CE3 Class Notes: Classification of flows

Flows can be classified in numerous different ways. The general system adopted is to
consider the flow as being characterized by two parameters – time and distance. The class
into which any particular flow falls is usually a reliable guide to the appropriate method of
solution. The first major subdivision is based on the consideration of time. This categorises
all flows as either steady or unsteady. A flow is steady if the parameters describing that
flow do not vary with time. Typical parameters of a flow include velocity, discharge,
pressure and depth of flow. Alternatively a flow is classified as unsteady if the above
parameters do vary with time. Due to the complexity of some of the unsteady flow
equations, engineers often use steady flow equations at times where a small degree of
unsteadiness occurs.
The second subdivision relates to the scale of distance. This subdivision classifies flows as
being either uniform or non-uniform. As above, a flow is uniform if the parameters
describing the flow do not vary with distance along the flow path. For a non-uniform flow
these parameters vary from point to point at different distances along the flow path. Some
flows involve changes in regard to both time and distance, while others change relative to
time or distance only. Most flows can be classified in one of the following groups:

 Steady uniform flow – The discharge is constant with time and the cross-sectional
area through which the flow passes is also constant.
 Steady non-uniform flow – The discharge is constant with time but the cross-
sectional area through which the flow passes varies with distance.
 Unsteady uniform flow – The cross-sectional area through which the flow passes is
constant but the discharge varies with time.
 Unsteady non-uniform flow – Both the cross-sectional area and the discharge vary
with both time and distance. (3)

Steady uniform flow Unsteady uniform flow

Types of flow (3)
The Froude number
)

The Froude number (FR) used in conjunction with the hydraulic mean depth is often used
to determine the type of flow that is occurring in a channel. It is a dimensionless parameter
which measures the ratio of inertia forces acting on an element of fluid to that of the
weight of the fluid element itself.
The Froude number equation is:
FR =
Where: L is a characteristic dimension.
If L is replaced by Dm, the hydraulic mean depth, then the following equation is a
dimensionless parameter and is applicable to open channel flow.
FR =
Where: FR = Froude number
V = Velocity (m/s)
g = acceleration due to gravity (m/s2)
Dm = the hydraulic mean depth (m)

From this equation it is possible to define the flow that occurs in the channel as follows:
F < 1 Subcritical flow (a relatively deep, slow flow)
F = 1 Critical flow (often a transitional flow)
F > 1 Supercritical flow (a relatively shallow, fast flow)

Subcritical flow occurs when the Froude number is less than unity. In this case the
gravitational forces have the greatest influence, and the flow has a low velocity which is
often described as tranquil.
Critical flow is the state for which the Froude number is in unity. In this case of flow the
specific energy is at a minimum for a given discharge. Flow conditions tend to become
unstable leading to wave formation.
Supercritical flow occurs when the Froude number is greater than unity. In this case the
inertia forces become dominant and the flow has a high velocity which is usually described
as rapid.

Laminar and turbulent flow

Fluid flow may be classified as either laminar or turbulent. Laminar flow is usually
associated with viscous fluids that are moving at a slow pace. They rarely occur in nature
however they can be seen when water flows through an aquifer for example. In laminar
flow the velocity, pressure and other flow properties at any point in the fluid remain
constant. Laminar flow occurs generally when dealing with small pipes and low flow
velocities. Turbulent flows which occur most commonly in engineering practice are much
faster and chaotic. In turbulent flow vortices, eddies and wakes make the flow more
unpredictable. In turbulent flow the speed of a fluid at a point is continuously changing in
both magnitude and direction. Flow in rivers is generally classified as turbulent.
Transitional flow is a mixture of both laminar and turbulent flow, with turbulent flow
generally occurring in the centre of the liquid flow and laminar flow occurring on the
outside edges of the liquid. (4)
The Reynolds number
The Reynolds number is the most important dimensionless number in fluid mechanics. It is
the ratio of the inertial forces to the viscous forces. It is used to define whether a flow is
laminar, turbulent or transitional. It was found that the type of flow can be determined by
the following equation:
Re =
Where: ρ = density of the liquid (kg/m³)
V = mean velocity (m/s)
D = conduit diameter (m)
µ = dynamic viscosity (kg/ms)

It is also possible to show that the Reynolds Number represents a ratio of forces
Re =
For this particular reason any two flows can be compared together by reference to their
Reynolds number. The start of turbulence therefore tends to occur within a certain range of
predictable values of Re. Typical values for flows in conduits are given as follows:
For Re < 2000, Laminar flow exists.
For 2000 < Re < 4000, the flow is Transitional.
For Re > 4000, Turbulent flow exists.

Fundamental equations of fluid flow

For most practical problems we assume that the flow is one dimensional. This allows us to
simplify calculations and obtain a more rapid answer. We achieve this simplification by
taking the average velocity across the conduit section rather than the maximum values.

Continuity equation
The Continuity equation is simply a mathematical expression of the principle of the
conservation of mass. For a control volume that has a single inlet and a single outlet, the
principle of the conservation of mass states that, for steady-state flow, the mass flow rate
into the volume must equal that of the mass flow rate out.
 Diagram of control volume

Consider fluid flowing in the tube from volume AB to volume A’B’ i.e. the fluid moves
forward an increment in a time .
Now if flow is steady the mass entering at A will equal the mass exiting at B.
Therefore MA = MB
→ ρ1.A1.δs1 = ρ2.A2.δs2
→ Divide by
→ ρ1.A1. = ρ2.A2.

As t → 0 → V1 = Velocity at A
As t → 0 → V2 = Velocity at B
→ ρ1.A1.V1 = ρ2.A2.V2
If the fluid is incompressible
→ ρ1 = ρ2
→ A1V1 = A2V2 (Eqn 3.5) (4)
Where: A1 = Area A
B1 = Area B
V1 = Velocity A
V2 = Velocity B
This is known as the Continuity Equation for incompressible fluids flowing in one
direction.

The Energy equation (Bernoulli’s equation)

Bernoulli’s equation was derived in the late 1700’s by a Swiss mathematician by the name
of Daniel Bernoulli. The equation gives an insight into the balance between pressure,
velocity and elevation. Bernoulli’s principle states that for a flow, an increase in the
velocity of the fluid occurs simultaneously with a decrease in pressure or a decrease in the
fluids potential energy.
 Figure 2.1 Section of Pipe Considered.

Consider the section of pipe in Fig 2.3 above.

Now we must resolve the forces on the pipe
→ – (P + . ) – = Mass of fluid x Acceleration

→ – (P + . ) – = .

= as s→0

→ . . = .

Now: where velocity

. . = .
Divide through by
Giving: + . + g. =0
Now integrate with respect to s
∫ + ∫ +g∫ =0

+ .p + = constant “c”
Now divide through by gravity “g”
→ + + z = constant (Eqn 3.9a) (4)

Or z1 + + = z2 + + (Eqn 3.9b) (4)

This is Bernoulli’s equation for steady flow in an incompressible ideal fluid.
(Published by Daniel Bernoulli in 1738)
The terms on the L.H.S. represent the fluids total energy head.
Where: = Pressure head

= Velocity head
z = Potential head (m)

Now if during the passage of fluid from entry to exit of the pipe there is no energy supplied
or extracted then clearly:
Energy entering = Energy leaving
If (1) is at the entry point and (2) is at the exit point then:
+ + z1 = + + z2 + H L (Eqn 3.10a)
(4)

Total Energy Head at (1) = Total Energy Head at (2) + Head loss between (1) & (2)
This is known as Bernoulli’s Modified equation for the one dimensional steady flow of an
ideal fluid.

The Chezy equation

The Chezy equation was first derived by a French engineer by the name of Antoine Chezy
in the late 1700’s. He was given the task of designing a water supply canal from Yvette
River to the city of Paris in 1768. His final recommendations included the Chezy formula
written in terms of the ratios of the velocities of two rivers, and at a later date he gave the
formula for velocity as we now know it. Unfortunately, Chezy’s work was not published
and so did not become widely known until 1897 when Herschel published it in the United
States (5)

Figure 2.2 Mass of liquid

– – F2 =
Where: M = P.A.L = Mass of liquid
W= = Weight of liquid
If the flow is steady, =0
If the flow is uniform then, y1 = y2
F1 = P1.A1 = ρgy1 x
F2 = P2.A2 = ρgy1 x
Since y1 = y2, F1 = F2
ρgy1.( )+( ).g. ( )
. = τ0.ρ.L
For small values of i, =i
= τ0.P.L
We also know that m =
= τ0
For laminar flow in pipes
τ0 = given:
 = where F is the friction factor

v2 =

v= .

Therefore v = c Where c = Chezy’s “c”

This is the Chezy equation for the average velocity in Steady uniform flow.
The Chezy coefficient c is not, in fact constant but depends on the Reynolds number Re
and boundary roughness.

The Manning equation

The Manning equation is one of the most commonly used equations in open channel flow.
The equation was derived by Irish engineer Robert Manning. Manning did not receive any
education in fluid mechanics or engineering. His accounting background influenced his
work and drove him to reduce problems to their simplest form. The equation was
developed from seven different formulae, and was further verified by 170 observations. He
calculated the velocity obtained from each formula for a given slope and for hydraulic
radius varying from 0.25m to 30m. Then for each condition, he found the mean value of
the seven velocities and developed a formula that best fitted the data. The manning’s
equation is used in open channel flow and applies in particular to uniform flow. It is a
function of the channel velocity, cross sectional area and the slope of the channel.
Manning’s “n” coefficient represents the roughness of the surface or the friction applied to
the flow by the channel. In applying the Manning equation the greatest difficult lies in
determining the roughness coefficient n as there is no exact method for selecting the
appropriate value of ‘n’. There are numerous factors that affect the value of the coefficient
including, surface roughness, vegetation, channel irregularity, channel alignment,
obstructions, size and shape of the channel, depth of flow, and discharge. The Manning
equation assumes that the roughness coefficient ‘n’ is a constant. For most channels,
however the value of n is believed to vary with the depth of flow. This means that the
value of ‘n’ chosen for use in the formula is indeed an average value for the channel in
question. The actual ‘n’ value varies with the depth of the flow, leading to certain
inaccuracies in the determination of the flow rate. It is also noted that the value of n can
change with time due to erosion, corrosion etc. Therefore the value of ‘n’ should be re-
evaluated on a regular basis if the channel surface is subject to change. Due to all the above
difficulties the Manning equation can only be considered an approximation, and the
equation should only be used where the accuracies required are relatively low. (1)
The Manning equation can be used in two main ways. Firstly, the depth can be measured
and then the flow rate calculated using the equation. Alternatively, a second measuring
device can be used to measure the depth of the liquid in the conduit, and automatically
convert this level into an appropriate flow rate using the Manning equation.
 Table 2-1 Typical values for Manning’s ‘n’ for different types of surface (2)

Manning’s 'n'
Channel type, surface roughness and channel alignment Value
Canals: Earth, straight 0.018 < n < 0.025
Earth, meandering 0.025 < n < 0.040
Rock, straight 0.025 < n < 0.045
Lined: Perspex 0.009
Channels: Glass 0.009 < n < 0.010
Cement mortar 0.011 < n < 0.015
Concrete 0.012 < n < 0.017
Dressed, jointed stone 0.013 < n < 0.020
Rivers: Earth, straight 0.020 < n < 0.025
Earth, poor alignment 0.030 < n < 0.050
Earth, with weeds and poor alignment 0.050 < n < 0.150
Stones 75-100mm diameter, straight, good condition 0.030 < n < 0.040
Stones 75-100mm diameter, poor alignment 0.040 < n < 0.080
Stones >150mm, boulders, steep slope, good condition 0.040 < n < 0.070
Floodplain: Short grass 0.025 < n < 0.035
Long grass 0.030 < n < 0.050
Medium to dense brush, in winter 0.045 < n < 0.110
Pipes: Cast iron 0.010 < n < 0.014
Concrete 0.011 < n < 0.015

The derivation of the Manning equation is as follows:

Chezy’s equation is: v =

Where Chezy’s ‘c’ =

Where: g = Acceleration due to gravity
f = friction factor
Now we assume that:

Manning’s ‘n’ = from years of research

Where: m = hydraulic radius =
Substituting in for Chezy’s ‘c’

n=
Therefore:
 .

Where: v = velocity (m/s)

m = hydraulic radius (m)
i = channel slope (m/m)
n = Manning’s roughness coefficient

This is known as the Manning’s equation for open channel flow

If you substitute back in for Manning’s ‘n’ you get:

It is important to note that there is a considerable variation in the friction factor ‘f’ with
any change in velocity ‘v’. When the velocity of a fluid increases the friction factor
decreases.

2.4.5 The momentum principle

Velocity head in fluids exert forces on objects upon impact. The loss in velocity head
during the impact can be used to estimate the force exerted by the fluid. This is done by
applying the “Bulk Flow” or “Momentum Principle”
Derivation: The bulk flow equation for steady flow conditions

Control Volume ABCD (@ time t) @ time (t + Δt)

Figure 2.3 Control volume at different time intervals

ABCD is a fixed control volume in the flow field. At time t + Δt the fluid has moved to a
new position A’B’C’D’.
(1) The fluid @ A’D’ has moved a distance V1Δt
(2) The fluid @ B’C’ has moved a distance V2Δt

Let = sum of external forces acting on the control volume

 (remember that = =mx = force)

= =
= t+ -
= -
Now reduce R.H.S into sub areas
= momentum(A’BCD’) + momentum(BB’C’C) – momentum(AA’D’D) –
momentum(A’BCD’)
= momentum(BB’C’C) - momentum(AA’D’D) = mass(BB’C’C).v2x –
mass(AA’D’D).v1x
=
(V2x – V1x) (Since Q = v1xA1x = v2xA2x)
Hence: (V2x – V1x)
And similarly
(V2y – V1y)
These are the bulk flow equations where the fluid is incompressible.
Note: and include fluid pressure and hence forces at each end of the control
volume as well as pressures exerted on the control volume by the boundaries of flow.

Gradually varied flow

Gradually varied flow is steady, non uniform flow in an open channel, where the flow
depth and velocity do not change with time but do tend to vary along the length of the
channel. (6) The depth variation in the direction of flow is also deemed to be gradual
enough that the transverse pressure distribution can be considered hydrostatic. By
computing the water surface profile for a given discharge rate, the depth and velocity of the
water can be determined. The most important considerations to be taken into account when
evaluating gradually varied flow are the bed slope and channel friction. There are three
water depths which must be considered in water surface profile computations. They are the
normal depth (yn) which comes from the Manning equation for uniform flow which we
previously discussed, the critical depth (yc) which can be obtained using the minimum
specific energy equation, and the flow depth (y) which is computed from the energy
equation which was derived previously.

Critical depth yc = (Eqn 12.19) (7)

For a given channel and discharge, the normal depth of flow may be less than, equal to, or
greater than, the critical depth. For a given channel shape and roughness, the critical depth
will be found from one value of slope, and this is known as the critical slope (Sc). If the
slope is steeper than Sc then it is deemed to be supercritical and the slope is termed a steep
slope. On the other hand if the slope is less than Sc then the flow will be subcritical and the
slope is termed to be mild slope. (3)
Figure 2 below shows two types of transition, due to the change of bed slopes, which
results in a change in the flow surface.
 (a) Subcritical to supercritical (b) Supercritical to subcritical

Figure 2.4 Flow transitions

In Figure 2.6(a) it is presumed that the channel is of mild slope upstream and steep slope
downstream. The critical depth is constant for a given discharge. The flow is subcritical
upstream and the depth is greater than the critical depth. Downstream the flow is
supercritical and the depth is less than the critical depth. At the intersection of the two
flows and in the vicinity of the mild and steep slopes, gradually varied flow is taking place.
In Figure 2.6(b) the opposite occurs with the slopes being reversed and the resulting flow
transition is a lot more complex and occurs further downstream. Upstream the flow is
supercritical and downstream the flow is subcritical. At the point of intersection a
hydraulic jump is formed. Gradually varied flow occurs between the intersections of the
slopes and the upstream end of the hydraulic jump.

Equations for gradually varied flow

Where Sf is the friction slope

Where = Bed slope

From before:

And as

(Eqn 5.38)(3)
This is the general equation for gradually varied flow.
Where = Surface water slope
= Friction slope
= Bed slope
= Froude number
Note:
may be estimated from the Manning’s equation
 when (unifrom flow)
It is this equation that is used in the Direct Step Method.
As a result: when
when
Also when
1 when
Where y = the depth of the channel at the end location in the ‘varying zone’ and is
the normal channel depth
We also have to determine the type of bed slope in the channel which can either be mild,
critical or steep. To determine its category, the critical and normal depth of flow must be
found for the particular design discharge.
We also have to determine the points of discharge which are defined as any point where
there is a known relationship between head and discharge. Typical examples are weirs and
flumes.

Figure 2.5 Classification of gradually varied flow profiles. (3)

Hydraulic jump
When a flow is supercritical upstream in a channel and then is forced to become subcritical
in the downstream section a considerable abrupt change in depth occurs and considerable
energy loss accompanies the process. This flow phenomenon is known as the hydraulic
jump. (8) The hydraulic jump is considered to be of great importance in open channel flow.
Hydraulic jumps can often occur where there is a conflict between the upstream and
downstream controls. Many spillways are designed so that the hydraulic jump will occur
on the apron of the spillway so as to reduce the downstream velocity and minimise the
erosion of the river channel. In the case of manmade channels if a channel is designed to
carry flow of supercritical velocities, the designer must be certain that the flow will not
become subcritical at any given point leading to overflow of the channel. Due to the fact
that the energy loss in the hydraulic jump is not initially known, the energy equation is not
used for analysis of the velocity-depth relationships. However the momentum principle is
considered suitable and is generally applied to the problem.

(a) Froude numbers and fluid depths (b) Hydrostatic pressures

Figure 2.6 Typical hydraulic jumps

Rapidly varied flow

Rapidly varied flow occurs where there is a sudden change in the geometry of the channel
which in turn affects the surface profile of the water. Typical examples of change in
geometry include flow over sharp-crested weirs, and flow through areas of rapidly varied
cross section such as broad crested weirs. The second type is normally associated with the
hydraulic jump phenomenon where a flow of high velocity and small depth is suddenly
changed to a flow of low velocity and large depth. (3) Steady, rapidly varied flow occurs
over relatively short distances and losses due to boundary shear are generally neglected. In
areas of rapidly varied flow, the water surface profile changes suddenly and therefore has a
pronounced curvature. The change in curvature may be so great that separation zones are
formed that deform the velocity distribution making it difficult to identify flow boundaries.
Because of the convoluted flow patterns, most of the analysis for rapidly varied flow is
based on physical model studies.
Equations for rapidly varied flow

Specific energy (Eqn 2.21)(4)

For flat bed channels

Since

If Volume rate of flow per unit width

(Eqn 2.22)(4)
If Q is constant

If the Critical Depth

i.e. The flow is at a maximum when the vertical depth is ‘critical’

Now combining and

→
The Critical depth of flow in a rectangular channel will be

Figure 2.7 Types of flow. (3)

 CE3 Class Notes

2 Hydraulic structures
Introduction
There are many ways to determine the rate of flow in open channels. One of the most
common methods is to use hydraulic structures. Hydraulic structures are devices that are of
some fixed geometrical form, while some devices may be mechanically adjusted. The
function of the hydraulic structure is to a flow that is characterised by a known non-linear
relationship between the head of a liquid at a certain location and the flow rate of the
stream. (1) Hydraulic structures form part of the majority of major water engineering
schemes, for irrigation, sewage treatment, hydropower, etc. It is convenient to group the
structures under three headings:
(a) Flow measuring structures, e.g. weirs and flumes
(b) Regulation structures, e.g. gates and valves
(c) Discharge structures, e.g. spillways (3)

Weirs
Weirs are hydraulic structures which act as an artificial obstruction in any channel that
results in an increase in water level upstream for some if not all flow conditions. The liquid
then flows over the weir, often through a specially shaped opening or notch. Weirs are the
simplest, cheapest, and possibly the most common type of hydraulic structure used to
measure flow in open channels. (1) The most frequent type of weirs are the rectangular weir,
the V-notch weir and the trapezoidal weir. Each type of weir has a related equation for
determining the flow rate through the weir. We will go through the main equations
involved later in the chapter.
The edge over which the flow passes is known as the crest of the weir. It must be noted
that as the V-notch weir comes to a point at the bottom of the weir there is technically no
crest. In general the top edge of the weir is a thin plate so as the flow does not contact any
part of the weir but instead skips past it. Weirs of this type are called sharp-crested weirs
which will be discussed later in the chapter. The flow of water departing the crest of the
weir is called the nappe. When the downstream flow is a considerable distance below the
weir crest, so that air flows freely under the nappe, the nappe is aerated and the flow is
referred to as free or critical. When the water level downstream rises to a point where air
does not flow freely beneath the nappe, the nappe is not ventilated and the discharge may
be erroneous. When the downstream water level rises above the crest the flow is referred to
as submerged or subcritical. (1)
Regardless of the function of the weir it is important to note that weirs are engineering
structures that are required to operate in difficult environments. In engineering terms weir
design must satisfy three fundamental requirements:
 Hydraulic performance – the weir must provide the required hydraulic performance
in all flow conditions.
 Structural integrity – the weir must be able to resist the difficult hydraulic and
structural loading throughout is design life, without the need for excessive
maintenance expenditure
 CE3 Class Notes
 Health and safety requirements – the weir must not create any unnecessary and
unacceptable health and safety risks to the staff operating it or members of the
public. (11)

Functions of weirs
The main functions of weirs are as follows:
 Water level management
 Flow measurement
 Environmental enhancement
 Channel stabilisation

1. Water level management

Most weirs are designed with the primary goal of water level management. The storage of
water is obviously a major function of weirs. The structure is built on the river bed and
impounds the water like a dam and in turn raises the water levels of the stream relative to
downstream conditions. The main reason for increased water level would be to help with
navigation as water would be to shallow to allow boats on them in many rivers and canals.
In rivers which require these services for navigation there is often a need for extra
measures to control the level of water so as to prevent the banks being flooded and also to
allow sufficient headroom under bridges. This is often achieved by constructing a weir
with a long crest so as there is minimal variation in water level with changing flow
conditions. Weirs are also used to divert water into off stream reservoirs or diversion
channels, for flood prevention purposes or as to service a water supply scheme. Another
benefit of weirs is they can act as a dam which could release water at a required rate to run
a hydroelectric powered plant of it. (11)
2. Flow measurement

Weirs are also one of the most accurate methods of measuring flow rate in an open
channel. This is important to assist in development planning flood forecasting, planning
and development of flood improvement schemes, and water resource regulation. Although
all weirs can be used to present information on flow rates, weirs not designed with this
specifically in mind tend to give approximate data only. For optimum accuracy measuring
flows at weirs the flow in the open channel needs to be low to moderate. (11)
3. Environmental enhancement

By raising water levels weirs may offer the opportunity to create wetland and conservation
habitats as well as enhance rivers and their surrounding areas. However, the very fact that
the weir creates a barrier in the river may be very harmful to nature conservation. For this
reason it is vitally important to asses all the potential impacts before locating a weir in the
channel.
Advantages of weirs include the prevention of the drying out of the river channel upstream
of the weir, and improved aeration of the river water as it flows over the crest of the weir.
These can help to enhance a rich and diverse environment for aquatic species. They can
also increase the usability of the river for amenities and other recreation by increasing the
height of the water.
Disadvantages of weirs include the prevention of the migration of fish upstream and
downstream due to the weir acting as a barrier. This limits the suitability of weirs in or
around spawning sites and reducing the overall biological value of a fishery. (11)
 CE3 Class Notes
4. Channel stabilisation

In channels where the gradient is steep, and where erosion is a concern the increased water
depths caused by weirs will loosen water surface slopes, reduce and regulate velocities and
help with the control of erosion. Weirs are also provided in a stretch of channel that has
been shortened so that the gradient in the channel can remain stable. Weirs can also be
provided to create a silt trap, thus thwarting or reducing siltation downstream. If a weir is
going to be used in such a way it is important to remember that regular maintenance is
required to remove the trapped silt. If this is overlooked it will give rise to the weir being
ineffective as a flow measuring device. (11)
Table 2-1 Positive and negative impact of weirs (11)
Secondary Impact Potential Negative Impacts Potential Positive Impacts

Increased depth Increased flood risk Loss Visual appearance.

upstream of marginal vegetation. Loss of Improved amenity.
ranunculus vegetation. Increased risk of Improved navigation.
death by drowning. Improvement to some fisheries.
Reduced biodiversity. Raised Raised groundwater level may have positive
groundwater level may have negative impacts (such as improved wetland)
impacts (such as restricted drainage).

Drop in water level Barrier to fish migration. Amenity value.

at weir Noise. Ability to measure flow accurately.
Barrier to navigation. Potential for power generation.

Reduction of water Algal blooms. Visual appearance.

velocity upstream Loss of some angling opportunities. Aeration of water.
Attractive conditions for canoeists.

Turbulent flow Bank of bed erosion. Visual appearance.

downstream Dangerous conditions for canoeists and Aeration of water.
swimmers. Attractive conditions for canoeists.

Physical barrier Trapping of debris. Opportunity to create a crossing point

across the river Siltation of channel upstream.
Fish migration inhibited.

Issues regarding weir construction

1. Environmental issues

There are copious and various environmental impacts associated with the construction of a
new weir. Table 3.2 gives an indication of the typical issues investigated during
environmental assessment for which discussion with statutory and non-statutory consultees
is required. When considering environmental issues it is important to consider both the
short- term and long-term impacts of the construction works. The short-term impacts refer
to the impacts likely to occur during the progress of the works until completion. The long-
 CE3 Class Notes
term impacts refer to the impacts that will be a feature of the years following the
completion of the project.
Table 2-2 Common environmental issues (11)
Impact on Illustrative Impacts Potential Opportunities

Landscape Impact on a “micro” scale to the river Use of local building materials.
channel during construction and operation. Re-contouring of immediate surrounds and
“Macro” scale impact to landscape of the planting with indigenous trees to screen weir
floodplain during construction and operation. and to create new wildlife habitats.
Land use Loss of agricultural productivity during Purchase of areas of riparian land for creation
works. Changes to soil of backwaters, ponds and wetland habitat.
moisture of surrounding land leading to
alterations in land-use practices.
Ecology Loss of submerged, emerged and bank-side Creation of varied flows upstream and
vegetation and loss of associated animal and downstream suitable for colonisation by a
invertebrate communities. wide range of plant species.
Disturbance to nesting birds. Provide additional nesting habitats.
Social Visual and aesthetic impacts. Noise Landscaping, screening, provision of river
during and after construction. crossing point and basic amenities such as a
picnic area.
Archaeology and Disturbance to drowned or buried artefacts. Interpretation boards detailing heritage.
Heritage
Recreation and Reduced angling and navigation value of the Construction of fishing piers, canoe landing
Amenity river. stage and white-water ‘play’ area. Provision of
access for the disabled.

2. Engineering issues

A thorough knowledge of the chosen site is fundamental to the successful implementation

of a new weir. In particular those responsible for planning and designing a new weir will
need to have:
 Topographical survey of the site chosen for location of weir.
 Soils/Geological information from available maps and, depending on the scale of
the project, boreholes and test pits.
 River flow data and flow level data.
 Details of land ownership, rights of way, and any rights of use to the watercourse.
 Details of the locations of any service ducts.
 Information on any commercial or recreational use of the watercourse.
 Details of available access routes and construction, operation and maintenance.
 An understanding of the expected operation and maintenance requirements.
 Awareness of any nature conservation designations, protected species of habitats
that might be affected by the works.
 Information on land use that might be affected by the works.
 CE3 Class Notes
Types of weirs
There is a wide variety of weirs available, with the choice of type usually decided by the
primary purpose of the weir. The most common types of weirs are shown in Fig. 3.1. From
the figure you can see some indication of the advantages and disadvantages of each type
but that is only a vague overview as these details vary depending on the function and
setting of the weir.

Figure 2.1 Some of the different types of weirs

Thin plate (Sharp-crested) weirs

This type of mechanism is usually formed from a thin metal plate. They are overflow
structures whose length of crest in the direction of the flow is less than or equal to two
millimetres. The weir itself is incorporated into the top of the plate. The weir plate should
be smooth and flat, especially on the upstream side, while the crest surface and the sides of
the notch should have even surfaces which make a 90-degree angle with the upstream weir
face. On the downstream edge of the notch it should be bevelled especially if the weir plate
is wider than two millimetres. The bevelled surface should be of an angle not less than 45-
degrees for rectangular notch surfaces and an angle of not less than 60-degrees if the throat
section is non-rectangular. (12) The geometry of the weir does rely heavily on the precise
nature of the application. In general sharp crested weirs will be used where there is a
requirement for extremely accurate discharge results, for example in hydraulic laboratories
and for testing purposes. To obtain high accuracy it is important to ventilate the nappe to
ensure the pressure on the sides and surfaces of the nappe remain atmospheric. The water
level downstream should be low enough to ensure it does not impede with the ventilation
of the air pocket beneath the nappe.
As was already stated above the primary function of a weir is to measure discharge. Once
the upstream water level reaches a height greater than that of the weir crest height, water
 CE3 Class Notes
will flow over the weir. As the depth of water increases, the discharge over the weir
increases respectively. Therefore if there is a relationship between the depth of the water
and the discharge identified we only need to measure the depth in order to work out Q.
Thus the ideal relationship between depth and discharge can be easily derived for each
weir shape on the basis of the Bernoulli Equation. (3)

V-notch (Triangular) weirs

A V-notch weir as the name suggests is a V shaped notch in a thin plate which is placed
perpendicular to the sides and bottom of a straight channel. It is considered to be one of the
more accurate weirs for low flow rates. The angle of the notch most commonly used is 90°
although there are several other varieties available. Some problems exist with narrow
angled V-notch weirs in that the small angle of the weirs makes it more complicated to
accurately produce the geometry of the weir at the apex. Also the capillary effect will also
confine flow at unexpectedly high head, causing the results from the head/discharge
relationship to be undependable. One of the main advantages of the V-notch weir is that,
because the weir has no crest length, the head required for small flow through it is greater
than that required with other weir types. This is especially an advantage for small
discharges in that the nappe will easily spring free of the crest thus giving more accurate
results. (1)
Unlike the rectangular weir which will be discussed later in the chapter when using the V-
notch weir the increased velocity of the water approaching the weir can be ignored. The
same can be said for any contraction of the nappe. For the above reasons it is clear to see
that the V-notch weirs is easier to use and because of its sensitivity and precision it is the
most accurate weir for measuring low flow rates. However one of the main disadvantages
of this weir is that it is susceptible to flooding when there are high flow rates as shown in
Plate 3.2. This can be a major problem in the winter months of the year when flow rates are
high due to increased rainfall. (2)

Plate 2-1 A typical V-notch weir

 CE3 Class Notes

Plate 2-2 A V-notch Weir flooding due to high flow rate

Derivation of the discharge equation for a triangular weir

There are a number of assumptions that are of particular importance with respect to the
derivation:
(1) At a section upstream of the weir the velocity distribution is uniform. The approach
velocity V1 is relatively small compared to V2so below it is assumed V1 = 0. If a
hydrostatic pressure distribution is assumed then h1 = P1/ρg. This essentially treats
the upstream channel as a large reservoir.
(2) The streamlines are horizontal as they pass over the weir crest.
(3) The water in the nappe is surrounded by the atmosphere, so the nappe is assumed to
be at atmospheric pressure. Thus the atmospheric pressure at the datum, P2 = 0.
Note that P2/ρg = 0 so there is no vertical line representing the pressure head at a
point directly downstream of the weir.
(4) The nappe is as wide as the weir crest that is it also has a length b.
(5) There is no loss of energy.

Taking a thin horizontal strip of breath, b, and thickness, , across the nappe at a depth, h,
from the water as shown in Fig. 3.2 below.
 CE3 Class Notes

Figure 2.2 V-notch weir

Then: Area of the strip,

Velocity of flow through the strip = (2gh)1/2
Discharge through strip, = area × velocity = (1)
There is one additional step in the derivation for the triangular weir, and that is to write an
equation for the variation of the width of the weir, b, with depth, h. This can be done by
considering the triangle OXY. Thus:

Or, b= (2)
Substituting for b in equation (1) above:
Discharge through strip,
To obtain the total theoretical discharge, integrate the above expression to obtain the sum
of all of the horizontal strips covering the entire depth of the nappe. As defined by the
limits h=0 and h=H. Note that θ and g are constants
Total theoretical discharge,

= (Eqn 5.28) (2)

Note that the term in the square bracket above arises from the integration, 15 being the
lowest common denominator for 3 and 5. It often seems to be a strange fraction to appear
in an equation but this is the reason. To obtain the actual discharge, a coefficient of
discharge is introduced
(Eqn 5.29) (2)
A typical value for for a triangular weir is 0.58 if θ is between about 45° and 120°.
 CE3 Class Notes
Rectangular weirs
A rectangular weir as the name suggests is a rectangular notch symmetrically located in a
vertical thin metal plate which is placed perpendicular to both the sides and the bottom of a
straight channel. Rectangular weirs can be both sharp crested and broad crested with the
later being discussed later in the chapter. There are two main types of rectangular weirs:
 ‘Uncontracted’ or full-width weirs which comprise of a plate with a horizontal crest
which extends from one side of the channel to the other.
 A ‘contracted’ weir, by contrast, consists of a crest width which is less than the
channel width (3)

The rectangular weir is more suitable for measuring high flow rates as it has the
capacity to allow a far greater volume of water to flow through it in comparison to the
V-notch weir. However care must be taken when measuring flow rates over a
rectangular weir. This is mainly due to the fact that while you are trying to develop a
relationship between the height over the weir crest and the discharge. With the
rectangular weir you are dealing with a smaller cross section than the river so the
velocity over the crest must be elevated above that of the velocity in the upstream
channel. This increase in velocity subsequently leads to an increase in head.
When installing a rectangular weir with end contractions, it is important to note that he
distance between the side of the weir notch to the side of the channel should be at least
twice the maximum expected head on the weir. This is essential to allow the upstream
flow a free unhindered lateral movement towards the weir crest. Special care must also
be taken when installing weirs that have no end contractions to ensure that adequate
aeration of the nappe is possible. This is usually done by placing vents on either side of
the weir box under the nappe. Another important parameter to keep in mind when
installing a rectangular weir is that the distance from the weir crest to the bed of the
channel should be at least twice the maximum expected head. (1)

Plate 2-3 A rectangular weir in use

 CE3 Class Notes

Derivation of the discharge equation for a rectangular weir

There are a number of assumptions that are of particular importance with respect to the
derivation:
(1) At Section 1 (Fig. 3.3 below) upstream of the weir the velocity distribution is
uniform. The approach velocity V1 is relatively small compared to V2so below it is
assumed V1 = 0. If a hydrostatic pressure distribution is assumed then h1 = P1/ρg.
This essentially treats the upstream channel as a large reservoir.
(2) The streamlines are horizontal as they pass over the weir crest.
(3) The water in the nappe is surrounded by the atmosphere, so the nappe is assumed to
be at atmospheric pressure. Thus the atmospheric pressure at the datum, P2 = 0.
Note that P2/ρg = 0 so there is no vertical line representing the pressure head at 2
(Fig. 3.3 below)
(4) The nappe is as wide as the weir crest that is it also has a length b.
(5) There is no loss of energy

Figure 2.3 Rectangular weir

Applying the energy equation to points 1 and 2 on the diagram above, using the channel
bed as the datum level:

(Eqn 5.20) (2)

Thus the velocity in the nappe varies with depth. If a horizontal strip of length b and
thickness is taken across the nappe at a depth h, as in Fig 3.3 then:
Area of strip =
Velocity of flow through the strip =
Discharge through the strip, = area x velocity =
To determine the total theoretical discharge, the above expression must be integrated to
obtain the sum of all the horizontal strips covering the entire depth of the nappe as defined
by the limits h = 0 and h = H. Note that b and g are both constants.
 CE3 Class Notes

(Eqn 5.21) (2)

To obtain the actual discharge, a coefficient of discharge, , is introduced so that:
(Eqn 5.22) (2)
A typical value for is about 0.62. However this value is found to vary slightly with
discharge. This is to some extent because the nappe contracts when seen in plan (Fig 3.3b)
resulting in the effective length of the weir changing with discharge. The greater the
discharge, the bigger the velocity, the larger the contraction of the flow at the sides of the
weir and in turn the smaller the effective length of the weir crest.

Broad crested weirs

Broad crested weirs are strong structures constructed from reinforced concrete in most
cases and span the full width of the channel. They are used for measuring the discharge of
rivers and larger streams which have high flow rates. They are a lot more suitable than the
sharp crested structures discussed above due to their ability to allow much greater flow
rates to pass without much disturbance. (2)
The main type of broad crested weir is the rectangular broad crested weir, but again there
are several different shapes and sizes available. If a standard shape of weir is used then
there is a large quantity of material available relating to their design, operation, calibration
etc. However if they are constructed in an irregular shape then it will have to be calibrated
either on site by gauging or by laboratory testing on a scaled down model.
When the length, L, of the crest exceeds that of three times the upstream head, the weir is
broad enough to allow the flow to pass through critical depth somewhere near to its
downstream edge.

Derivation for the discharge of a broad crested rectangular weir

Figure 2.4 Rectangular broad crested weir

Applying the continuity equation to the section on the weir crest where the flow is at a
critical depth gives:

Now assuming that the breath of the weir, b, spans the full width, B, of the channel and
that the cross sectional area of the channel is rectangular, then:
and

(Eqn 9.18) (2)

 CE3 Class Notes
However equation 9.18 does not provide a very practical means of evaluating Q. It is much
easier to use a stilling well located in a gauging hut just upstream of the weir to measure
the head of the water, H1, above the crest than to attempt to measure the critical depth on
the crest itself. In order to eliminate from the equation we can use the fact that in a
rectangular channel . Using the weir crest as datum level, and assuming no loss
of energy, the specific energy at an upstream section equals that of the critical section:

Therefore:
Substituting this expression for into Eqn 9.18 gives:

(Eqn 9.19) (2)

Flumes
The second major primary measurement device other than the weir is the flume. A flume is
a specially section in the channel which restricts the channel area and/or changes the slope
of the channel resulting in an increased velocity and a change in the liquid level flowing
through the flume. (1) Generally a flume consists of three main sections, a converging
section to restrict the flow, a throat section, and a diverging section to assure that the
downstream level is less than that of the level in the converging section. It is typically
constructed of concrete, although there are various other materials which can be used. The
flow rate through the flume can be determined by measuring the head of water on the
flume at a point downstream from the inlet.

Figure 2.5 General configuration of a flume

Advantages of the flume include:

 CE3 Class Notes
1) The obstacle to the flow is relatively small therefore there is little afflux or
backwater (that is increase in the upstream water level), which is advantageous
where the channel has a very small slope.
2) It is easily constructed and very robust, since there is very little that can be damage
on the structure.
3) It is easily maintained as siltation is generally not a problem as there is nothing on
the structure to trap floating debris and the high velocity of flow through the flume
generally makes it self-cleansing, reducing deposits of solids. For this reason
flumes can be sometimes used in sewage treatment plants
4) A flume can measure a higher flow rate than a similar sized weir. It can also
operate with a much smaller loss of head than a weir which is a significant
advantage where the available head is limited.
5) There is little loss of energy when water is flowing through a flume, much less than
with a weir.(2)

The major disadvantage with flumes is that they are generally more expensive to install
than a weir.

Derivation for the discharge of a flume

Figure 2.6 Plan and cross-section of a flume

A general equation for the ideal discharge through a flume may be developed on the basis
of the energy and continuity principles.
From the energy equation:
 CE3 Class Notes

But

Substituting for and rearranging

(Eqn 13.15) (3)

If critical flow is attained in the throat, then If this is substituted into the above
equation then:
(Eqn 13.16) (3)
Where is the velocity of the approach correction factor. The actual discharge is:
(Eqn 13.17) (3)

Orifices
An orifice is a measuring device with a sharp edged in a wall through which flow passes.
There are several different types of orifices available but there is one basic distinction and
that is between a large and a small orifice. These can be distinguished as follows:
a) Small orifice: The diameter of the orifice is small in comparison to the head of
water producing the flow, so the head at the top of the orifice is in effect the same
as the head at the bottom. As a result it can be assumed that the velocity of the jet
emerging from the orifice is constant over its cross-section. Small orifices tend to
be circular in shape and may be located in the base or side of a tank. They can be
used as a flow measurement device, or perhaps as a flow control device.
b) Large orifice: The diameter of the orifice is large compared to the head of water, H
producing the flow. Thus the head at the top of the orifice is considerably different
to the head at the bottom. As a result there is a significant variation in velocity over
the cross-section of the emerging jet, as dictated by . (2)

This division means that a different approach is needed for the derivation of the discharge
equations of the small and large orifices. For small orifices with the velocity assumed
constant over the cross-sectional area of the jet we can apply the energy equation. In the
case of a large orifice it is necessary to take into account the variation of the velocity over
the cross sectional area of the jet by using an approach involving integration.
 CE3 Class Notes

Derivation for the discharge of a small orifice

Figure 2.7 Discharge through a small orifice

Note that point 2 is located at the centre of the vena contracta where it is assumed that
atmospheric pressure exists, not in the plane of the orifice.
Applying the energy equation between points 1 and 2 assuming no loss of energy gives:

If it is assumed that the volume of the tank is large and the discharge through the orifice is
relatively small, at the surface the water will be unaffected by the flow so that .
With atmospheric pressure as the datum, . Similarly, at the vena contracta .
If the elevation is measured above the point 2, which is assumed to be at the same
elevation as the centre of the orifice, then . Consequently the energy
equation reduces to:

Or
(Eqn 5.8) (2)
This is sometimes referred to as Torricelli’s Theorem. The theoretical discharge, , can
be obtained from the continuity equation, . For convenience A is taken as the
area of the orifice, thus:
(Eqn 5.9) (2)
This equation is not accurate because the area of the jet at the vena contracta, is less than
the area of the orifice, A. Thus it is necessary to introduce a coefficient of contraction, ,
into the above equation to allow for this. The coefficient is defined as:
(Eqn 5.10) (2)
The value of can easily be determined by measuring the diameter of the jet. It is found
to vary between 0.60 and 0.97 depending upon the geometry of the orifice. However even
if is inserted into Eqn 5.9 an accurate value of Q still would not be obtained because it
has been assumed that there is no energy loss, when in reality there is a slight reduction in
velocity as the jet passes through the orifice. Thus the actual velocity of the jet at the vena
 CE3 Class Notes
contracta, , is slightly less than the theoretical velocity . Thus there is the need
for another coefficient, the coefficient of velocity, , is introduced where:
(Eqn 5.11) (2)
So the actual discharge through the orifice, , is:

Or
(Eqn 5.12) (2)
Where (Eqn 5.13) (2)

Derivation of discharge through a large orifice

Figure 2.8 Discharge through a large orifice

Suppose the water discharges through the rectangular opening in Fig. 3.8. Consider a thin
horizontal strip with a vertical height, , that extends the full breath, b, of the orifice. The
strip is at a depth, h, measured from the water surface. Then:
Area of the strip,
Velocity of flow through the strip =
Discharge through the strip,

Rearranging gives:
To obtain the total theoretical discharge through the whole area of the orifice, integrate this
expression to obtain the sum of all the horizontal strips as defined by the limits h = and
h = , that is the depth to the top and bottom of the opening respectively. Note that b and
g are constants, so:
Total theoretical discharge,

(Eqn 5.18) (2)

To obtain the actual discharge, , a coefficient of discharge, , has to be introduced:
(Eqn 5.19) (2)

Calibration of hydraulic measuring structures

If a flow measuring device is designed in accordance with the British Standards, the
coefficient of discharge, , can often be calculated from the relevant document. However
if the device is constructed to a dimension not in accordance with relevant document the
device is required to be calibrated. To calibrate a device purely involves comparing the
 CE3 Class Notes
actual and theoretical discharge over the widest possible range of flows so that the average
can be calculated. The actual discharge can be calculated by collecting either a given
volume of water in a known time, or a given mass of water in a known time. If a mass of
water is collected it can in turn be changed into a volume, and hence the volume flow rate
by dividing the mass density. The theoretical discharge is obtained by measuring the head
of water and the dimension of the device, and hence substituting the values into the
appropriate equations. The reliability of the results can be improved by plotting a graph of
discharge against head. This permits the average coefficient to be calculated and also
emphasises any errors that may have been made to be spotted with ease. However, a plot of
actual discharge, , against the head, H, does not produce a straight line since is
proportional not to H but to H raised to some power as shown in Table 3.3. (2)
Table 2-3 Comparison of principle discharge equations (2)
Device Discharge equation Q – H Relationship
Venturi Meter

Small Orifice

Large Orifice

Rectangular Weir
(2g
Triangular Weir
 CE3 Class Notes

4 Flow measurement methods

4.1 Current meters
Current meters or flow meters are the most common method of flow measurement in
rivers and streams. Current meters are different from other measuring devices in that
there is little or no theory involved. The principle behind them is very simple. The
speed of rotation of a propeller depends on the velocity of the water in which it is
submerged. For every rotation of the propeller an electric pulse is sent to an electronic
counter. The number of pulses recorded for a certain period of time is then recorded
and the electronic counter then converts the pulses into a velocity. (2) From the
velocity readings the discharge can be then calculated using the equations derived in
the last chapter.

Plate 4-1 A Vale Port 01-02 current meter in action

The current meter should remain aligned with the flow in such a way that the rotating
element to the flow movement as intended. It should offer minimum resistance to the
oncoming force of flow.
Limits of use:
 When rotating in a flow of water the rotating element should rotate at an
angular velocity which has a known relationship to that of the velocity of the
flow within the calibrated velocity range stated by the manufacturer.
 The current meter should respond rapidly and reliably to any changes in
velocity. The manufacturer should state the expected response rates.
 The current meter should be used only in liquids with properties similar to
those in which it was calibrated. (13)

Maintenance required:
 CE3 Class Notes

 General care with handling and oiling required as well as care for cleanliness.
 The current meter should be examined before and after each discharge
measurement, for damage and wear of the rotating parts, faulty alignment of
the shaft, proper operation of contact points, and deformation of the wheel.
 For inspection it should be feasible to take apart and reassemble the current
meter in the field without specialised facilities.
 It should be cleaned and lubricated after each day of use or after each
discharge measurement in heavily sediment water.
 Before use the meter should be tested for correct operation. This is done by
turning the rotor slowly, with the number of rotations counted and compared
to that recorded on the machine. (13)

Main Sources of Error:

 If the flow is rapidly varied flow.
 If material in suspension interferes with the performance of the current meter.
 If skew flow occurs, and the appropriate correction factors are not known
accurately.
 If the current meter is used for the measurement of velocity outside the range
established by its calibration.
 If the setup for measurement is different to that used for the calibration of the
current meter, for which case a systematic error may be introduced.
 If there is significant disturbance of the water surface by wind.
 If the current meter is not held steadily in the correct place during the
measurement.(14)

4.2 Velocity – Area method

This method involves measuring both the velocity of the river and the cross-sectional
area. The width of the river is measured using a tape and the depth is measures at a
number of points across the river giving the shape and area of the cross-section. The
velocity is then recorded using the flow meter at each vertical. The velocity
measurements are generally recorded at the same time as the measurement of depth.
As the velocity of the channel varies with depth experimental evidence has shown that
the mean velocity can be determined by taking two observations at a depth of 0.2D
and 0.8D below the surface. However if the depth of the channel is quite shallow (i.e.
stream) a single measurement of velocity at 0.6D can be used to give an accurate
approximation of the mean velocity. Where the depth of the water is less than four
 CE3 Class Notes

times the diameter of the impellor of the current meter or any part of the meter breaks
the surface of the water the current meter should not be used. (16)

Figure 4.1 Cross section showing measuring pints at 0.2D, 0.6D and 0.8D

4.2.1 Measurement procedure

When considering the specific number n of verticals required for accurate flow
readings at a particular location the following criteria should be applied:
Channel width > 0m and < 0.5m n = 3 to 4
Channel width > 0.5m and < 1m n = 4 to 5
Channel width > 1m and < 3m n = 5 to 8
Channel width > 3m and < 5m n = 8 to 10
Channel width > 5m and < 10m n = 10 to 20
Channel width > 10m n = ≥ 20

4.2.2 Site selection

The selected site should comply with the following requirements:
a) At the measuring point the channel should be straight and of uniform cross-
section and slope to minimise uncharacteristic velocity distribution.
b) For all points on the vertical the flow direction should remain parallel to one
and other and at right angles to the measurement section.
c) The bed and margins of the channel should remain stable and well defined at
all stages of flow in order to assist accurate measurement of the cross section
and ensure consistency of conditions during and between discharge
measurements.
d) The curves of the distribution of velocities should remain regular in the
vertical and horizontal planes of measurement.
e) At the point of measurement precautions should be taken to ensure no changes
take place in the velocity distribution during the period of measurement.
f) Sites displaying vortices, reverse flow or dead water should be avoided.
 CE3 Class Notes

g) The section of measurement should be unobstructed from trees and plants and
should be clearly visible across its entire section.
h) The water should be sufficiently deep to allow complete submersion of the
current meter.
i) The site should be easily accessible with all relevant equipment.
j) The measurement section should be located a considerable distance from
pumps, sluices and outfalls.
k) Sites with converging or diverging flow should be avoided.
l) Where it is essential to take measurements in close proximity to a bridge, it is
preferable to take the readings upstream of the bridge.
m) In certain situations of river flow and level, it may be necessary to carry out
current-meter measurements on sections other than that selected for the
station. This is tolerable if there are no significant losses or gains to the river
in the intervening reach and as long as all flow measurements are related to
levels recorded at the principle measurement section. (16)

4.3 Tracer-Dilution method

The Tracer-dilution method is generally used for flow measurement in pipes; however
it can also be used for open channel flow. (15) The main disadvantage is that the
accuracy tends to be reduced in open channel flow due to the elements and the
material of the channel etc. The accuracies can vary from as little as ± 1 to 30% with
the more accurate results coming from using the method in a closed conduit.
The flow rate is measured by determining how much the flow of water dilutes an
added tracer solution. There are several different types of tracers which include:
 Dyes of various colours
 Other chemical such as fertilizers salts and gases
 Radioisotopes
 Heat
 Travelling turbulent eddy pressure sequences
 Neutrally buoyant beads
 Floats (17)

For irrigation measurements, salts and dyes are most commonly used. Salt tracers are
sensed and are calculated by measuring evaporated dry weight, chemical titration or
by measuring electric conductivity. The concentration of dye is measured by colour
comparison standards. The other methods mentioned above are less frequently used
either due to their lack of accuracy or their pollution risks. The dilution technique
 CE3 Class Notes

produces no pressure loss, requires no drop in the hydraulic grade line, offers no
obstruction to the flow, and indicates flow rate directly by simple theoretical
formulas.
There are two common techniques used in dilution flow measurement: the constant
rate injection method and the total recovery method. The constant rate injection
method requires the tracer to be injected at a constant flow rate into the flow stream
for a given period of time. In the total recovery method a known quantity of tracer is
placed in the flow stream, and a sample is continuously removed at a uniform rate
during the time taken for the tracer wave to pass. The flow rate is determined from the
total quantity of of tracer injected and the integral of the concentration-time curve.
Although both methods have certain advantages and limitations they are in principal
similar. (1)
This type of flow measurement is only suitable for small or medium sized rivers or
steams as it needs a relatively large or turbulent flow in order for the dye to mix
appropriately, but at the same time requires a relatively short travel period, therefore
this method would not be suitable for low flowing rivers and streams. Furthermore it
is unsuitable for large rivers with very high flow rates as large quantities of dye/salts
would be required to get a reading and due to pollution reasons this should be
avoided.
The main disadvantages of this method are:
 the cost of the instruments required to determine tracer concentrations
 the quality and ruggedness of these instruments
 the need for trained personnel to carry out the procedure

For these reasons it can be quite expensive to carry out this procedure and it requires
investment in specific equipment to be able to carry out the procedure.

4.3.1 Tracer-Dilution discharge equation

The dilution method equation for discharge is:
(Eqn
12.2a) (17)
Rearranging gives:
(Eqn
(17)
12.2b)
Where:
= the natural or background concentration of the tracer of the flow
= the concentration of the strong injected tracer solution
= the concentration of tracer after full mixing at the sampling station, including the
background concentration of the stream
Q = the discharge being measured
q = the discharge of the strong solution injected into the flow

4.4 Rating curves

Rating curves are used to indirectly measure the flow of a river over a long period of
time where it would be very time consuming to monitor the flow with a flow meter on
 CE3 Class Notes

a daily basis. It is the regular method of continuous flow measurement in rivers and
streams. A rating curve is a graphical relationship between the discharge (Q) and
stage (h) of a river. To develop a high quality rating curve values should be recorded
for a variety of different flow rates from high to low flow. The rating curve is
generally plotted with stage (h) on the x-axis and discharge (Q) on the y-axis.
The shape of the curve defines the discharge value which is interpolated of the graph.
The looping effect seen on the graph is caused by the following:
a) Channel storage: as the head of water rises in the river the water is temporarily
stored in the channel.
b) Variation of surface slope of a flood wave: when considering flood waves
there is two different discharges to be considered at the one time. This causes
the slope to change but all the other variables in the manning’s equation
remain constant.

`
Figure 4.2 Typical rating curve

A stable stage-discharge relation is one that does not vary, or change positions over a
certain period of time. This stable relation is a result of a stable channel and stable
control conditions. Almost all natural channels are subject to at least occasional
change as a result of scour, deposition or vegetation growth. For stable channels the
rating curve is typically easily defined by fitting a curve to the calibration
measurements. (18)
For unstable relations sets of stage-discharge data are often obtained for different
hydrological conditions and drawing a mean rating curve which incorporates the
dispersion around Q to a random one, suggesting a bias in the rating curve parameters
estimated. (18)

4.5 Catchment area

Reliable estimation of low-flows in rivers is fundamental for the proper planning and
design of water resource projects. Estimating the streamflows for ungauged
catchments has always been regarded as a big challenge. Several studies have been
carried out on high-flow estimation for ungauged catchments; however there are a
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limited number of studies carried out on low-flow areas of streamflows. Low-flow is

defined as the flow of water in a stream during prolonged dry weather. Low-flows are
a seasonal event and an essential component of the flow regime of any river. Low
flows are normally derived from groundwater discharge or surface discharge from
lakes, marshes, or melting glaciers. Lowest annual flow generally occurs in the same
season every year. (19)
A good starting point for a quantitative assessment of runoff is to consider the
physical processes occurring in the hydrological cycle and within the catchment. The
circulation of water takes place from the ocean to the atmosphere by evaporation and
is then deposited on a catchment in the form of rainfall. This rainfall eventually is
returned to the sea via the rivers and streams of that particular catchment. Within the
catchment there are several different routes possible with the rainfall initially being
intercepted by vegetation which may result in re-evaporation. Secondly, infiltration
into the soil or overland flow to a stream or channel or river may occur. Water which
enters the soil layer may remain in storage or may percolate to the groundwater table.
All subsurface water tends to move laterally and eventually enters a stream or river.
The whole process may be viewed as a series of linked storage processes with inflows
and outflows. (3)
A set of characteristics may be proposed which determine the response of the
catchment to rainfall. These characteristics include the following:
 Catchment area
 Soil type and depth
 Vegetation cover
 Stream slopes and surface slopes
 Rock type and areas
 Drainage network (natural or manmade)
 Lakes and reservoirs
 Impermeable areas (e.g. roads, buildings, etc) (3)

In addition the different climates experienced in different catchments lead to a

different response to rainfall. This may be represented by:
 Rainfall (depth, duration and intensity)
 Evaporation potential (derived from temperature, humidity and wind speed)

4.5.1 Flow duration curve

A flow duration curve (FDC) is one of the most informative methods of displaying the
complete range of river discharges from low-flows to flood events. It is a relationship
between any given discharge value and the percentage of time that this discharge is
equalled or exceeded. A FDC may be constructed using different time resolutions of
streamflow data: annual, monthly or daily. A FDC constructed on the basis of a daily
flow time series tends to provide the most detailed way of examining the flow-
duration characteristics of a river. For gauged catchments, FDCs are constructed by
reassembling the streamflow time series values in decreasing order of magnitude. All
ranked flows are plotted against their ranks which are expressed as a percentage of the
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total number of time steps. For ungauged catchments, FDCs can be constructed using
various different methods, such as:
(i) Regional regression approach, which generally involves developing regional
mathematical models by relating low-flow indices with catchment
physiographic and climate characteristics.
(ii) Regional prediction curve, where FDCs for a number of gauged catchments
of different sizes in a consistent region can be converted to a similar scale,
superimposed and averaged to develop a composite regional curve.
(iii) Regional mapping and other methods of interpolation of low-flow
characteristics similar to regression relationships.
(iv) Low-flow estimation from synthetic streamflow time series - the alternative
approach to low-flow estimates at ungauged sites is to utilise a time-series
simulation method to generate a satisfactory long length of streamflow data
and to calculate a set of low-flow indices from the simulated series. (19)

4.5.2 AREA – SAAR model

Through extensive research this model was developed by Uzzal Mandal and C.
Cunnane in the Department of Engineering Hydrology, NUI Glaway as a method of
measuring the average annual rainfall. To do this mean daily flow data for 125
gauging sites around the country were obtained from EPA and OPW hydrometric
database. Flow duration curves for these gauging stations were also obtained from the
EPA. Stations with the following attributes were selected:
 Good rating curve
 Rivers are recurrent and all stream flows are greater than zero
 No significant withdrawals, diversions, or artificial recharge areas are
contained in the basin, hence we consider the streamflows to be essentially un-
regulated (19)

An empirical period of record FDC was developed for each gauging site. A best fit
curve was fitted to the lower three quarter section of each of the FDCs. It was found
that a two parameter logarithmic type model provides a good approximation to lower
three quarter part of the daily FDCs for almost all the sites. The structure of such a
model is:

Where represents the percentile flow, ‘a’ and ‘b’ are two model parameters; p is
the exceedance percentile for which flow is equalled or exceeded.
It was found that the derived model parameters obtained for the 125 study catchments
are highly correlated and that the parameter ‘a’ is approximately 4.6558 times the
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parameter ‘b’ (i.e. b=4.6558a). Thus the analytical FDC model can be approximated
by a single parameter of ‘a’ as follows:

It was found that the parameter ‘a’ has a good correlation with the catchment area
(AREA) and the long-term average annual rainfall (SAAR). The resulting regional
regression for the parameter ‘a’ is:

Where AREA is in km2 and SAAR is in mm & are two regression

coefficients, the optimised value of these coefficients are 0.0229 and 0.1393
respectively. (

4.5.3 Mean Flow model (MF-Model)

An alternative attempt was also developed by Uzzal Mandal and C. Cunnane in the
Department of Engineering Hydrology, NUI Glaway to have a generalised estimate
for parameter ‘a’ from the observed long-term annual flow (MF) and mean annual
potential evapotranspiration (PE) data for each of the catchments. A regression on the
MF with parameter ‘a’ showed that MF is a good predictor of parameter ‘a’ and the
resulting regression is:
(19)
3
Where MF is in m /s, k is the regression coefficient, the optimised value of which is
0.9301.
Conceptually MF could be linked with the catchment area (AREA) and the mean net
annual rainfall (NAR) in the following way:
MF = AREA × NAR
From the known mean annual PE, the NAR at each of the sites was estimated. Mean
annual PE for a total of 14 synoptic stations in Ireland were obtained from Met
Eireann. PE values for any ungauged site can be read from this map. By knowing PE
and long-term mean annual rainfall, MF can be calculated at any ungauged site as
follows:

Where AREA is in and PE is in mm (19)

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