College of

Teacher Education
Second Semester, A.Y. 2020-2021
MODULE 1
Key Terms and Concepts in Managing and Implementing
Standards-based Grammar Teaching

Course Title: Teaching and Assessment of Grammar

Course Code: EL 108

Name:
Course and Year:
Date and Time Allotment:

Introduction
Welcome to the first module of this course on Teaching and Assessment of Grammar. The content of
this module is highly imperative for this course because this will serve as your springboard in understanding the later
modules. For this lesson, we will review and discuss the important key terms and concepts in Teaching Grammar like
Grammaring, Correction error and feedback, written, and spoken grammar. Hopefully, you gain enough knowledge
about the aforementioned terms/concept and you will soon apply them in your future classes. However, this learning
material is quite short and brief for you to acquire an in-depth understanding of the lesson. So if you wish to
understand the topic thoroughly, you can do some further reading about the lesson. Links to other references are
available in the later part of this module. This module covers Week 1 and Week 2 so you have to manage your time
wisely to accomplish this module on the set date. You may now start working. Have fun!

At

the end of this module, you would be able to:

​a. discuss the fundamental terms and concepts associated to the teaching and assessing of grammar; and
​b. share the implications of one’s knowledge of key concepts in the teaching learning process.

What is “Grammaring”?

According to Benhima (2015), various authors have attempted to define the term “grammaring” differently.
Larsen-Freeman says “grammaring” can be seen as a “fifth skill.” Her definition of the word is as follows: “the ability
to use grammar structures accurately, meaningfully, and appropriately” (ibid., p. 143). Although it was
Larsen-Freeman who first used the term in her book, From Grammar to Grammaring, this term has gained several
definitions in its subsequent use. According to Richards and Schmidt (2002), Grammaring is sometimes used to refer
to the process by which language learners use grammar to create messages through grammaticalizing or adding
grammar to a sequence of words to create finer meaning distinctions. The linguist Larsen-Freeman proposed
grammaring as an important process in second language acquisition. Grammaring emphasizes grammar as a
dynamic process rather than a system of rules (p. 552).

According to the definition stated above, grammar is no longer conceived as a description of language or
native speaker’s competence. Thus, a paradigm shift arose about the teaching and learning of grammar. The
purpose behind teaching grammar is no longer the transmission of knowledge. Rather, teaching grammar is now
performed to enable students to use grammatical structures accurately, meaningfully, and appropriately. In this
respect, Larsen-Freeman (2001) further states that “grammar teaching is not so much knowledge transmission as it is
skill development” (p. 255). Thus, different activities have started to focus on developing such a skill.

Practical Activities for “Grammaring”

The practical activities that are used in “grammaring” fall into three categories as specified by Freeman’s
definition of the term. Given that language should be used accurately, meaningfully, and appropriately, emphasis is
laid upon form, meaning, and use. For example, in teaching phrasal verbs, the form is presented first. What should
be explained that a phrasal verb consists of a verb plus a particle such as “break up.” However, explaining form alone
is not enough for understanding what the word means. Thus, meaning is a very important dimension to evade any
possible confusion that surrenders the phrasal verb “break up,” as the latter cannot be guessed from the form only.
Again, it is not enough merely to instruct students how to use “break up” in speaking or writing in English unless an
explicit teaching has been supplied. Thus form, meaning, and use are equally important for the teaching and learning
of grammar. In general, the practical activities that are used in “grammaring” can be categorized into: a. form, b.
meaning, and c. use.

A. Focus on form
A distinction is often made between language use and language form. In other words, there has been a
continuous debate over whether to teach students the language or teach them about the language. For
Larsen-Freeman, both language form and language use are equally important. In this vein, she states:
Teachers who focus students’ attention on linguistic form during communicative interactions are more effective than
those who never focus on form or who only do so in de-contextulized grammar lessons (Spada and Lightbown 1993;
cited in Larsen-Freeman 2002).
Among the activities that focus on language form are language games, Cuisenaire rods, sentence completion, and
sentence unscrambling tasks, among others. In general, there are three important activities, namely: games, use of
rods, and sentence unscrambling activities.

B. Focus on meaning
Linking form with meaning can be carried out by the use of different activities. In fact, meaning should call for
some sort of associative learning (cf. Ellis 1998). This activity gives students the opportunity to associate the form
with the meaning of a particular target structure. For example, it is by associating form and meaning that a phrasal
verb can be understood. Moreover, meaning can also be made clear by using realia and pictures. By using real-world
objects or pictures, the relationship between word and referent can be made more explicit. For example, if someone
asks you what a cabbage means, and you have a cabbage, you will tell him this is a cabbage. Mimicry of the
appropriate action is another way of making the meaning of linguistic “signs” more clear.

C. Focus on use
The right form with the right meaning should be selected for the right context to ensure successful communication. A
practical way of going about sensitizing students to the effect of context on language is through making use of role
playing. The latter can be described, according to Larsen-Freeman (2001), as follows
1. Role plays work well when dealing with use because the teacher can systematically manipulate social
variables (e.g., increase or decrease the social distance between interlocutors) to have students practice how
changes in the social variables affect the choice of the form (p. 261).
2. Role playing can be considered one of the most effective activities for developing the appropriateness of the
linguistic behavior of students due to its simulation of real-life contexts.

Teachers know that making mistakes is an integral part of learning. They also know that students can learn
from their mistakes. What is less clear to teachers is what needs to be done to make this learning happen. What kind
of error correction works in the language classroom?
In order to answer this question, we should start by establishing why students make mistakes. In his book “Mistakes
and Correction”, Julian Edge suggests that students make mistakes for four particular reasons. In the first place, the
student’s native language may ‘interfere’ with English and produce errors. Secondly, students make mistakes
because they have learned a rule but use it too widely, that is, ‘overgeneralize’ the rule. These ‘developmental’
mistakes are part of the learning process. Students sometimes make mistakes almost deliberately because they want
get their message across, correctly or incorrectly. They may also make mistakes when they are in a hurry.
The author categorizes student mistakes into the following types: slips, errors and attempts.

Slips are smaller mistakes which a student can correct by him/herself if someone (the teacher or peer) draws their
attention to them. For example, forgetting to add 's' to verbs with a third person singular subject (Example: He speak
Chinese) is a frequent slip of English learners.

Errors happen when a student finds it hard to self-correct, but there may be other students in the group who can
help with the correct version. (If no one in the group can correct the error, it is time to re-teach the language point!)

Attempts are the result of a student trying to say something beyond their language level at their stage of learning.
Students have not learned a particular grammar rule in their course, but attempt to use it.
Julian Edge reminds us about the importance of selective and meaningful response to student errors. Not every
mistake needs to be corrected, and it is the teacher who makes the decision whether and when to correct. If we
change the term 'error correction' to 'language feedback', then the nature of the corrective intervention changes: the
purpose of giving language feedback is to improve learner performance. Effective feedback provides constructive
advice, and guidance to learners in their effort to improve their performance levels.

Diane J. Tedick refers to the same process as 'error treatment' and offers several types of corrective feedback to
learners. Let's look at them more closely.

Types of Feedback
Feedback Description Example
S: He speak
The teacher indicates that a student made a mistake and offers the
Chinese.
Explicit correction correct answer.
T: He speaks
Chinese.
S: He speak
The teacher does not directly say that the student made a mistake, but
Chinese.
provides the correct answer, or simply re-casts/re-formulates what the
Recast T: Yes, he speaks
students said.
Chinese and
Japanese.
S: He speak
Chinese.
The teacher signals that the message was not clear and that there
Clarification request T: Pardon?
was a mistake to encourage the student to self-correct.
S: He speaks
Chinese.
S: He speak
The teacher does not offer the correct answer but asks questions to
Chinese.
help the student see that there was a mistake (gives comments or
Metalinguistic clues T: 3rd person '-S'
information).
S: He speaks
Chinese.
S: He speak
The teacher elicits the correct form from the student. Can be done by Chinese.
pausing and allowing the student to complete a sentence the teacher T: Say it again
Elicitation
started, or by asking them to reformulate what they were saying. please.
S: He speaks
Chinese.
S: He speak
Chinese.
The teacher repeats the student’s mistake but changes his/her T:
Repetition
intonation to signal that something was wrong. He speak Chinese?
S: He speaks
Chinese.

Which errors should be corrected? When should they be corrected – immediately or later? Who should correct errors
– the teacher, the student who made the error, or other students?
Here is a list of questions that can help the teacher determine when it is appropriate to correct a student’s errors:
 ✔ Does the mistake affect communication?

✔ Are we concentrating on accuracy at the moment?

✔ Why did the student make the mistake?

✔ Is it something the students have already learned?

✔ Is this a mistake that several students are making?

Timely and appropriate corrective feedback can help learners reduce their errors, improve their performance and
significantly increase their motivation.

What is Spoken Grammar? What is Written Grammar

Spoken grammar (SG) is the grammar of everyday interaction.  It is informal and natural. SG is flexible in its
word order.  The 100 most common words in written grammar are prepositions, pronouns and articles - the small
words which give correct grammatical structure to sentences.  In spoken English, many of the top 100 words are
verbs.
The characteristics of spoken grammar are: ellipsis, heads, tails, fillers, backchannels and phrasal chunks. In
contrast, written language is typically associated with language of books and explanatory prose such as is found in
schools. Written language is formal, academic, and planned; it hinges on the past and is reconstructed in such a way
that in the future it can be processed by varied readerships, Thanh (2015).
Students need to see the difference between spoken and written English. The following are some generalizations, to
which there are certain exceptions.
 
1. Permanence
Written discourse is fixed and stable so the reading can be done at whatever time, speed and level of thoroughness
the individual reader wishes. Spoken text in contrast is fleeting, and moves on in real time. The listener – though he
or she may occasionally interrupt to request clarification – must in general follow what is said at the speed set by the
speaker.
 
2. Explicitness
The written text is explicit; it has to make clear the context and all references. In speech the real-time situation and
knowledge shared between speaker and listener means that some information can be assumed and need not be
made explicit.
 
3. Density
The content is presented much more densely in writing. In speech, the information is “diluted” and conveyed through
many more words: there are a lot of repetitions, glosses, “fillers”, producing a text is noticeably longer and with more
redundant passages.
 
4. Detachment
The writing of a text is detached in time and space from its reading; the writer normally works alone, and may not be
acquainted with his or her readers. Speaking usually takes place in immediate interaction with known listeners, with
the availability of immediate feedback.
 
5. Organization
A written text is usually organized and carefully formulated, since its composer has time and opportunity to edit it
before making it available for reading. A speaker is improvising as he or she speaks: ongoing alterations, in the
shape of glosses, self-corrections and so on produce an apparently disorganized 'stream-of-consciousness' kind of
discourse. Thus a written text conforms more to conventional rules of grammar, and its vocabulary is more precise
and formal.
 
6. Slowness of production, speed of reception
Writing is much slower than speaking. On the other hand, we can usually read a piece of text and understand it much
faster than we can take in the same text if we listen while someone reads it aloud to us.
 
7. Standard language
Writing normally uses a generally acceptable standard variety of the language, whereas speech may sometimes be
in a regional or other limited-context dialect. In some languages (Chinese, for example), the various spoken dialects
may even be mutually incomprehensible, while the written language is universally understood.
 
8. A learnt skill
Most people acquire the spoken language (at least of their own mother tongue) intuitively, whereas the written form is
in most cases deliberately taught and learned.
 
9. Sheer amount and importance
Spoken texts are far longer, normally (in the sense that they contain more words), than a representation of the same
information in writing. It is also, I think, true to say that most people speak far more than they write. Associated with
this point is a third: that speech is more important for survival and effective functioning in society than writing is.

A. GUIDED QUESTIONS
Instruction: Answer the following questions briefly.
1. In your opinion, why are we so afraid to teach grammar?
2. Why are error correction and feedback important in teaching grammar?

B. ACTIVITY
Instruction: Identify the type error correction applied to the following dialogues. Don’t forget to justify your answer in
2-3 sentences.
1. Student: I go to the theater last night.
Teacher:  Oh, you went to the theater last night, how nice
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________

2. Student: I go to the theater last night.

Teacher:  What is the past tense of this irregular verb?
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________

3. Student:  I go to the theater last night.

Teacher: Sorry?
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________

4. Student: I go to the theater last night.

Teacher: No, went.
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________

5. Student: I go to the theater last night.

Teacher: Could you repeat it, please? What did you do last night?
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
Instruction: Answer the assessment question/s below. Scoring criteria are presented below for your guide in
constructing your answers. Write your answer in yellow paper then attach it to this module.

1. Which among the types of correction feedback in grammar teaching is your favorite? Why?

Scoring Guide
FOCUS CONTENT ORGANIZATION CONVENTION
The single controlling The presence of ideas The order was developed Grammar, Mechanics,
point is made with an developed through facts, and sustainable within and Spelling, usage, and
awareness of the task details, opinions, etc. across paragraphs. sentence formation
about a specific topic.
5pts 5pts 5pts 5pts

V. Other References

● Benhima M. (2015). “Grammaring”: The Fifth Skill In Language Teaching and Learning. Retrieved from:
https://www.moroccoworldnews.com/2015/06/160095/grammaring-the-fifth-skill-in-language-teaching-and-le
arning/
● http://www2.vobs.at/ludescher/Writing/differences_between_spoken_and_w.htm
● Rayan, 2020. Importance of grammar: How written and spoken grammar are different when it comes to
everyday interaction. Retrieved from
https://www.edexlive.com/opinion/2020/may/25/importance-of-spoken-grammar-12220.html#:~:text=gramma
r%20of%20speaking%3F-,Spoken%20grammar%20(SG)%20is%20the%20grammar%20of%20everyday%2
0interaction.,It%20is%20informal%20and%20natural.&text=The%20100%20most%20common%20words,to
p%20100%20words%20are%20verbs