnier and Cerami (1983).
However, these will not be discussed in this review.
Numerous studies on the features of Amadori rearrangement and product
 CHEMISTRY OF MAILLARD REACTIONS 133

isolation have been thoroughly reviewed elsewhere (e.g., Reynolds, 1963, 1965)
and will not be discussed here.
Recent analytical techniques have produced more detailed information on the
nature of Amadori products. High-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC)
has became a popular tool for analyzing Amadori products (Moll and Gross,
1981; Moll et al., 1982) because of its rapidity and simplicity. Structural analy-
ses by high-resolution NMR have shown that Amadori rearrangement products
exist in the P-pyranose form at pH greater than 7 and favor the p-furanose form
at pH 3 (Altena et al., 1981). The equilibrium of N-( 1-deoxy-D-fructos-1-y1)-L-
amino acids in D,O was shown by 'H- and I3C-NMR to be -64% P-pyranose,
15% a-furanose, -15% p-furanose, and -6% a-pyranose forms (Roper et al.,
1983).
Amadori products are fairly stable and are weak in browning activity even in
the presence of amino compounds. The main processes giving colored and flavor
products from Amadori products are as follows (Fig. 7) (Hodge, 1967): forma-
tion of labile enolized intermediates, l ,Zenolization followed by elimination of
the hydroxy group at C-3 and deamination at C-1 yielding 3-deoxyhexosone, the
reactive dicarbonyl product itself, and later furfural as well as the reactive car-
bony1 compound.
On the other hand, 2,3-enolization of the Amadori products followed by
elimination of the amino group from C- 1 gives the 1-deoxydicarbonyl intermedi-
ate, which further reacts to produce reactive fission carbonyl products such as
methylglyoxal, diacetyl, and others (Hodge, 1967). In most of the studies on the
Maillard reaction, browning and flavor are considered to be caused by additional
reactions of these active intermediates with amino compounds.
However, several cases have been reported in which the Amadori products
yielded colored products without undergoing conversion to deoxyosones or other
compounds. Hashiba (1976, 1978) reported oxidative coloration of Amadori
products, focusing on the coloration of soy sauce. Although Kato (1963) re-
ported oxidative degradation of N-glucosides, model experiments show that oxy-
gen does not interfere in the Maillard reactions.
In actual foods-miso, sake, soy sauce, wine, etc.-the browning effected by
oxygen is of practical importance. Hashiba et al. (1981) confirmed that Maillard
reactions, rather than polyphenol oxidation, are responsible for this kind of
browning and isolated several Amadori products as key intermediates. These
products produce intense red color on contact with oxygen, especially in the
presence of Fe ions. Hashiba (1986) observed that the addition of Fe2+ ions
increased the absorption at 550 nm of glucose-glycine melanoidin as well as of
the Amadori product from that system, and that addition of EDTA had the
opposite effect. Apparently, the Fe2 ion is involved not only as a catalyst but in
+

the coloration itself. Pigment isolated from the reaction of a fructose-glycine

Amadori product with Fez+ and air (or H202) was identified as 2-hy-
 I!
'5
2
E
I
0 0 I I
0
'I I I I
0-0-0=0-0-
I
 CHEMISTRY OF MAILLARD REACTIONS 135

droxymethyl-3,5-dihydroxy-l-(4-pyridone)aceticacid, (Fig. 8, 1) and was as-

sumed to be formed by cyclization of the Amadori product, resulting in the
pigment by 1 : 1 chelation with the Fez+ ion. The Fe3+ ion also produced a
colored product with this pigment. Maltol behaved similarly toward Fe ions, but
4-hydroxy-2,5-dimethyl- 1,3(2H)-furanone chelated only with the Fez ion. +

Hashiba concluded that the oxidation of Amadori products is involved in the

coloration of soy sauce and that the presence of similar structures may be respon-
sible for the coloration and metal chelating activity of melanoidin.
Many nitrogen-containing heterocyclic products have been isolated from
sugar-ammonia caramel products, some of which are pyridine and pyrazine
derivatives presumed to originate from Amadori products. For example,
Tsuchida et al. (1973, 1975) isolated a number of polyhydroxy alkylated
pyridines, pyrazines, and pyrroles from weakly acidic sugar-ammonia systems
with or without sulfite by GLC and ion-exchange chromatography (Fig. 8,2-8).
The formation of the P-hydroxypyridines (4 and 5) by the reaction of furfural and
amino compounds had already been shown by Aso (1939). Deoxyfructosazine
[(2-~-arabino-tetrahydroxybutyl)-5-(~-erythro-trihydroxybutyl)pyrazine] (Kuhn
et al., 1961) and its 6-isomer (Fig. 8, 2 and 3) were present in this reaction
mixture in approximately a 1 : 1 ratio. These pyrazine derivatives were consid-
ered to be condensation products of Amadori products with 3-deoxyosone and
ammonia. They also isolated and identified many new polyhydroxy heterocyclic
compounds (Tsuchida et al., 1986). With caramelization in the presence of
sulfite, the variety of products decreased, and the main product was deoxyfruc-
tosazine. Furan derivatives with cyclized side chains have also been isolated
(Tsuchida et al., 1986). Many nitrogen-containing heterocyclic products from
cyclization, including sugar fragments (e.g., methylglyoxal), are found in the
products of caramel formation under alkali conditions (Tsuchida et al., 1976).

2, Enolization and Degradation of Amadori Products

In the intermediate stage of Hodge’s scheme, 1,2-enolization is considered to

be favored under acidic conditions, and 3-deoxyosones (Anet, 1960; Kato,
1960), furfural, and hydroxymethylfurfural (Anet, 1962, 1964) are the main
products which have been isolated and identified from acidic sugar-amino acid
reaction mixtures as well as in actual food systems. These intermediate products
are also known to be produced by acidic decomposition of sugars and car-
amelization (Feather and Hams, 1973). On the other hand, l-deoxyosones, the
main 2,3-enolization Amadori products, have not yet been isolated from food
systems and are presumably produced only by the Maillard reaction (Led1 et al.,
1986a).
Detailed examination of these processes was carried out by Feather and co-
workers (1969; 1970; 1981) using isotope incorporation (DzO, T,O) and NMR.
136 MITSUO NAMIKI

R c=cHou“Q 0 c R

FIG. 8. Some active intermediates and colored precursors of melanoidin. 1, Hashiba (1986); 2-8,
Tsuchida et al., (1975); 9, Severin and Seilmeir (1968) and Feather (1981); 1Oa-c and lla-c, Led1
and Severin (1981); 12, Nursten and O’Reilly (1983); 13, Obretenov and Arginov (1986).
 CHEMISTRY OF MAILLARD REACTIONS 137

The study of the decomposition of sugars in 3 N HCl using furfural as the marker
showed that deuterium is not incorporated into the furfural ring, suggesting that
the formation of the furan ring is fairly straightforward from 1,2-enolization
without intervening keto-enol equilibria in the process. In contrast, examination
of the decomposition of the Amadori products using aromatic N-substituents of
different basicities and under different acidities of the medium (with acetic acid
or HCl) showed (1) that the Amadori products produce hydroxymethylfurfuralin
higher yields than do the sugars and (2) that deuterium is incorporated into the
furan ring (especially with acetic acid). This suggests the ease of 1,2-enolization
and the presence of intervening keto-enol equilibria in the case of Amadori
products. It was shown also that 1,2-enolization occurs more easily when the
nitrogen atom of the Amadori compound is nearly completely protonized in
acidic media.
Feather et al. also studied 2,3-enolization using 4-hydroxy-5-methyl-3(W)-
furanone (9) as the marker; this has been isolated from cooked beef flavor and is
produced by the reaction of amines with xylose (Severin and Seilmeier, 1968)
and with ribose (Peer er al., 1968). It has been confirmed that this compound is
derived from 1-deoxyosone by 2,3-enolization of the Amadori product according
to evidence of incorporation of the 14C-l atom of the labeled Amadori product
into its methyl group and by NMR studies (Hicks and Feather, 1975). In heating
Amadori products formed from N-substituted aromatic amines with different
basicities, Feather (1981) also showed that furfural production in a strongly
acidic medium increased with the basicity of subsituted amines, and a slight
amount of methylfuranone was detected with only weakly basic Amadori prod-
ucts. On the other hand, no furfural and only methylfuranone production was
observed at pH 7.0 in all Amadori derivatives. These results indicate that the
formation of furfural is favored by strong acidity because the nitrogen atom
protonized completely and only weakly basic Amadori products produced fur-
fural in acidic media, while under less acidic or neutral conditions, the amino
group is only partially protonized and tends to result in 2,3-enolization followed
by the formation of methylfuranone.

3 . Colored Intermediates and Precursors of Melanoidin

Given this background, we will now consider how the pigments are formed
from their precursors. Concerning the additional reactions of the products of 1,2-
enolization, it became known early on that the reactions of furfural with amino
compounds produce pyrrole and pyridine derivatives (Aso, 1939, 1940). Several
other products of the same type also became known (Pachmeyer et al., 1986).
Exhaustive studies of colored intermediates and melanoidin precursors by Sever-
in, Ledle, and others continue to be conducted. Their achievements include the
isolation of colored furanone derivatives as an intermediate (Fig. 8, 10a-c) from
138 MlTSUO NAMIKI

pentose-methylamine (or glycine) model systems (Kronig and Severin, 1972).

These intermediates are considered to be the condensation products of furfural or
the respective pyrrole derivatives with a furanone derivative (9) isolated earlier
from the glucose-methylamine-acetic acid system (Severin and Seilmeier,
1968), and a number of their analogs have been synthesized (Ledl and Severin,
1978). Another colored condensate (lla-c) of furfural with 10a-c was obtained
by increasing the content of primary amine (Ledl and Severin, 1981). The same
products have been obtained by HPLC fractionation of petroleum ether extract of
a xylose-glycine reaction mixture by Nursten and O'Reilly (1983, 1986b); they
have also isolated a colored product assumed to be a condensate of furfural with
methylfuranone at the 4-hydroxy position of the latter (Fig. 8; 12).
Colored products from furfural, e.g., N-furilidene-P-furyl-a,P-dehydroala-
nine methyl ester (13), have been obtained by Obretenov and Arginov (1986) by
reaction with glycine methyl ester in ether.
Ledle et al. (1983) also isolated colored products having furanone and P-
pyranone moieties (Fig. 9a, 16 and 18). Since these were formed by the reaction
of 3-deoxyosone and furfural, they were considered to be the condensate of
furfural and P-pyranone (14), the product of its ring opening and ring closure to
furanone, the product of further addition of furfural, etc. The analogous colored
pyrrolinone derivatives (19) were also obtained by the reaction of furfural and
methylamine (Ledl et al., 1986) (Fig. 9a).
As for the colored products from the intermediates of the reaction path from 1-
deoxyosone produced by 2,3-enolization, Ledl and Fritsch (1984) isolated a
pyrrolinone-type reductone (Fig. 9b, 25) as a key intermediate in melanoidin
formation, which they considered to have formed from 1-deoxyosone of mono-
saccharide via acetylformin (24) and condensation with primary amine as glycine
ester (Fig. 9b). The actual contents of 25 were 60 and 100 ppm in the glucose-
glycine reaction mixture (after 3 hr at 80°C and 15 min at 130"C, respectively),
and 40 ppm in colored malt. They also obtained a P-pyranone intermediate (14)
from disaccharide, e.g., lactose, believed to originate from 1,5-deoxy intermedi-
ates. The presence of two reaction paths of disaccharides, one via the 1,5-deoxy
intermediates and the other via 1,6-deoxy intermediates, has been surmised (Ledl
et al., 1986).
The formation of pyrroles and pyridinols in Maillard reactions, e.g., from a
glucose-glycine system (Nyhammer et al., 1983) or a fructose-alanine system
(Shaw and Berry, 1977), is known. This has been attributed to a hypothetical
path from the Amadori products via formation of osones, Strecker degradation
with (for example) glycine to form deoxyenaminols, and ring closure (Olsson et
al., 1981a). (Fig. 10a). However, Nyhammer et al. (1983) presented contradic-
tory results in their study using [13C]glucose. They demonstrated that com-
pounds 28 and 29 form more easily from 3-deoxyosone (26) than from glucose
and is favored by a lower reaction pH. On the other hand, the formation of
 H H H
R-C-C-C-C-CH
I I H II II
OH OH 0 0

H
R-C-C
b: " V i R '
R

16
- -
17

-
19 PENTOSE

b
H H H
H1C-C-C-C-C-CH3 H2C-C-C=C-C-CH1
I I I II I I I I I I I I
OH O H OR 0 0 OH O H OR OH 0

H2C - C = C - C = C - C H j OH
I I I I I
OH OH OR OH O H
22
-
21

H2C =C -C=C - CI - C H 3 H3C-C = c-c - CII - C H 3 __ RO

"

I
I I I I I I II 1'
O H OR OH 0 OH OR 0 0 CHI

-
23 -
24

+ AH2 - H20

22

FIG. 9. Formation pathways of intermediates and colored precursors of melanoidin (Led1 ef a / . ,

1986a). a, from 3-deoxyosone; b, from 1-deoxyosone.
140 MITSUO NAMlKl

-
1

- -
CH=O
1 'TH=O FH2NH2 FH3 $H3 y 3
FHNH2 C.0 c=o c=o c=o FHNHz
I I I I
FH2 CH2
I
CH2
I
$HNH2 ?=O c=o
- 1
FHOH FHOH YHOH FHOH CHOH FHOH
CHOH CHOH FHOH $HOH CHOH FHOH
I
CH20H 6tH20H CH20H CH2OH 6kH20H CHzOH
I -
26 3. I 27

-m-c G-
-
FHO CH = N $HNHZ CH=NH

s
I-/
H-?-OH -
H C
FH FH
HO-C-H
+;-OH
HO-C-H
n-c-oH
7
HO-C-H
H-;-OH
----c
F"
H-C-OH
--c
I
H-$-OH H-C-OH H-C-OH H-C-OH
CHzOH CHzOH CHzOH CHzOH

CHzNHz CHZNHZ
I ~ C - C H J O C - C H a
tH cH
II f d H d

FH 4 FH -
30
c-0 c.0
I
\
-
H-C-OH c.0

Q:H3
I
CHzOH CH3
@OH CH3 -
31
FIG. 10. Proposed pathways of the formation of 2-acetylpymoles and 3-pyridinols from o-glucose
and glycine. a, Olsson et a!. (1981a); b, Nyhammer et al. (1983).

compounds 30 and 31 is hindered by low pH and did not form from 3-deox-
yosone. The reaction of D-[ l-13C]glucose with glycine yielded I3CHO-28,
5-lT-30, 2-I3C-29, and 6-13C-31. A conceivable alternate origin of 30 and 31
as 1-deoxyosone (27) was, however, not supported by the I3C study. The results
indicated overlooked reaction route(s) and that 2-deoxy sugars may be a possible
 CHEMISTRY OF MAILLARD REACTIONS 141

origin of compound 31, but no explanation was given concerning the origin of 30
(Fig. lob).

4. Reactions of Sugar Fragmentary Products

As mentioned previously, Hayase and Kato ( 1986) examined low-molecular-

weight products in an ether extract of a glucose-butylamine (or glucose-glycine)
Maillard reaction mixture. They found considerable amounts of N-butylfor-
mamide and N-butylacetaminde as well as 2,3-dihydr0-3,5-dihydroxyd-meth-
yl-4H-pyran-4-one and pyrrole derivatives in the neutral and alkaline reaction
mixtures; the products from the acidic reaction mixture were mainly N-butyl-2-
formyl-5-(hydroxmethyI)pyrrole and contained hydroxymethylfuran. The as-
sumed origins of the products were Amadori products for hydroxymethylfuran
(through 1,2-enolization), 1-deoxyosone or diacetyl for the acetamide deriva-
tives (through 2,3-enolization), and 3-deoxyosone for the formamide derivative.
However, the results for the formamide derivatives seem to suggest some pro-
cesses other than 1,Zenolization because of the very small quantities obtained
from the acidic reaction mixture as opposed to the rapid formation of large
amounts in neutral and alkaline reaction mixtures.
Led1 (1982) obtained a pyrrole derivative as the main product of the reaction of
furfural with hydroxyacetone (a simplified sugar model) and methylamine.
Among complex products of a similar reaction using piperidinum acetate, a
cyclic dihydroxypentenone, a colored furan derivative, an amino reductone, and
a reductic acid were isolated.
The carbonyl compounds, which are fragmented products of sugars (hexoses,
pentoses) such as methylglyoxal, diacetyl, and others, are obtained directly from
sugar by caramelization, from Amadori products through 2,3-enolization and 1-
deoxyosone formation (Hodge, 1967), and from additional amination of
Amadori products (Hayashi and Namiki, 1986a). Many studies have been done
on the browning reactions of these products with amino compounds, mainly on
the Strecker degradation of amino acids by these products leading to flavor
formation. Recent results of Hayashi et al. (1986a) have been described pre-
viously. Takagi and Morita (1986) also examined the browning activities of low-
molecular-weight carbonyl compounds with lysine, which revealed the order
glycolaldehyde > glyceraldehyde > dihydroxyacetone > methylglyoxal >>
glyoxal.
Piloty and Baltes (1979a,b) reported that the reactivity of amino acids with
diacetyl at pH 4 and 100°C is greater for basic or hydroxylated amino acids (e.g.,
arginine, histidine, lysine, and threonine) than for others; they also isolated and
identified oxazolines, pyrazines, and pyrroles from the reaction mixtures.
There are a number of reports on the reactions of active carbonyl compounds
from sugar fragmentation, especially diacetyl and methylglyoxal, with amino
142 MITSUO NAMIKI

acids (e.g., Maga, 1982; Piloty and Baltes, 1979b); they focus mainly on the
formation of the flavor components as aldehydes and heterocyclic compounds by
Strecker degradation.
To summarize, the main products of the intermediate stage of Maillard reac-
tions are heterocyclic compounds produced from osones (by 1,2- and 1,3-en-
olization in Hodge’s scheme), furfurals, and carbonyl fragmentation products
produced by mutual reactions and, especially, by reactions with amino com-
pounds. Many of these products have been obtained as flavors, precursors to
flavors, and pyrolysis products from sugars. Although some of them are colored
and may be regarded as intermediates of melanoidin formation, we know very
little about the melanoidin formation itself. Does it occur as the straightforward
polymerization of a single or mixed species? What role do these products actu-
ally play in melanoidin formation? In seeking the answers to these questions, it
must be kept in mind that no matter how small the quantity of a product isolated
from the reaction mixture, it may be important in melanoidin formation. In other
words, the more reactive the product, the more difficult it is to isolate and
identify.

E. NONSUGAR MAILLARD BROWNING REACTION

Certain nonsugar carbonyl compounds of foods (e.g., products of ascorbic

acid, polyphenols, and unsaturated fatty acids) are known also to take part in the
Maillard reaction with amino compounds and are involved in browning and other
reactions.
Reactions involving oxidized products of polyphenols and unsaturated fatty
acids mainly involve proteins, so they are not included in the following discus-
sion. For recent studies on reactions involving these compounds the reader is
referred to Suyama and Adachi (1986) for fatty acid products and to Igarashi and
Yasui ( 1985) regarding polyphenols. Coloration attributed with ascorbic acid
oxidized products is the main subject of discussion in this section.

1. Ascorbic Acid and Oxidized Products

Ascorbic acid (AsA), besides being a nutritionally important food component,

is widely used as a meat coloring agent, as an antioxidant, as a baking additive,
etc. (Counsel1 and Homing, 1980; Bauemfeind, 1982). While these uses origi-
nate mainly from its nature as a reductone with an enediol structure, the high
reactivity of AsA and its decomposition and oxidation products often cause
problems in food processing, for example, by discoloration and other effects,
mainly as a result of reaction with amino compounds.

a . Nonoxidative Decomposition of AsA. The mode of decomposition of

AsA is mainly oxidative, but nonoxidative AsA decomposition also occurs. AsA
 CHEMISTRY OF MAILLARD REACTIONS 143

is most stable at pH 6, when anaerobically decomposed at pH 2, 4, or 6.

Furfural, by decomposition of the undissociated form of AsA, is the main prod-
uct of the reaction under strongly acidic conditions (Herbert et a f . , 1933; Huelin
et al., 1971). Since 3-deoxypentosulose (3-DP) was also identified as the another
carbonyl decomposition product, 3-DP or its enol form may be an intermediate to
furfural, although details are not known (Kurata and Sakurai, 1967a). The for-
mation of reductic acid, 2,5-dihydro-2-furoic acid, and others are also reported,
but their origins are not known (Coggiola, 1963). Although furfural and 3-DP are
highly reactive products, the role of nonoxidative decomposition of AsA in
browning reaction is considered relatively small (Kurata et al., 1967).

b. Oxidative Decomposition of AsA. The most important factors in the

oxidative decomposition of AsA are pH and the presence of metal ions; decom-
position is rapid in an alkaline medium and is much slower at a pH less than 7 in
the absence of metal catalysts, e.g., Cu ions (Seib and Tolbert, 1982). Oxidation
starts with a one-electron withdrawal from an AsA anion that produces the
ascorbate anion radical, which disproportionates to dehydroascorbic acid (DHA)
and AsA (Yamazaki et al., 1959; Bielski, 1982). DHA, which exists in a hy-
drated form in aqueous solutions, produces 2,3-diketo-~-gulonicacid (DKG) by
ring opening, which is very slow at pH 2.4 and proceeds faster with increasing
pH (Terada and Ohmura, 1966). The decomposition of inherently unstable DKG
produces 2-furoic acid and 3-hydroxy-2-pyrone through decarboxylation and
dehydration (Kurata and Sakurai, 1967b). The enol form of DKG also decom-
poses to 3-keto-4-deoxypentosulose(KDP) by dehydration and decarboxylation
(Kurata and Fujimaki, 1976). A highly unstable DKG &lactone having a 3,4-
enediol structure has recently been isolated and found to be very susceptible to
browning; this compound is considered to be an important intermediate in the
oxidative browning of AsA (Ohtsuka et al., 1986).
Besides the browning of AsA by the interaction of various decomposed car-
bony1 compounds, the reaction of carbonyl products (notably a-dicarbonyl com-
pounds) with amino compounds leads to the active formation of pigments and
flavors. The activity and variety of the reactions of DHA with amino com-
pounds, e.g., Strecker degradation with a-amino acids, makes DHA an interest-
ing subject of investigation.

2 . Dehydroascorbic Acid-Amino Acid Reactions

a . Formation of Red Pigment. Initially, the reaction of DHA with a-amino

acids in aqueous media rapidly produces a conspicuous red pigment, which is
then followed by browning (Koppanyi et a l . , 1945; Kurata et al., 1973a,b). This
pigment was found to be related to the coloration that occurs during the process-
ing and storage of dried vegetables and other foods and is also considered to be
an intermediate of the browning reaction (Nakabayashi and Shibata, 1967;
144 MITSUO NAMIKI

Ranganna and Setty, 1968). Since the reactions of DHA with most a-amino
acids give the same kind of red pigment and liberate carbon dioxide and al-
dehydes, these reactions occur through typical Strecker degradations. The lac-
tone ring in DHA seems to be a requisite for pigment formation because DKG
does not form the pigment (Kurata et a f . , 1973a). Kurata et a f . (1973b) success-
fully obtained this unstable pigment in a pure crystalline form by oxidation of L-
scorbamic acid (SCA), a DHA-amino acid reaction product, and elucidated its
structure as 2,2’-nitrilodi-2(2)-deoxy-~-ascorbic acid ammonium salt (NDA),
which is formed by the condensation of SCA with oxidized SCA (dehydro-SCA)
(Fig. 11). The hypothesis that the red pigments were pyrazine or dihydropyrazine
derivatives was thus proved wrong (Lecocq, 1951). The murexide-type structure
of red pigment was confirmed by detailed NMR and ESR studies and the calcula-
tion of .sr-electron densities or spin densities of the chromophore system using
Huckel’s molecular orbital method (Kurata et al., 1986).

b. Formation of Free Radical Species by DHA-Amino Acid Reactions.

Namiki et al. (1974) and Yano et al. (1974) found strong ESR signals with the
formation of NDA in the reactions of DHA and a-amino acids in water or in an
ethanol mixture. Analysis of hyperfine structures of the signals showed two
components, A and C, in the signal of the aqueous reaction mixture and two
components, A and B, in the signal of the ethanolic reaction mixture. Surprising-
ly, thin-layer chromatography yielded a blue spot indicating the radical species A
(R-A) and a yellow spot indicating component C ( R - C ) close to that of NDA.
The blue spot of R-A changed to the red spot of NDA with oxidation in air
(Yano et al., 1976a). Increasing the pH of reaction mixture of DHA with amino
acid to a neutral or weakly alkaline pH dramatically increased R-A, suggesting
the presence of a precursor (Yano et a l . , 1978b). Hayashi and Namiki (1979) and
Hayashi et af. (1981) succeeded in isolating this product and identified it as
tris(2-deoxy-2-~-ascorbyl)amine,having a 3-fold symmetric structure around
one nitrogen atom originating from the amino acid. Tsuji et a f . (1980) examined
the processes using electrochemical methods and confirmed that the dianion of
the product produces R-A by eliminating one electron; the product additional
one-electron oxidation produced a labile oxidized form which liberates a deoxy-
AsA molecule and produces the red pigment NDA. R--C was found to be a one-
electron reduction product of NDA (Yano et a f . , 1976a; Kurata and Fujimaki,
1974). Production of these radical species was enhanced by the addition of AsA.
These products do not appear to play important roles in browning reactions
(Hayashi et a f . , 1983b).

c. Browning Reactions. Hayashi et al. ( 1 983a) also found considerable

amounts of a yellow pigment on the developed chromatogram of a DHA-amino
acid reaction mixture; analysis showed the presence of two nitrogen atoms,
 CHEMISTRY OF MAILLARD REACTIONS 145

Asrorbic acid ( A s A ) DHA 1 Amino a c i d

R CH-CH.
b H OH c o z + H'CHO

Scorbainic
acid
HO NHz

R-B
radical
*oNg
0

-H/ 0 0 ;

Ye1 low
pigment

WNp4
BROWNING
R
FIG. 11. A possible pathway for formation of colored products, free radical products, and brown-
ing in the reaction of dehydroascorbic acid (DHA) and amino acid (Kurata er a l ., 1973b; Hayashi er
al.. 1983b).
I46 MITSUO NAMlKl

cyclic DHA, hydrated DHA, and AsA moieties. The reactions of SCA with
NDA or DHA produced large amounts of this pigment, which was thus assumed
to be a condensation product of SCA with NDA. Heating the yellow pigment or
its mixture with DHA in an aqueous solution produced pronounced browning,
which suggests a browning reaction scheme involving the DHA-amino acid
system via NDA and yellow pigment. One-electron reduction of this pigment
produced a stable free radical species identified with the formerly observed
radical component B.
From these experimental results, Hayashi et al. (1983b) proposed a whole
scheme for the formation processes of the colored products, the free radical
products, and browning in the reaction of DHA-amino acid system as shown in
Fig. 11. The pathway involves complicated mutual redox reactions between
starting materials, intermediates, and the products. This reaction system was also
shown to produce a purple pigment (Hayashi et al., 1984) and new antioxidative
products (Namiki et al., 1982a,b).

d. DHA-Alkylamine Reaction Systems. Paralleling the DHA-amino acid

reactions, the reactions of DHA with alkylamines produce red pigments and free
radical species. Since the Strecker degradation cannot take place in these cases,
the presumed products are red pigments having a substituted nitrogen atom and
corresponding free radicals. Yano et al. (1976b, 1978a) and Hayashi et al.
(1978) isolated and deduced the structures of several products from DHA-
methylamine and other systems.
An interesting finding is related to the DHA-alkylamine reaction of DHA with
casein, serum albumin, and egg albumin under freeze-dried conditions at room
temperature or 60°C (Namiki et al., 1986; Hayashi et al., 1986b). It was shown
that NDA, the same red pigment as produced from DHA and a-amino acid, was
also formed by this reaction. Studies including protein analyses and experiments
using hexylamine and other model compounds confirmed that DHA reacts with
the €-amino group of lysine in proteins, resulting in deamination to give NDA
and, at the same time, the formation of a carbonyl group, which leads to the
polymerization of protein. The reactions of DHA with proteins in the presence of
water produced rapid browning; no NDA was obtained, but deamination of this
type is considered to play an important role in browning.

F. CHEMISTRY OF MELANOIDINS

In the final stage of the Maillard reaction, colored intermediates and other
reactive precursor products (such as enaminol products, low-molecular-weight
sugar analogs, and unsaturated carbonyl products) proceed to condense and
polymerize to form brown polymers, or melanoidins, under acceleration by an
amine catalyst. As mentioned previously, the formation of intermediates differs
 CHEMISTRY OF MAILLARD REACTIONS 147

greatly by reactant and reaction conditions, and a variety of intermediate prod-

ucts are known to form even under fixed reactant and reaction conditions; so the
browned products naturally differ in chemical structures and properties at least in
degree of polymerization, depending on preparation conditions. It is wishful
thinking to assume a single structure for a product of a Maillard reaction; even
the most advanced separation and analytical methods currently available cannot
be expected to clarify their structures completely. Nevertheless, continuous
efforts are being made to determine the structures of representative melanoidin
products, e.g., those prepared from glucose-glycine heated for a long time and
then dialyzed. HPLC and GLC for separation, infrared (IR), NMR, MS, and
ESR spectrometry for structural analysis, and refractive index (RI) and other
advanced techniques are now available to accomplish what ionophoresis and
elemental analysis did in the past, but the accumulated data are limited and, so
far, only partial structures of the melanoidin products have been determined.
-
A general formula, “sugar + amino acid - 2 3 H20,” has been proposed
for melanoidins based on the consideration that the main pathway of melanoidin
formation involves the reactions of amino compounds with deoxyosones, fur-
fural, and other fragmentation products which accompany the dehydration reac-
tion (Wolform et al., 1953; Kato and Tsuchida, 1981).
However, the evolution of carbon dioxide during melanoidin formation has
been demonstrated, and it was noted that decarboxylation by Strecker degrada-
tion of a-amino acids is responsible for this evolution. This was supported by
studies using 14C-l-labeled amino acid (Stadtman et al., 1952; Wolform et al.,
1953). Sugars can also be a source of carbon dioxide (Stadtman et al., 1952).
Liberation of aldehydes by Strecker degradation is also conceivable, as reported
by Feather and Hung (1985, 1986) on melanoidins derived from D-glucose-1- and
-6-14C, glycine-1- and -2-I4C, or methionine-1- and -[14C]methyl.The fastest loss
of carbon dioxide occurs by Strecker degradation, but loss of 14C-2in glycine was
also found to occur. The remaining numbers of carbon atoms were glucose-6-C >
glucose-1-C > glycine-1-C > glycine-2-C after a 16-hr reaction, suggesting
liberation of carbon dioxide and aldehydes. 13C-NMRresults also support libera-
tion of carbon dioxide and aldehyde. However, the remaining amounts of 14C
during the reaction (at 8, 16, and 24 hr) were not always constant, except in the
glucose-methionine reaction system, suggesting the involvement of dehydration
and rearrangement reactions after polymer formation. 13Canalyses of melanoidins
from glucose and L-alanine-enriched 13C-1 or 13C-2 indicated that both I3C-
labeled carbons of L-alanine are incorporated into the polymer and C- 1 and C-2 of
L-alanine remain as a carboxyl carbon and a substituted amino carbon, so the
source of the liberated carbon dioxide may not be limited to the carboxyl group of
the a-amino acid.
The study of xylose-glycine reactions by Benzing-Purdie and Ratcliff (1986),
utilizing cross-polarized-magnetic angle spinning (CP-MAS) I3C- and 15N-
148 MITSUO NAMIKI

NMR, partly simulated soil humus formation at relatively low temperatures (22,
68°C). As the reaction progressed, 13C-NMR absorption corresponding to the
aromatic, heteroaromatic, and heteroaliphatic C=C, C=O, and C=N bonds
-
(120 160 ppm) increased while the absorption corresponding to the ester (or
amide) C=O group decreased. I5N CP-MAS NMR also showed a decrease of
amide nitrogen and an increase of tertiary nitrogen atoms of pyrroles and indoles in
melanoidin. In general, the sugar species and amino acid species did not have a
significant affect on the spectra, but the use of ammonia or urea as the nitrogen
component produced some differences (Benzing-Purdie er al., 1983).
Nursten and O'Reilly (1986a) studied the petroleum ether and ethyl acetate-
soluble fractions, which amounted to 0.1 wt% of the materials, of xylose-glycine
melanoidin by HPLC. Over 100 fractions absorbing at 450 nm were found; these
were divided into four classes by the peak characteristics. The largest number of
fractions was found to absorb at 260 nm. A significant number of the fractions
fluorescenced by irradiation at 254 or 360 nm, and the authors considered them to
be intermediates of the browning reaction. Even though some of the fractions were
identified with furan derivatives as the colored intermediates by Led1 (1982; see
Section III,D), his data serve mainly to highlight the extreme complexity of the
melanoidin structure.
Formation of stable free radical species in melanoidin was first reported by
Mitsuda et al. (1965) and was based on broad singlet ESR signals. Namiki and
Hayashi (1973) found a new free radical species producing hyperfine ESR signals
in the initial stage of melanoidin formation, as mentioned in Section I1,C.
Following this work, Wu er al. (1986) examined the ESR of melanoidin fractions.
Melanoidins prepared from glucose with glycine, glutamic acid, and lysine (at pH
-
9.0, 120"C, 15 240 min) showed hyperfhe ESR signals in their 90% ethanol-
insoluble fractions. Glucose-glycine and glucose-glutamic acid melanoidins
gave broad singlets and almost no hyperfine structure, but the glucose-lysine
melanoidin retained some part of the signal with 33-line hyperfine structures
(Namiki and Hayachi, 1983) after a 4-hr reaction. The main low-molecular-
weight fraction of this melanoidin showed 9-line hyperfine structures by Sephadex
G-50 gel chromatography.
The structure of melanoidin was considered to consist mainly of a repeating
aromatized moiety because of its dark brown color. However, I3C-NMR studies
by Kato and Tsuchida (198 1) on pyrolysate and oxidized products of melanoidin
from glucose-glycine, in addition to those by Olsson er al. (1981) on melanoidin
from glucose-glycine, indicate that the spectrum of melanoidin is fairly simple,
similar to that of Amadori products, and almost devoid of aromatic and olefinic
carbon atoms. Kato and Tsuchida (198 1) proposed that the structure of melanoidin
has a repeating unit involving conjugated carbon double bonds and tertiary
nitrogen (Fig. 12).
Recent studies by Kato er al. (1986), using GLC analysis of the ether-soluble
 CHEMISTRY OF MAILLARD REACTIONS 149

-
C H ='O CH=O - CH R

-
I I
C=N-R C-NH-R -CH R
I I1 I1 I
CH,
I
CH
I
C-N-CH,
I I
R
I
-
HC-OH HC-OH C-N- CH, R CEI
I I 1 1
HC-OH HC-OH EHOH r t H , C-N-
R. f?
1

Ht-OH L:LO
0 1
FH
R' C- OH
CDI II
f? C-OH
+I
R-NH, : amine -
R': H or CH,OH

FIG. 12. Possible repeating units of polymeric brown products and their precursors (Kato and
Tsuchida, 198 1).

fractions of colorless ozonolysate or alkaline hydrogen peroxide decomposition

products of melanoidin from glucose-glycine, suggested MeCO<,
HOCH,CH<, HOCH,COH<, EtCHOHCH,< , EtCHOHCOH< , Me,COH-
CH<, and Me,COHCOH< as groups forming partial structures of melanoidin.
The water-soluble fraction of the ozonolysate contained 5.7% glycine, and incor-
poration of glycine in melanoidin was suggested by I3C-NMR of melanoidin from
C-Zlabeled glycine. * 3CNMR of melanoidin from C- 1-labeled glucose showed
the possibility of glucose C-1 incorporation as methyl, saturated and unsaturated
carbons, and aliphatic and aromatic carbons. The presence of a saturated aliphatic
carbon chain stable against ozonolysis, in addition to aliphic and aromatic unsatu-
rated C=C bonds and C==O bonds in melanoidin, has been suggested by com-
parison of I3C CP-MAS NMR and I3C-NMR spectra before and after ozonolysis.
These results support the chemical structure of melanoidin proposed previously
(Kato and Tsuchida, 1981). The proposed scheme of melanoidin supports the
presence of reductone (enaminol) structures, which have been considered to play
150 MITSUO NAMlKl

important roles in antioxidative activity as well as in the metal chelating activity of

melanoidin (see Section 111). It was also recently known that melanoidin inacti-
vates some mutagens, perhaps because of its reducing activity and inclusion power
(see Section IV).
So far, the application of modern analytical methods ha$ succeeded only in
accumulating data on the partial structures of melanoidins. Further investigations
must continue to seek characteristic partial structures as well as variations in the
reaction products using related starting materials and reaction conditions.

Ill. ANTIOXIDANTS AND THE MAILLARD REACTION

A. INTRODUCTION

Fatty acids (especially polyunsaturated fatty acids) in foods are very suscepti-
ble to oxidation by oxygen in air, which results in the formation of hydroperox-
ides by a free radical chain reaction. The hydroperoxides are subjected to further
reactions giving various secondary products, such as volatile carbonyl com-
pounds, polymerized products, and some active oxygen radical species. These
processes result in the development of rancid flavor and other deteriorative
changes in food quality that limit the storage life of many food products and
materials. The lipid peroxidation processes are very complicated and involve
numerous factors, which requires the use of various techniques suited to the
characteristics of each food to prevent lipid peroxidation. The most effective
methods are tight packaging with removal of oxygen gas and the use of antioxi-
dants. Recent developments in packaging materials and oxygen-removal tech-
niques have shown remarkable progress and contributed greatly to protecting
food against microbial as well as oxidative deterioration. In many cases, how-
ever, it is desirable for the food to possess antioxidative properties, which neces-
sitates effective antioxidants. The most widely utilized antioxidants are phenolic
compounds, such as butylated hydroxyanisol (BHA) and butylated hydroxy-
toluene (BHT), but these synthetic compounds are currently in disfavor because
of the potential hazards associated with their use (It0 et al., 1983a,b). The use of
natural antioxidants, such as tocopherols, is increasing, although they are not as
effective BHA and BHT.
On the other hand, much attention has recently focused on dietary antioxi-
dants, such as vitamins E and C, as preventive agents against biological damage
caused by active oxygen free radical species, especially damage to DNA and
other important cell constituents which may possibly induce mutagenesis, car-
cinogenesis, and aging.
Given these circumstances, past and recent findings that the stability of foods
increases when Maillard reactions occur within the food system are encouraging
and, currently, the subject of much attention.
 CHEMISTRY OF MAILLARD REACTIONS 151

There are numerous examples of this kind of stabilization. Findley et al.

(1946) reported increased antioxidative stability of powdered milk by treatment
at 88-93°C for 20 sec before drying. This stabilization was considered to be due
to the Maillard reaction that occurred during the treatment (Patton, 1955). The
antioxidative action of the Maillard reaction products (MRPs) themselves (i.e.,
that of the MRP of glucose-glycine or glutamic acid system upon margarine
oxidation) was first demonstrated by Franke and Iwainsky (1954) and Iwainsky
and Franke (1956). Griffith and Johnson (1957) showed that using glucose
instead of sucrose in cookie dough enhances the browning and antioxidative
stability. Yamaguchi et al. (1964) observed increased stability with the addition
of glucose and amino acids (especially valine, glycine, and lysine) to cookie
dough in addition to the stabilizing effect of acetone extract on cookies baked
after the addition of glucose and lysine. Improvement of antioxidative stability
by heat treatment was observed by Anderson and co-workers (1963) in cereals
such as wheat, corn, and oats.
These findings demonstrate the effectiveness of MRPs in the prevention of
lipid peroxidation in foods. The Maillard reaction is very common in food
processing and storage, especially in protein-rich foods subjected to heat treat-
ment, so we have made use of this kind of process-induced antioxidants without
fully understanding what is involved.

B . REACTION CONDITIONS FOR INDUCTION OF ANTIOXIDATIVE

ACTIVITY

In MRPs from reducing sugars and amino compounds, the presence of an

amino compound is required to induce antioxidative activity. This is evident
from the fact that neither sugars nor their pyrolytic products (caramel) alone
show activity, while there are many studies on the antioxidative activity of the
compounds of secondary and tertiary liner or cyclic amines and amino acids or
peptides, e.g., Marcuse (1962), Harris and Olcott (1966), Matsushita and Ibuki
(1965), and Karel et al. (1966). However, the antioxidative activity of amino
compounds reacting without sugar is far weaker than that induced by the Mail-
lard reaction with sugars.
D-GlUCOSe is used as the reactant carbonyl compound in most model Maillard
reaction systems because it is the most common and abundant reducing sugar
present in food and biological systems. However, as mentioned previously,
pentoses are generally more susceptible to browning than hexoses, and, parallel
to browning, xylose induces more potent antioxidative activity than does glucose
in sugar-amino acid systems (Kirigaya et al., 1968; Lingnert and Eriksson,
1980a). Low-molecular-weight sugars and some dicarbonyl compounds, such as
methylglyoxal, glyceraldehyde (Hayashi et al., 1986a), and dehydroascorbic
acid (Namiki et al., 1982b), are known to be far more reactive in inducing the
Maillard browning than are hexoses, such as glucose. The MRPs from dihydrox-
152 MITSUO NAMlKl

yacetone with methionine and leucine (Itoh et al. 1975) and from methylglyoxal
with leucine and isoleucine (Kawashima et al., 1977) prepared in corn oil at
175°C exhibit more potent antioxidative activity than those from xylose or
glucose. Dehydroascorbic acid with tryptophan heated in ethanol for 30 min
resulted in intense browning along with the induction of potent antioxidative
activity. These two activities were negligible when glucose was used instead of
dehydroascorbic acid (Namiki ef al., 1982b).
Among the amino acids, on the other hand, MRPs from arginine, histidine, p-
alanine, and cysteine with glucose showed stronger activities than MRPs from
other amino acids (Kirigaya et al., 1969). Tomita (1971a,b) studied the antiox-
idative activities of MRPs from several amino acids with glucose and demon-
strated the superiority of MRPs from tryptophan over the others. Lingnert and
Eriksson (1980a,b) examined the antioxidative activities of MRPs from glucose,
fructose, or xylose with arginine, cysteine, glutamic acid, histidine, lysine, or
valine using polarographic and gas chromatographic techniques. They observed
potent activities in the MRPs from histidine and lysine with any sugar and in
those from arginine with xylose, while MRPs from glutamic acid with each sugar
showed no activity. They concluded that MRPs from basic amino acids produce
higher activities than those from glutamic acid, valine, and cysteine. The ar-
ginine-xylose system produced especially strong activity.
Other reaction conditions (including pH, reaction temperature and time, molar
ratio of the reactants and their concentrations, water activity, atmosphere, and
the reaction medium) also greatly affect the induction of antioxidative activity. In
general, higher media pH and higher amino compound/sugar molar ratios en-
hance the production of undialyzable melanoidins, the inclusion of nitrogen in
MRPs, and the induction of antioxidative activity (Kirigaya er al., 1969). Essen-
tially the same tendencies in the effects of pH, molar ratio, and reactant con-
centration on the induction of antioxidative activity were reported for MRPs from
glucose with various amino acids (Tomita, 1971a) and for MRPs from histidine-
glucose (Lingnert and Eriksson, 1980a). Tomita (1971b) also noted the effect of
buffer solution as a medium, and phosphate buffer more effectively enhanced the
antioxidative activity from tryptophan-glucose than veronal or borate buffer.
The optimum conditions are 0.1 M phosphate buffer and an initial pH of 9.0.
Maillard browning is shown to be most effective at intermediate water activity
(a,,,), e.g., 0.44-0.53 for whey powder (Saltmach et al., 1981) and 0.60-0.70
for milk powder (Loncin, 1968). However, Eichner (1981) indicated that the
lower water activity in the glucose-lysine-avicel freeze-dried system favors the
production of antioxidative browning intermediates, which were assumed to be
hydroperoxide-reducing Amadori products. That is, in the low-a, system, the
formation of visible browning is suppressed while colorless reducing intermedi-
ates are still being formed.
Nonparallelism between browning and antioxidative activity during the heat-
 CHEMISTRY OF MAILLARD REACTIONS 153

ing process has, at times, been observed. Antioxidative activity in the glucose-
histidine system does not necessarily parallel the formation of undialyzable
brown products; it is known that the antioxidative activity increases with the
browning in the first stage but decreases with further heating after reaching a
maximum (Lingnert and Eriksson, 1981). Park and Kim (1983) studied antiox-
idative activity in ethanol extracts of the glucose-glycine reaction mixture. The
activity was found at an early stage of browning in products which were almost
colorless but showed intense fluorescence; the activity remained unchanged with
prolonged heating.
These results suggest that the relationship between heating and antioxidative
activity is not a simple one, and the manifestation of the activity appears to be a
complicated process (although melanoidins themselves are known to be antioxi-
dative).

C. STRUCTURE-ANTIOXIDATIVE ACTIVITY RELATIONSHIP

The antioxidative activity observed in Maillard reaction mixtures is assumed

to be present mainly in melanoidins, but since our knowledge of their structural
aspects is limited to some of their partial structures, a structure-activity investi-
gation of melanoidins is, at present, beyond reach. From what we know about
the MRPs, the first possible candidates for active principles come from the
reductone group. The key intermediate of the early stage of the Maillard reaction
is the Amadori rearrangement product, which is a kind of amino reductone.
Moreover, an increase in the consumption of Tillman’s reagent as browning
progresses has been reported (Kirigaya et al., 1968), which suggests the pres-
ence of reductone or amino reductone structures in melanoidin. Isolation and
identification of amino reductones as an important intermediate product to
melanoidin formation has been made (Led1 et al., 1986a,b).
The reductones are commonly considered to be an effective antioxidant due to
their reducing activity and metal chelating ability; the experimental results, how-
ever, sometimes indicate an enhancement of lipid oxidation but not necessarily
of the antioxidant (Yamaguchi, 1969). This contradiction was shown to be
dependent upon the experimental conditions, especially on the moisture content
of the system, in an experiment on ascorbic acid, a typical reductone, and a
hydrogen donor (Ueda et al., 1986); whereas ascorbic acid is an antioxidative in
a nonaqueous or low-moisture-content system, it is inactive (or may even act as
an oxidation promotor) in an oil-water system.
Compared to the enediol-like reductones, amino reductones are more effective
and more likely to be stable. Evans et al. (1958) showed the strong antioxidative
activity of amino reductones prepared from secondary amines with aldohexose,
and Obata et al. (1971) and Itoh et al. (1975) indicated that amino reductones
from triose reductone with glycine, methionine, and valine have superior antiox-
154 MITSUO NAMIKl

idative activities than the original triose reductone, ascorbic acid, and reductic
acid. Eichner (198 1) suggested that reductone-like products, probably 1,2-enam-
inols formed by the Amadori rearrangement, may be responsible for the antiox-
idative activity of MRPs, which is assumed to be caused by the reduction of
hydroperoxides to inactive products. Thus, the contribution of the enaminol
structure in MRPs to antioxidative activity seems highly probable, but does not
appear to depend on its reducing activity, as indicated by the results of the
ozonolysis of melanoidins described shortly. In any case, the effect of reductone
in MRPs remains inconclusive.
The metal chelating ability of reductone is assumed to contribute to the antiox-
idative activity, since Cu, Fe, and other heavy metal ions play an important role
in promoting lipid peroxidation. The metal chelate does not always act as an
inhibitor, but it sometimes promotes oxidation as exemplified by the copper-
ascorbate system, possibly due to the production of some active oxygen species
in the presence of oxygen (Martell, 1982).
Melanoidins are known to have high metal binding activity (Johnson et a l . ,
1983), which is also assumed to be due to the reductone moiety. Yamaguchi and
Fujimaki ( 1974b) observed that the antioxidative activity of tocopherol decreased
in the presence of a small amount of copper ion, while that of melanoidin was not
significantly affected. This suggests that the MRPs have some metal inactivating
activity which may contribute synergistically to the antioxidative activity of
melanoidins.
Several studies have been conducted to elucidate the chemical structure, by
fractionation and chemical modification, of melanoidin as it relates to antiox-
idative activity. Yamaguchi el al. (1981) examined the activities of Sephadex gel
chromatographic fractions of MRP from xylose-glycine (1 : 1). The first chro-
matography, G-15, gave two reducing peaks, and only the higher molecular
weight fractions showed antioxidative activity. Further fractionations (G-50,
G- loo), and paper and thin-layer chromatography gave a markedly antioxidative
fraction, with a molecular weight of around 4500 that gave a single spot by paper
chromatography, but was not a purified substance. The antioxidative activity,
however, was found widely distributed in other fractions by gel chromatography.
Lingnert and Eriksson (1983) attempted to characterize the antioxidative prod-
ucts of MRP from histidine and glucose. Upon dialysis through membranes with
a nominal molecular weight cutoff of 1000, antioxidative compounds were con-
centrated in the retentate. Further purification using isoelectric precipitation and
preparative electrophoresis gave somewhat more active fractions but did not
yield a special fraction having intense activity, while some correlations were
found between ESR signal intensity and the antioxidative activity of the frac-
tions.
These results, even though interesting in themselves, are not sufficient to draw
any conclusion about the nature of the antioxidative activity of melanoidins.
However, a recent study of ozonolysis of antioxidative melanoidins (Yamaguchi,
 CHEMISTRY OF MAILLARD REACTIONS 155

1986) suggests a direction for future investigation: ozonolysis discolored the

melanoidin and decreased its reducing capacity to a constant level but, in-
terestingly, had no significant effect on the antioxidative activity. Sephadex
G-25 fractionation of the ozonolyzed product gave a degraded, low-molecular-
weight, nearly colorless fraction having higher antioxidative activity. IR exam-
ination showed a disappearance of C = C bonds and an increase of C = O groups,
which agrees with the results of Kim et al. (1985). These ozonolysis products
also showed synergistic activity with tocopherol. Although it is not yet clear if
the initial activity in the melanoidin remained intact or the activity was an artifact
of ozonolysis, this finding suggests that unsaturated melanoidins may not be
essential for manifestation of the activity.
To elucidate chemical structure of the antioxidative principle of amino-car-
bony1 reaction products, Namiki et al. (1982b) investigated the reaction mixture
of dehydroascorbic acid with tryptophan. This system demonstrated far stronger
antioxidative activity than glucose-glycine; the reaction was conducted in re-
fluxing ethanol to prevent production of unseparable high-molecular-weight
melanoidin. From active HPLC fractions of butanol extracted from the reaction
mixture, one of main active principles was isolated in crystalline form and
identified as being a new equimolar condensation compound consisting of tryp-
tophan and dehydroascorbic acid. (Namiki ef al., 1982a).

D. APPLICATION

Apart from the chemical nature of the active principles, there is no doubt about
the effectiveness of MRPs in practical food processing. Yamaguchi et al. (1964,
1967a,b) found that the antioxidative stability of lard in cookies was increased
greatly by adding glucose and certain amino acids (especially valine, glycine,
and lysine) to the dough. An observation has also been made that the addition of
a histidine and glucose mixture to cookie dough before baking showed more
effective antioxidation than the addition of MRPs prepared from the same mix-
ture (Lingnert, 1980; Lingnert and Eriksson, 1981) and that the increase in
activity paralleled browning. Regarding the oxidative stability of sausage during
frozen storage, the development of rancid flavor was found to be effectively
retarded by the addition of MRPs from glucose and histidine, but no effect was
obtained by the addition of a histidine-glucose mixture (Lingnert and Lundgren,
1980). The inconsistency in these two cases may be due to insufficient heating in
the latter. Enhancement of antioxidative activity of spray-dried whole milk was
also observed by preheating with the addition of histidine and glucose, although
it was accompanied by a decrease in the lysine content and some coloration
(Lingnert and Hall, 1986).
The search for economical and effective MRP materials for practical food
processing includes a study by Obretenov et al. (1986), who tested, using lard as
the substrate, the antioxidative effectiveness of the reaction products of acid-
156 MITSUO NAMIKI

hydrolyzed bovine blood or sunflower groat with hydrolyzed starch and found
that the former product is more effective, perhaps due to the higher content of
sulfur-containing, chain-branched, basic amino acids. The best results were ob-
tained when a 2 : 1 amino material-carbohydrate mixture was heated for 20 hr at
100°C.
Utilization of MRPs for food preservation may sometimes cause problems
because of their inherent color. The decoloration of MRPs by ozonolysis without
a significant decrease in the antioxidative activity (Yamaguchi, 1986) may pro-
vide a simple solution. While ozonolysis by itself is impractical for use in food
processing from the standpoint of food safety, it may be possible to develop an
acceptable method of biological oxidation based on the process.
Synergistic effect with other antioxidants, especially those of natural origin, is
very important for preventing undesirable coloration with melanoidin. Yama-
guchi and Fujimaki (1974a,b) demonstrated that MRP from xylose with am-
monia and purified by gel chromatography showed marked synergistic effect in a
model system with p-, y-, and &tocopherol, but not with a-tocopherol. In
margarine, the effect was stronger with the addition of citric acid and, in com-
bination with 0.005-0.01% tocopherol and 0.0025% melanoidin [below its col-
oring level (0.005%)],inhibits autoxidation very effectively.
In any event, antioxidation is a very important factor in food processing and
preservation, and the fact that it can be induced in food by intercomponent
reactions is not only valuable information for food production and storage but
also a very interesting problem in basic food chemistry. Although considerable
information has been obtained with regard to conditions for inducing the activity,
little is known about the chemical properties of the active principles involved,
except that a complex MRP structure involving nitrogen appears to be responsi-
ble for the antioxidative activity. In order to fully utilize the antioxidative activity
of MRPs, much more information on controlling the Maillard reaction in food
processing, as well as on the chemical properties of melanoidins, is needed.

IV. MUTAGEN FORMATION

The development of simple and reproducible mutagenicity tests (Kada et al.,

1972'; Ames et al., 19752) resulted in the detection of numerous mutagenic
'The Rec-assay system is a method used to detect DNA-damaging substances by comparing the
growth of DNA recombination-proficient (HI7 rec+) and -deficient (M45 rec-) strain of Bacillus
subrilis on a medium on which a paper disk containing test sample has been placed (Kada et a / .,
1972).
2The Ames test is a microbial assay method using mutants of Salmonella typhimuriurn LT2 to
detect gene mutagens by counting revertant colonies having a histidine requirement to prototrophy
after treatment with mutagens. The TA98 strain, specific for frameshift-type mutagens, and the
TAlOO strain, for base-pair substitution-type mutagens, are the most commonly used strains. The S9
mix, rat liver cell homogenates, is used to metabolically activate the test sample. (Ames e r a / . . 1975).
 CHEMISTRY OF MAILLARD REACTIONS I57

substances in various foods and in the environment. Although mutagens are not
always carcinogenic, nearly all known carcinogens are mutagenic (McCann et
al., 1975; Sugimura et al., 1976). Since epidemiological research has revealed
that the major causes of human cancer occur via the oral route (Wynder and Gori,
1977; Weisburger et al., 1980; Doll and Peto, 1981; Ames, 1984), studies on the
presence and the formation of mutagens in food are of extreme importance.

A. PYROLYSATE MUTAGENS

Besides the mutagens which occur naturally in foods (such as bracken and
cycad) and those due to contamination by chemicals or mycotoxin-producing
molds, mutagens produced by chemical reactions of food constituents during
storage, processing, and cooking are of equal importance. N-nitrosoamines are
the best known of this kind (Gough, 1978), but recent findings of mutagenic
pyrolytic products found in broiled fish and meat, for example, have been the
cause of general alarm. The study of these pyrolytic products was initiated by the
discovery of mutagens other than benzo[a]pyrene, which was formerly believed
to be the major mutagen in smoke condensate of broiled fish (Masuda et al.,
1966; Sugimura et al., 1977a) and in cigarette smoke (Kier et al., 1974; Hutton
and Hackney, 1975; Sugimura et al., 1976; Mizusaki et al., 1977). Matsumoto
et al. (1977), in a study on tobacco smoke, baked various amino acids at 300-
800°C and found, by the Ames test (using TA98 with S9 mixture), that the tar
produced from tryptophan was essentially highly mutagenic and, in a study of
indol derivatives, revealed the importance of 3-position side chains for the man-
ifestation of pyrolytic mutagenicity. The mutagenicity of smoke extracts from
broiled sardine and beef was shown by the Ames method (TA98, S9 mix) (Nagao
et al.,1977a), as was that of the scorched part of grilled beef (Commoner et al.,
1978). The strong mutagenicity of pyrolysates of proteins (e.g., lysozyme) and
tryptophan and the nonmutagenicity of pyrolysates of DNA, RNA, starch, and
vegetables were noted by Nagao et al. (1977b). Strongly mutagenic products Trp
P-1 and P-2 were isolated from pyrolysate of tryptophan at temperatures over
300°C (Sugimura et al., 1977b) as well as Glu P-1 and P-2 (Yamamoto et al.,
1977) (Table IV). Tryptophan-containing especially, proteins and, peptides pro-
duced stronger mutagenic pyrolysates than did proteins not containing tryp-
tophan, and the main mutagens in tobacco smoke were found to be the pyroly-
sates of tobacco proteins (Matsumoto et al., 1978). The main mutagens in
soybean protein pyrolysate were identified as a-carboline and methyl-a-car-
boline (Yoshida et al., 1978).
These studies investigated mainly pyrolytic tarry products (of tryptophan or a
protein alone) obtained in smoke at high temperatures of over 300°C, conditions
which are not encountered in day-to-day cooking. However, in time it was
discovered that mutagenicity also resulted in ordinary cooking conditions, e.g.,
broiled, semifried fish and grilled hamburger, with the formation of extraor-
158 MITSUO NAMIKI

TABLE IV
MUTAGENS ISOLATED FROM PYROLYSATESa

Source of
Chemical name Abbreviation Structure isolation

3-Amino-I ,4-dimethyI-SH- Trp-P- 1 Tryptophan pyro-

pyrido[4,3-b]indole lysate

3-Amino-1-methyl-5H- TIQ-P-2 Tryptophan pyro-

pyrido[4,3-b]indole lysate

2-Amino-6-methyldipyrido- Glu-P-1 Glutamic acid

[ 1,2-a:3',2'-d]imidazole pyrolysate

2-Aminodipyrido[ 1,2-a: Glu-P-2 Glutamic acid

3' ,2'-d]carbazole pyrol ysate

3.4-Cyclopentenopyrido- Lys-P- I Lysine

[3,2-a]imidazole pyrolysate

4-Amino-6-methyl- 1H- Om-P- I Omithine pyroly-

2,5,10, Iob-tetraazafluor- sate
anthene

2-Amino-5-phenylpyridine Phe-P-l Phenylalanine

pyrol ysate

2-Amino-9H-pyrido AaC Soybean globulin

[2,3-b]indole pyrolysate

2-Amino-3-methyl-9H- MeAaC Soybean globulin

pyrido[2,3-b]indole pyrolysate

2-Amino-3-methylimidazo- IQ Broiled sardine

[4,5-flquinoline

MelQ Broiled sardine

MeIQx Fried beef

Nagao et a / . (1983).
 CHEMISTRY OF MAILLARD REACTIONS 159

dinarily high mutagenic products 2-amino-3-methylimidazo[4,5-flquinoline (IQ)

and 2-amino-3,4-dimethylimidazo[4,5-flquinoline (MeIQ) from broiled fish
(Kasai et al., 1980a,b) and 2-amino-3,8-dimethylimidazo(4,5-flquinoxaline
(MeIQx) from broiled beef; these mutagens were isolated and identified as such
by Kasai et al. (1981a.b). The results of various studies on the formation of
mutagens fluctuated, and mutagenicity varied greatly depending on cooking
conditions such as temperature, time, and moisture content (Spingarn and Wein-
burger, 1979; Pariza et al., 1979; Dolara et af., 1979); in the beginning it was not
known that the Maillard reactions are involved in mutagen formation.
Significantly, Yoshida and Okamoto ( 1980a,b) reported the development of
mutagenicity when glucose was added to mixed amino acids before pyrolysis at
150°C, while no activity was noted for mixtures of glucose with albumin or
adenine, or in the case of albumin or adenine each by itself. Noteworthy was the
remarkably strong mutagenicity in pyrolysates of the mixtures of creatine with
amino acids (especially cystine, threonine, phenylalanine. and methionine),
glucose, or fatty acids, even though pyrolysis of creatin and the other materials
by themselves did not produce mutagenicity (Yoshida and Okamoto, 1980~;
Yoshida and Fukuhara, 1982).
Jagerstad et al. (1983) found stronger mutagenicity in pyrolysates of beef with
high sugar content than with low sugar content and reported that the addition of
sugars increases the mutagenicity of pyrolysates; thus, they pointed out the
importance of the presence of both sugar and amino compounds. It was as a
result of these reports that the relationship between Maillard reactions and muta-
genicity came to receive considerable attention (Barnes er al., 1983).
Heating creatine-glucose-glycine or alanine systems in diethylene a glycol-
water system at 130°C for 2 hr induced mutagenicity (Ames test, TA98 with S9
mix), which led to a proposal regarding the route of formation of the imidazo-
quinoline mutagens in fried beef (Jagerstad et al., 1983) (Fig. 13). There is some
question concerning the formation of the imidazoquinoline mutagens, especially
in pyrolysates of the model system. Formation of IQ was first discovered in
broiled fish in Japan. The discovery was widely reported, becoming a source of
concern throughout the nation. Since it was found in broiled fish, it was believed
that IQ would also be found in grilled beef, a major part of the diet in the West.
This turned out not to be the case, however, since fried or grilled beef indicated
only slight amounts of IQ; rather, the main mutagen in beef is MelQx (see Table
V). This is another case where dietary customs gave rise to different findings.
Jagerstad et al. (1984) isolated MeIQx (but not IQ) from a heated mixture of
creatine-glucose-glycine using HPLC. Negishi et al. ( 1984) isolated another
new mutagen from same reaction mixture. Recently, Nyhammer et al. (1986)
determined, by HPLC, the presence of MeIQx and a small amount of IQ in a
heated mixture of creatine-fructose-glycine, as well as the presence of 4,8-
DiMeIQx and a slight amount of MeIQx in a mixture of creatine-fructose-m-
160 MITSUO NAMlKl

2 -mc thy 1-
p y )-idI nc.

t N
‘CH3
g l u c w s f ~1
a m i n o acids

I MelQ

Mt>lQx

FIG. 13. Suggested route for the formation of the imidazoyuinoline mutagens (Jigerstad E/ a/..
1983).

alanine heated at 140°C for 2 hr. IQ was also isolated from a heated mixture of
creatine and proline (Yoshida e t a / ., 1984). Jagerstad et al. (1983) also observed
that the addition of 2-methylpyridine in the creatine-glucose-glycine system
enhanced the induction of mutegenicity.
Although the formation mechanism is yet to be clarified, these results clearly
indicate involvement of the Maillard reactions in the formation of imidazo-
quinoline mutagens found in broiled fish and beef. The essential point of the
formation seems to be the creatine-sugar-amino acid combination, and creatine
is believed to be the key component that provides the imidazole ring to the IQ
analogs, which are considered to be the active site of the mutagens.
Effective adsorption with “blue cotton” (cotton bearing copper-phthalo-
cyanine) for IQ analogs in food and environmental systems (Hayatsu et al.,
1983) and HPLC analysis (Wakabayashi et al., 1986) have been developed,
enabling detection of very small amount of IQ and MeIQ. Employing HPLC,
Wakabayashi et al. (1986) reported contents of MeIQx in broiled beef (0.5
ng/g), broiled chicken (2.1 ng/g) and fried ground beef (0.3 ng/g), as well as IQ
in bacteriological-grade beef extract (4 1.6 ng/g).
IQ and MelQ have been shown to be carcinogenic in mice (Ohgaki et a / . ,
 CHEMISTRY OF MAILLARD REACTIONS 161

TABLE V
EXAMPLES OF QUANTITATIVE ANALYSES FOR MUTAGENS I N COOKED FOODS"

Methods of
Method of identification and Mutagens in cooked
Food material cooking quantification material (nglg)

Sun-dried sardine Naked flame G U M S with MID Tp P-1 13.3

Tp P-2 13.1
Sun-dried sardine Naked flame G U M S with MID by IQ 158
addition of CD,- MeIQ 12
substituted MeIQ
Beef Electric hot plate G U M S with MID IQ 0.59
MelQx 2.4
Beef Naked flame Identified by fluores- Tp P-1 536
cence and MF,
quantified by
GUMS
Chicken Naked flame Fluorescence AaC I80
MeAaC 15
Sun-dried cut- Naked flame Identified by UV, Glu P-2 280~
tlefish quantified by MF

a Nagao er al. (1983).

ng/g of raw beef.
ng/g of sun-dried material.

1984, 1985), and IQ to be carcinogenic in rat (Takayama et al., 1984), but their
carcinogenicity was revealed not to be as strong as first supposed from their
extremely strong mutagenicity as determined by the Ames test (with TA98 and
S9 mix). The amounts of these mutagens in ordinary food as shown in some
examples are known to be very small, and it is difficult to evaluate whether or not
they constitute significant carcinogenicity with respect to human cancer. It
should also be noted that mutagen formation in Maillard reactions has been
observed only in water-poor model systems at high temperatures (above 13O"C),
and IQ and other mutagens are not formed in water-rich cooking conditions.

B. MUTAGENS OF AQUEOUS MAILLARD REACTIONS

The toxicity of melanoidins, which are produced in aqueous systems by

browning reactions at lower temperatures (below 100°C) has been discussed
(Lang and Baessler, 1971; Lee et al., 1981). Are they mutagenic? Caramel
prepared from sugars alone or with ammonia and used in various beverages and
liquors was first investigated for mutagenicity by Aeschbacher et al. (1981)
using the Ames test, and no mutagenicity was observed in food caramel obtained
162 MITSUO NAMIKI

TABLE VI
MUTAGEN FORMATION IN AQUEOUS MAILLARD REACTIONa

Activity
TAlOO TA98

Group Kinds of browned solutions with Glc -S9 +s 9 -s9 +s9

A Lys . HCI, Leu, Ser, Thr, Met, Gln, Pro + Decrease - -

B Arg, Gly, Ala, Val, Ile + Decrease - Increase

C CySH + Increase + Increase
D Phe + Increase - -
E Trp, (Cys),, Tyr, Asp, Asn, Glu - - - -

a Shinohara ef al. (1983).

* +, Positive mutagenic activity; -, no detectable mutagenic activity.

by heating pure sugar. No mutagenicity was noted in hydroxymethylfurfural

(HMF) or in a plant protein hydrolysate. Recently, Scheutwinkel and von der
Hude (1985) also reported no mutagenicity of commercially available caramel
colors in Ames tests using four strains with or without S9 mix.
Omura and his group (Shinohara et al., 1980, 1983; Omura et al., 1983)
examined the mutagenicity of browned aqueous mixtures of glucose with amino
acids at 100°C using the Ames test and Rec-assay. The results showed varying
mutagenicity depending mainly upon the kind of amino acid, the reaction condi-
tions (especially pH), and the test systems used. As shown in Table VI, for the
reaction systems using glucose-amino acid, the Ames test gave mutagenicity
data that divided the amino acids into five groups which behaved differently
according to the test bacterial strain (TA98 or TAlOO) and to the presence or
absence of S9 mix. Among the amino acids, tryptophan, glutamic acid, and
aspartic acid showed no mutagenicity despite the strong mutagenicity observed
in pyrolysis of the first two. Mutagenicity was shown for lysine only with TAlOO
and without S9; for arginine, with TAlOO and TA98 with S9, and for cysteine,
with TAlOO without S9. Their results also showed dependence of mutagenicity
on sugar species, which in turn depend on the amino acid used.
The reaction between glucose and glutamic acid, arginine, or cysteine showed
weak mutagenicity in Rec-assay and tests on pupal oocytes of silkworms
(Yamashita et a l . , 1981).
Powrie et al. (1981) demonstrated that the Maillard reaction in the mixtures of
glucose with various amino acids (especially lysine and arginine) without S9 mix
induced significant increases in the chromosomal aberration test using Chinese
hamster ovary (CHO) cells; mitotic recombination and mutation was induced in
Saccharomyces cereviseae. The activities depended heavily on initial pH of the
Maillard reaction and were stronger at pH 10 than at pH 7.
 CHEMISTRY OF MAILLARD REACTIONS 163

These results indicate the complexity of determining mutagenicity in Maillard

reaction mixtures, with different test methods often giving contradictory results.
Concerning the mutagenic principle of Maillard reaction mixtures, Omura et
al. (1983) isolated 5-hydroxymethylfurfural (HMF) from a glucose-phe-
nylalanine system, HMF and a pyrrole derivative from a glucose-lysine system,
and a thiazolidine derivative from a glucose-cysteine system. This was the first
time that HMF, well known as an important intermediate of browning and flavor
formation, was shown to be mutagenic.
According to Shinohara’s detailed study on the formation of furan derivatives
(Shinohara et al., 1986), larger amounts of HMF are produced by lysine and
arginine reactions with arabinose, xylose, or glucose (all at pH 7.0) than in
reactions of phenylalanine, glutamic acid, lysine, and arginine with fructose at
pH 2.0. In these cases, the amounts of HMF formed did not parallel the degree of
browning; the highest degree of browning occurred in alkaline media with lysine
and glycine without the formation of HMF. Some organic acids, e.g., oxalic acid
and tartaric acid, promoted the formation of furan derivatives. Although the
mutagenicity of HMF, shown by TAlOO with S9 mix, is much weaker than that
of IQ and its analogs, it is a cause for some concern because it is easily produced
by Maillard reactions. Its carcinogenicity, however, is not known.
Shibamoto and co-workers examined the mutagenicity of Maillard reaction
model systems of maltol-NH, (Shibamoto, 1980), L-rhamnose-NH,-H,S (Toda
et al., 1981), and cysteamine glucose (Mihara and Shibamoto, 1980) and de-
tected mutagenicity by Ames test in the fractions containing pyrazine, pyrrole,
and thiazolidine derivatives; the mutagenic principles were not identified
(Shibamoto, 1982).
There are some other mutagenic products in foods which may be related to the
Maillard reaction. Nagao et al. (1979) investigated the mutagenicity of coffee
and claimed methylglyoxal (- 10 pg/ml in regular coffee) to be its mutagenic
component (TA100 without S9 mix) and warned of the potential hazards of
coffee (Kasai et a l . , 1982). Aeschbacher et al. (1980a,b), on the other hand,
refuted this claim, stating that coffee showed only weak mutagenic activity
toward TAlOO in the Ames test which, moreover, disappeared with the addition
of S9 mix. It should be kept in mind that coffee possesses bactericidal activity, a
fact which casts some doubt on results obtained using the Ames test.
Methylglyoxal was proposed to be an important fragmentation product of the
Amadori product in the Maillard reaction by Hodge (1967); this was recently
confirmed by Hayashi and Namiki (1986a,b). Methylglyoxal is present in many
foods, e.g., caramel (Hodge et a l . , 1963; Severin et a l . , 1984), bread (Wiseblatt
and Kohn, 1960), and broiled potato (Kajita and Senda, 1972). Recently, Hay-
ashi and Shibamoto (1985) noted a much higher content of methylglyoxal than
previously found in coffee and root beer using a newly developed analytical
method (Hayashi et a l . , 1985b).
164 MITSUO NAMIKI

Methylglyoxal is known to be a very reactive compound and is assumed to be

an important active carcinogenic carbonyl compound in vivo (Szent-Gyorgyi,
1980), but whether methylglyoxal in food is related to human cancer remains to
be elucidated.

C. NITROSO MUTAGENS

N-nitrosoamines, the most hazardous of the carcinogens produced by the

interaction of food components, are produced mainly from secondary amines and
nitrous acid. Since the Maillard reaction produces a number of secondary amines
including the Amadori products, the possibility of mutagen formation cannot be
ignored. At the same time, it is also possible that the reductive products of the
reaction exhibit desmutagenic action (Kada et al., 1982) on the formation of N-
nitroso compounds, as has been evidenced for ascorbic acid, a representative
reductone (Mirvish et al., 1972; Mirvish, 1981); reducton-like properties of
Maillard products have been noted previously.
Several reports concerning the Maillard reaction-nitrous acid complex system
have been published (Cough et a l . , 1979). Heyns et al. (1974, 1979) described
the formation of nitrosated Amadori compounds, and Russel (1983) showed
formation of positive dose-response mutagenicity of a nitrosated fructose-tryp-
tophan mixture for both TA98 and TAlOO strains without S9 mix in the Ames
test. Shibamoto has reviewed Maillard nitrite reactions (1983a) and focused on
the mutagenicity of nitroso derivatives of thiazolines, which are important meat
flavor components (Fujimaki et al., 1969) produced by the Maillard reaction
(Sakaguchi and Shibamoto, 1979; Mihara and Shibamoto, 1980; Sekizawa and
Shibamoto, 1981).
Although the mutagenicity of soy sauce was once the subject of some public
concern, it was later disproved (MacDonald and Dueck, 1976; Nagahara et af.,
1986). However, mutagenicity was found to develop when nitrite was added to
soy sauce (Lin et al., 1979), a phenomenon which was not considered to be
caused by nitrosamines (Shibamoto, 1983b).
Wakabayashi et al. (1983) also investigated the production of mutagens in the
nitrite-soy sauce system and isolated P-carboline derivatives and Tyramine as
precursors of the induced mutagen principle in the mixture (Ochiai et al., 1984).
The carbolines, considered to be a product of the reaction of tryptophan with
methylglyoxal, furfural, or hydroxymethylfurfural, probably produce nitroso
mutagens by reaction with nitrite.
Kinae et al. (1986) demonstrated the induction of significant mutagenicity
upon addition of nitrite to a very slightly mutagenic reaction product of tryp-
tophan with carbohydrates and other compounds, especially carbonyl com-
pounds such as triose reductone, diacetyl, and furfural. Mutagenicity has been
attributed to the formation of P-carboline compounds by condensation and
 CHEMISTRY OF MAILLARD REACTIONS I65

cyclization followed by N-nitrosation by nitrite, although the final products have

not yet been identified.
At the time these findings were reported, they became cause for general alarm
throughout Japan concerning the safety of soy sauce and other foods. However,
mutagenicity under practical conditions was, for the mosr part, disproved be-
cause of the enormous difference in nitrite concentration levels found in soy
sauce and the experimental model systems, as well as because of evidence of the
presence of reaction inhibitors in soy sauce (Nagahara er al., 1986; Shibamoto
1983b).
Yen and Lee (1986) investigated mutagenicity of a browned casein-glucose
system with or without nitrite by the Ames test (TA 100, 102, and 104 with S9
mix). The ether extracts showed mutagenicity in the nitrite-treated casein-
glucose mixtures, especially in the browned casein-glucose mixture, but no
activity was observed in the ether extracts of casein-glucose, browned casein-
glucose, or nitrite-casein systems, nor was any activity observed in the water
extract of samples of any test strain. Amino acid analysis showed a marked
decrease in lysine content, especially in nitrite-treated systems.

D. ANTIMUTAGENESIS

The formation of these mutagens in foods naturally presents serious problems

regarding safety. However, it must also be noted that, because studies on food
mutagenicity are still in an early stage, in many cases it is not well understood
whether or not mutagens are actually formed and/or function in actual food
processing and living systems as they do in model systems. Inactivation of
mutagens in food by other components has also been demonstrated. e.g., the
inactivation of Trp P-l by vegetable juices, especially cabbage, broccoli, and
burdock (Kada et al., 1978; Morita et al., 1978; Inoue et al., 1981) and also by
BHA and others (Barnes et al., 1983). The enzyme peroxidase in horseradish
(Yamada et al., 1979) and saliva (Nishioka er al., 1981) has also been found to
inactivate mutagens. Unlike peroxidase or other enzymes, the mechanism of
inactivation in the case of burdock appeares to be adsorption by some polymer
(Morita et al., 1984, 1985). The elimination of mutagenicity has been observed
with the addition of nitrite (Yoshida and Matsumoto, 1978) (Tsuda et al., 1980)
and chlorine (Tsuda et al., 1983), both of which appear to inactivate the active
site by some kind of simple chemical reaction. The term desrnutagen, proposed
by Kada et al. (1982) for substances possessing such action, represents this
concept well. Chan er al. (1982) reported the desmutagenic effects of a lysine-
fructose reaction mixture and caramelized sucrose on pyrolysate mutagens, al-
though the effective components have not yet been characterized. Kim et al.
(1986) examined the effect of the addition of fractionated glucose-glycine
melanoidin (molecular weights <1OOO, 1000-5000, and >5000) on the muta-
166 MITSUO NAMIKI

genicity of Trp P-I,Trp P-2,Glu P-I,Glu P-2,IQ, etc. and confirmed des-
mutagenic action that grew stronger with increasing molecular weight and paral-
leled the reducing power and antioxidative activity. Sodium borohydride
reduction lowered desmutagenic activity, and the inactivation of the pyrolysates
by humic acid has also been reported (Sato et al., 1986, 1987). The desmuta-
genic effect of melanoidin, as well as that of humic acid, may be the result of the
adsorptive activity of mutagens, as has been observed in the case of a de-
smutagenic lignanlike fraction of burdock (Morita er al., 1984). Desmutagenic
activity against pyrolysate mutagens by low-molecular-weight carbonyl com-
pounds (such as diacetyl and glyceraldehyde, which are assumed to be fragmen-
tation products of the Maillard reaction) has also been reported (Kim et al.,
1986); this is thought to be due to an amino-carbonyl reaction between these
carbonyl compounds and an amino group of the pyrolysate mutagens.
While these substances possess desmutagenic activity, compounds also exist
which, although not mutagenic themselves, appear to promote mutagenicity.
P-Carboline compounds from soybean protein pyrolysate are an example of this
type (Nagao et al., 1977~).
Although it may not be directly involved in the mutagenicity of Maillard
reaction products, some Amadori products have been found to induce site-specif-
ic DNA breaks on some phages (Komano et al., 1986; Kashimura et af., 1986).
The effect depends on the Cu2+ ion and is inhibited by radical scavengers,
suggesting the involvement of active oxygen radicals.
The involvement of the Maillard reaction and its products in the formation and
elimination of mutagens is gradually being elucidated by studies which are being
conducted mainly in Japan. The mutagenicity of pyrolysates once caused grave
concern but, given the evidence of their low levels in actual food, their inactiva-
tion by other food components, and their own weak carcinogenicity, it now
seems that their actual invoivement in carcinogenesis is less serious than first
thought. The actual role of pyrolysate mutagens in carcinogenesis should be
carefully examined taking into account both the overall process of food prepara-
tion and intake involving the desmutagenic actions.

V. TRENDS IN CONTINUING RESEARCH

As mentioned at the beginning, among the interactions of food and biological

constituents, Maillard reactions are unique, important, and involve many prob-
lems in numerous fields of food science and technology. The present view covers
only recent developments concerning the browning reaction mechanism and the
antioxidative and mutagenic activities of Maillard products, dealing mainly with
problems concerning low-molecular-weight compounds. In addition to browning
and other organoleptic aspects, Maillard reactions involving proteins are, of
 CHEMISTRY OF MAILLARD REACTIONS 167

course, very important for food quality, especially from the nutritive and physio-
logical viewpoints. However, these topics are treated in a number of other
studies and have not been included in this limited review. This final section deals
with relevant problems which require further investigation.

A. BROWNING REACTION MECHANISM

The mechanism for the Maillard reaction proposed by Hodge in 1953 has been
accepted widely as the most appropriate description for the production of
melanoidin, the browning polymer. The mechanism involves Amadori rear-
rangement as a key step to give major intermediates for browning polymers.
However, the browning is known to be influenced greatly by reactants, pH, and
other conditions, so it seems reasonable to assume the existence of different
pathways that depend mainly on the pH and the reactant. In this respect, the new
browning reaction mechanism described in Section II,C is noteworthy since it is
the first which emphasizes the importance of sugar fragmentation occumng prior
to Amadori rearrangement. Experimental results showed that the occurrence of
such sugar fragmentation is negligible under acidic conditions, and the browning
probably proceeds according to Hodge’s proposal (although the rate of browning
is slow). On the other hand, in systems above a weakly alkaline pH, the contribu-
tion of the sugar fragmentation to browning becomes dominant, especially in
early browning. Thus, it seems important to elucidate the degree of the contribu-
tion of the sugar fragmentation pathways to browning in neutral or slightly acidic
food systems, and also to browning in different reactant systems, e.g., lysine-
glucose, glutamic acid-glucose, fructose-glycine, etc.
If the Maillard browning reactions proceed by additional reactions of furfural
or osones with amino compounds in acidic conditions and by condensation of
sugar fragmentation carbonyl compounds or their enaminols in alkaline condi-
tions, the browning products which result will naturally be different in structure
and chemical properties. Studies on precursor and colored products regarding
these respects are needed.
The formation of C, fragmentary products of sugar before Amadori reamange-
ment has been elucidated by ESR spectral analysis and chromatographical isola-
tion as well as by NMR and MS spectral identification. As for the C, fragmen-
tary products, even though their production was recognized at an early stage of
the reaction (closely after C, formation) it has not yet been clearly elucidated
whether the C, formed directly from the Amadori product or from 1 -deoxyosone
according to Hodge’s proposal. Moreover, a C, product was identified as meth-
ylglyoxal diimine derivative, but whether it is a direct fragmentary product or
secondary product is not yet clear.
To elucidate the mechanism of a reaction as rapid and complicated as the
Maillard reaction at neutral and higher pH, it is necessary to develop new and
168 MITSUO NAMIKI

dynamic experimental techniques employing various new spectrometries to de-

tect and analyze unstable intermediates and their changes in the reaction. Highly
reactive intermediates to browning are sometimes difficult to isolate by the usual
techniques and the yield is poor, while some products which are fairly stable and
obtained in appreciable amounts sometimes turn out not to be the most important
intermediates. The discovery of a free radical product in the early stage of the
reaction leading to the elucidation of the presence of a new pathway to browning
is an example of the application of such research methods.
Concerning the free radical products early in the Maillard reaction, an interest-
ing question is why such free radicals are fairly stable in the reaction mixture.
Perhaps they exist because of a balanced oxidation-reduction system. Another
question concerns the kind of products involved, and the answer should be useful
in further clarifying the browning mechanism.

B. REACTANTS

Recently, large amounts of isomerized sugar have been used in various foods
and drinks. The behavior of fructose in the Maillard reaction is known to be
considerably different from that of glucose, e.g., in the browning reaction rate
and color tone. There are many studies on the Maillard reaction of fructose, and a
reaction mechanism involving the Heyns rearrangement has been proposed.
However, many problems concerning the reaction of fructose, especially in
browning and the development of antioxidants and mutagens, remain.
As for carbonyl compounds other than reducing sugars in the Maillard reac-
tion, this review discusses mainly oxidized ascorbic acid, but there are many
interesting and important problems concerning the reactions of oxidized fatty
acids and polyphenols.
On the other hand, differences in Maillard reactions that depend on the amino
acids involved are well known, and there are many detailed studies on the
formation of flavor products in special amino acid-sugar systems, e.g., proline
(Tress1 et al., 1986), threonine and serine (Baltes and Bochmann, 1986), and
cysteine (Shibamoto et al., 1983a). However, not many studies have been done
on development of browning, antioxidants, mutagens, etc., and further investi-
gation is required concerning the products and the mechanism of formation by
the Maillard reaction of special amino acid-sugar systems, such as lysine, his-
tidine, arginine, tryptophan, and others. The fact that an €-amino group is elimi-
nated by DHA and other analogous carbonyl compounds (just as the a-amino
group is eliminated by Strecker degradation) is very important regarding the
nutritive and physicochemical properties of proteins. The kinds of carbonyl
compounds involved and to what extent such deamination occurs in food system
need further elucidation.
 CHEMISTRY OF MAILLARD REACTIONS 169

C. ANTIOXIDANTS

As mentioned in Section 111, the antioxidative activity of melanoidin may

result from multiple factors involving hydrogen or electron donating activity,
metal chelating activity, and synergistic activity; it does not appear to be the
result of a single and strongly active factor, but seems to involve many different
activities. Thus, to elucidate the mechanism of the antioxidative activity, more
detailed information on the structure and properties of melanoidin is required.
Investigations to determine the Maillard reaction conditions for controlling anti-
oxidative activity, and other properties such as flavor and color, are required.
Antioxidative low-molecular-weight Maillard reaction products as observed in
glucose-glycine (Park and Kim, 1983), DHA-tryptophan (Namiki et af.,
1982a,b), and triose reductone-amino acid (Obata et af., 1971) systems also
require examination.
Ozonolysis of melanoidin gave an almost colorless but still antioxidative
melanoidin product. This is a very interesting finding and is important with
respect to both the chemical study of melanoidin and the practical use of mela-
noidin as a food additive. Additional studies on the modification of melanoidin
are needed on the formation of antioxidative products contributing to safety,
color, flavor, solubility, and other important food quality factors.

D. MUTAGENS

Extremely strong mutagens, such as IQ and MeIQx, have been isolated and
identified by the Ames test from broiled semidried fish and beef and demon-
strated to be formed by Maillard reactions. It was found that creatine-amino
acid-sugar systems are the most effective producers of these mutagens and also
that their formation is greatly influenced by reaction conditions such as tem-
perature and moisture content. Details concerning the effects of reaction condi-
tions and the formation mechanism are, however, not yet known. Fortunately,
additional studies showed that the carcinogenicity of the pyrolysate mutagens
was not as strong as originally thought and that their yields in ordinary foods are
very small. To prevent the production of the pyrolysate mutagens, it is necessary
to elucidate these points as well as the effects of inactivating factors in food
systems.
The mutagens are formed under low-moisture conditions. Concerning this
and, moreover, the formation of antioxidants, flavors, and other changes in dried
foods, more studies on Maillard reactions in low-moisture systems are needed.
Nitroso amino compounds have been noted as being strong carcinogens. As
discussed, nitrite-Maillard reaction systems involve mutagen formation while, at
the same time, involving desmutagenesis. The relevant reactions are very com-
170 MITSUO NAMIKI

plicated, and thorough investigations employing reactant concentrations similar

to those found in actual foods are required, as are studies on the effects of the
presence of other food constituents.
In conclusion, the extremely complex Maillard reaction can perhaps be com-
pared to a river which constantly flows and affects human life. The reactions and
interactions are very complicated, and care must be taken not to isolate and focus
too much on one aspect without taking into consideration all of the other relevant
aspects. The dirt and debris which may be found on the banks do not present the
total picture of the benefits and risks the river provides.

ACKNOWLEDGMENT

The author expresses gratitute to Dr. Keiichi Tsuji for his excellent advice concerning both the
content and language of this review. Thanks are also due to Dr. Tateki Hayashi for helpful discus-
sions.

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