Module 6 Lesson 2

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LESSON 2

DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS
Measures of Central Tendency for Ungrouped Data
Aside from tables and graphs, another way of describing a set of data is by stating a single
numerical value associated with it. This value is where all the other values in a distribution tend to cluster.
It is called the average or measure of central tendency. There are three kinds of average: the mean, the
median, and the mode.

The mean (also known as the arithmetic mean) is the most commonly used measure of central
position. It is the sum of measures divided by the number of measures in a variable. It is symbolized
as x (read as x bar).
The mean is used to describe a set of data where the measures cluster or concentrate at a point. As
the measures cluster around each other, a single value appears to represent distinctively the total
measures. It is, however, affected by extreme measures, that is, very high or very low measures can easily
change the value of the mean.

To find the mean of ungrouped data, use the formula


∑𝑥
𝑥̅ =
𝑛
where ∑x = the summation of x (sum of the measures) n = number of values of x

Example 1: The grades in Chemistry of 10 students are 87, 84, 85, 85, 86, 90, 79,
82, 78, 76. What is the average grade of the 10 students?
Solution:
87 + 84 + 85 + 85 + 86 + 90 + 79 + 82 + 78 + 76 832
𝑥̅ = = = 83.2
10 10

Example 2: Find the mean salary for a small company that pays monthly salaries to its
employees as shown in the frequency distribution.

Salary (x) Number of fx ∑ 𝑓𝑥


𝑥̅ =
Employees (f) 𝑁
Weighted Mean Php7 000.00 8 56 000 427 000
=
∑ 𝑓𝑥 Php8 000.00 11 88 000 45
𝑥̅ = Php9 250.00 14 129 500 = 9 488.89
𝑁
Where: 𝑥̅ = mean
Php10 500.00 9 94 500
𝑓 = frequency Php17 000.00 2 34 000
𝑥 = score Php25 000.00 1 25 000

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The median is the middle entry or term in a set of data arranged in either increasing or
decreasing order.
The median is a positional measure. Thus the values of the individual measures in a set of
data do not affect it. It is affected by the number of measures and not by the size of the extreme
values.

To find the median of a given set of data, take note of the following:

Arrange the data in either increasing or decreasing order.


Locate the middle value. If the number of cases is odd, the middle value is the median. If the
number of cases is even, take the arithmetic mean of the two middle measures.

Example 1: The number of books borrowed in the library from Monday to Friday last
week were 58, 60, 54, 35, and 97 respectively. Find the median.
Solution: Arrange the number of books borrowed in increasing order.
35, 54, 58, 60, 97
The median is 58.
Example 2: Cora’s quizzes for the second quarter are 8, 7, 6, 10, 9, 5, 9, 6, 10, and 7.
Find the median.
Solution: Arrange the scores in increasing order.
5, 6, 6, 7, 7, 8, 9, 9, 10, 10
Since the number of measures is even, then the median is the average of the two
𝟕+𝟖
middle scores 𝒙 ̃= = 𝟕. 𝟓
𝟐
The mode is another measure of position. The mode is the measure or value which occurs
most frequently in a set of data. It is the value with the greatest frequency. To find the mode for a
set of data :
- select the measure that appears most often in the set;
- if two or more measures appear the same number of times, and the frequency they appear
is greater than any other measures, then each of these values is a mode;
- if every measure appears the same number of times, then the set of data has no mode.

Example 1: The shoe sizes of 10 randomly selected students in a class are 6, 5, 4, 6, 4 1 , 5,


6, 7, 7 and 6. What is the2 mode?

Answer: The mode is 6 since it is the shoe size that occurred the most number of times.

Example 2: The sizes of 9 classes in a certain school are 50, 52, 55, 50, 51, 54, 55, 53 and
54.

Answer: The modes are 54 and 55 since the two measures occurred the same number
of times. The distribution is bimodal.

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The Mean of Grouped Data Using the Class Marks

When the number of items in a set of data is too big, items are grouped for convenience. The
manner of computing for the mean of grouped data is given by the formula:

∑(𝑓𝑥𝑚 )
𝑥̅ =
where: 𝑥̅ is the mean 𝑁
f is the frequency of each class
𝑥𝑚 is the class mark
∑(𝑓𝑥𝑚 ) is the summation of the product of the frequency and the class mark
𝑁 is the sum of all the frequency
Examples:
Compute the mean of the scores of the students in a Mathematics test.
Class Frequency
46 – 50 1
41 – 45 5
36 – 40 11
31 – 35 12
26 – 30 11
21 – 25 5
16 – 20 2
11 – 15 1

The frequency distribution for the data is given below. The columns X and fX are added.
Class f 𝑥𝑚 𝑓𝑥𝑚
46 – 50 1 48 48 ∑(𝑓𝑥𝑚 )
41 – 45 5 43 215 𝑥̅ =
𝑁
36 – 40 11 38 418 1 549
31 – 35 12 33 396 =
48
26 – 30 11 28 308 = 32.27
21 – 25 5 23 115
16 – 20 2 18 36
11 – 15 1 13 13

The mean score is 32.27

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The Median of Grouped Data
The median is the middle value in a set of quantities. It separates an ordered set of data
into two equal parts. Half of the quantities found above the median and the other half is
found below it.
In computing for the median of grouped data, the following formula is used:
𝑁
− 𝑐𝑓𝑏
𝑥̃ = 𝑥𝑙𝑏 + [ 2 ]𝑖
𝑓𝑚

where: 𝑥̃ = median
𝑥𝑙𝑏 = the lower boundary of the median class
N = total frequency
𝑐𝑓𝑏 = the cumulative frequency of the lower class next to the
median class
𝑓𝑚 = frequency of the median class
𝑖 = size of the class interval

𝑁 𝑡ℎ
The median class is the class that contains the ( 2 ) score. This can be located under

the column < 𝑐𝑓of the cumulative frequency distribution.

Examples:
1. Compute the median of the scores of the students in a Mathematics test.

Class Frequency
46 – 50 1
41 – 45 5
36 – 40 11
31 – 35 12
26 – 30 11
21 – 25 5
16 – 20 2
11 – 15 1
The frequency distribution for the data is given below. The columns for lb and “less than”
cumulative frequency are added.

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Class f lb “<” cf 𝑁 𝑁 48
Compute 2 , since = = 𝑁
46 – 50 1 45.5 48 2 2 − 𝑐𝑓𝑏
41 – 45 5 40.5 47 24, then the class interval 𝑥̃ = 𝑥𝑙𝑏 + [ 2 ]𝑖
𝑓𝑚
36 – 40 11 35.5 42 containing 24 in the less
31 – 35 12 30.5 31 than cumulative frequency 24 − 19
= 30.5 + [ ]5
26 – 30 11 25.5 19 will be the median class. In 12
21 – 25 5 20.5 8 this case the median class is = 32.58
16 – 20 2 15.5 3 the 31 – 35 class interval. =
11 – 15 1 10.5 1 The median score is 32.58.

The Mode of Grouped Data

The mode of grouped data can be approximated using the following formula:
∆1
𝑥̂ = 𝑥𝑙𝑏 + [ ]𝑖
∆1 + ∆2
where: 𝑥𝑙𝑏 is the lower boundary of the modal class.
∆1 is the difference between the frequencies of the modal class and the next
lower class.
∆2 is the difference between the frequencies of the modalclass and the next
upper class.
𝑖 is the class interval.
The modal class is the class interval with the highest frequency.
Example:

1. Compute the mode of the scores of the students in a Mathematics test.


Class Frequency
46 – 50 1
41 – 45 5
36 – 40 11
31 – 35 12
26 – 30 11
21 – 25 5
16 – 20 2
11 – 15 1

The frequency distribution for the data is given below. The column for lb is added.

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Class f lb ∆1
46 – 50 1 45.5 𝑥̂ = 𝑥𝑙𝑏 + [ ]𝑖
∆1 + ∆2
41 – 45 5 40.5 12 − 11 Since class 31 – 35
36 – 40 11 35.5 = 30.5 + [ ]5 has the highest
(12 − 11) + (12 − 11)
31 – 35 12 30.5 = 30.5 + [0.5]5 frequency, the modal
26 – 30 11 25.5 = 30.5 + 2.5 class is 31 – 35.
21 – 25 5 20.5 = 32.5
16 – 20 2 15.5 The mode score is 33.
11 – 15 1 10.5

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THE QUESTIONNAIRE AND THE LIKERT SCALE
Likert-type question is used if the researcher wants to know the feelings or opinions of the
respondents regarding any topic or issues of interest.
Below are examples of Likert-type statements. The respondents will choose the number
which best represents their feelings regarding the statements. Remember that the statements are
grouped according to a theme.
Choices Likert-type Mean Interpretation

5 – strongly agree 4.50 – 5.00 – strongly agree

4 – agree 3.50 – 4.49 – agree

3 – Somewhat agree 2.50 – 3.49 - Somewhat agree

2 - disagree 1.50 – 2.49 - disagree

1 – strongly disagree 1.00 – 1.49 – strongly disagree

Items 1 – 3 refers to students’ personal confidence in learning statistics 5 4 3 2 1


1. I am sure that I can learn statistics.
2. I think I can handle different lessons in statistics.
3. I can get good grades in statistics.
Items 4 – 6 refer to the students’ perception on statistics as a subject
4. I think statistics is a worthwhile, necessary subject.
5. I will use statistics in many ways as a professional.
6. I’ll need a good understanding of statistics for my research work.
Items 7 – 9 re to students’ attitudes on the use of computer in learning
7. Computer makes learning fun and easy
8. I think working with computers would be enjoyable and stimulating
9. Computers help a lot in learning

The table below is the summary and interpretation of the mean responses in the Likert-type of
statements 1 - 3.
5 4 3 2 1 𝑥̅ Interpretation of 𝑥̅
1. 36 51 18 0 1 4.14 Agree
2. 18 44 37 8 1 3.65 Agree
3. 18 48 28 0 1 3.86 Agree
T 72 143 83 8 3 3.88 Agree

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MEASURES OF VARIABILITY

The first part of this module dealt with the concepts of measurements that describe
MEASURES or the middle or the center of the distribution. But the measures of central tendency
VARIABILITY OR
DISPERSION do not describe how the observations spread out from the center of the
distribution. In this lesson, we will deal with the measures of variability or spread
These are
measures of the of a distribution. For the measures of skewness and kurtosis, it will be your task to
average distance
of each read about it a link will be provided for your reading.
observation from
the center of the Consider the following measurements, in liters, for two samples of apple juice in a
distribution. They
measure the
tetra packed by companies A and B.
homogeneity or Sample A Sample B
heterogeneity of a
particular group. 0.95 1.06

1.00 1.01

0.92 0.88

1.03 0.91

1.10 1.14

𝑥̅ = 1.00 𝑥̅ = 1.00

How far apart are the measurements from one another?

Company A
0.8 0.9 1 1.1 1.2

Company B

0.8 0.9 1 1.1 1.2


Both samples have the same mean, 1.00 liters. It is quite obvious that company A packed
apple juice with a more uniform content than company B. We say that the variability or the
dispersion of the observations from the mean is less for sample A than for sample B. Therefore,

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in buying apple juice, we would feel more confident that the tetra pack we select will be closer to
the advertised mean if we buy from company A.

A small measure of variability A big measure of variability would


would indicate that the data are... indicate that the data are...
1. clustered closely around the 1. FAR AWAY FROM THE MEAN
mean
2. more homogeneous 2. HETEROGENEOUS
3. less variable 3. MORE VARIABLE
4. more consistent 4. LESS CONSISTENT
5. more uniformly distributed 5. LESS UNIFORMLY
DISTRIBUTED

There are 4 major parts/measures under the measures of variability


These are:
1. Range (R): The difference between the highest value and the lowest value in a set of
data Formula: R = H - L
2. Standard Deviation (𝜎 for population and s for sample)
Calculator: 𝜎 or s
3. Variance (𝜎 2 for population and s2 for sample) The square of standard deviation
4. Coefficient of Variation (cv): It is to compare the variability of two or more sets of data
having different units.
Formula: cv = standard deviation divided by mean

Range
The range is the simplest measure of variability. It is the difference between the largest and
smallest measurement.

R = H - L

where R = Range, H = Highest measure, L = Lowest Measure

The main disadvantage of the range is that it does not consider every measure in the data.

Examples:

1. The IQs of 5 members of a family are 108, 112, 127, 118 and 113. Find the range.

Solution: The range of the IQs is 127 - 108 = 19.

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2. The range of each of the set of scores of the three students is as follows:

Student A H = 98 L = 92 R = 98 - 92 = 6

Student B H = 97 L = 90 R = 97 - 90 = 7

Student C H = 97 L = 90 R = 97 - 90 = 7

Observe that two students are “ tie.” This indicates that the range is not a reliable measure
of dispersion. It is a poor measure of dispersion, particularly if the size of the sample or
population is large. It considers only the extreme values and tells us nothing about the
distribution of numbers in between.

Variance
Variance is the
average of the Since the range considers only two scores in the data set, it is an unreliable
squared deviation measure of variability, it cannot be used to directly compare two sets of data and
from the mean. The it is an unstable measure of variability especially for a very large sample.
formulas for finding
the variance for
ungrouped data are: Consider the following a. Treating the data as
Population Variance: For male group population, the variance is
∑(𝑥 − 𝜇)2
𝜎2 =
𝑁
Sample A (𝑥 − 𝑥̅ ) (𝑥 − 𝑥̅ )2 ∑(𝑥 − 𝜇)2 820
𝜎2 = =
𝑁 5
Sample Variance: = 164 𝑠𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑠
∑(𝑥 − 𝑥̅ )2
𝑠2 = 65 -19 361
𝑛−1 b. Treating the data as sample,
Where:
75 -9 81 the variance is
𝑥 = individual
value/score from
∑(𝑥 − 𝑥̅ )2 820 820
𝑠2 = = =
the raw data 85 1 1 𝑛−1 5−1 4
𝑥̅ = the sample mean = 205 𝑠𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑠
𝑁 = total population
𝑛 =number of sample 95 11 121
𝜇 = population mean
𝜎 2 = the population 100 16 256
variance
𝑠 2 = the sample 𝛴 = 820
variance

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For female group
Sample B (𝑥 − 𝑥̅ ) (𝑥 − 𝑥̅ )2 1. Treating the data as
population, the variance is
82 -2 4 ∑(𝑥 − 𝜇)2 10
𝜎2 = =
83 -1 1 𝑁 5
= 2 𝑠𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑠
84
0 0
2. Treating the data as sample,
85 1 the variance is
1
∑(𝑥 − 𝑥̅ )2 10 10
86 2 4 𝑠2 = = =
𝑛−1 5−1 4
𝛴 = 10 = 2.5 𝑠𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑠

Using the variance as a measure of variability for the two sets of grades, the males showed more variability in
performance. Note that the higher the variance, the more variable or far apart the values are from each
other.

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Standard Deviation
Since the obtained variance is in squared units then the deviation from the
mean is squared. You cannot still picture out the true meaning of the data set.
Hence, extract the square root of the variance, defining another measure of
standard deviation variability called the standard deviation.
is the square root of
the variance. For Male Group
Population Standard a. Treating the data as population, the standard deviation is
Deviation:
∑(𝑥 − 𝜇)2 ∑(𝑥 − 𝜇)2 820
𝜎=√ 𝜎=√ =√ = √164 = 12.81
𝑁 𝑁 5

Sample Standard b. Treating the data as sample, the standard deviation is


deviation: ∑(𝑥 − 𝑥̅ )2 820 820
𝑠=√ =√ =√ = √205 = 14.32
∑(𝑥 − 𝑥̅ )2 𝑛−1 5−1 4
𝑠=√
𝑛−1
For female group
Where:
𝑥 = individual
value/score from a. Treating the data as population, the standard deviation is
the raw data
𝑥̅ = the sample mean ∑(𝑥 − 𝜇)2 10
𝑁 = total population 𝜎=√ = √ = √2 = 1.41
𝑛 =number of sample
𝑁 5
𝜇 = population mean
𝜎 = the population b. Treating the data as sample, the standard deviation is
standard deviation
∑(𝑥 − 𝑥̅ )2 10 10
𝑠 = the sample 𝑠=√ =√ = √ = √2.5 = 1.58
standard deviation 𝑛−1 5−1 4

Based from the results, the male group are more dispersed than the female group.

The computation of the variance and the standard deviation is far too easy if there only few cases; however, if
you have a larger set of data your calculator or your computer can do everything for you, all you have to do is
to input the data and interpret the result. To aide you in the computation of the variance and standard deviation
click the link below, be sure you have your calculator.
For casio fx 570ms and fx 991 ms https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WTUYZZXU1Ws
For casio 50f ms https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3m2bFJ43pWs

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Coefficient of Variance
When comparing two sets of data with different units, you cannot use the variance or the standard
deviation. You have to use the coefficient of variance.

Coefficient of variance It is the ratio of the standard deviation to the mean. It is used to
compare the variability of two or more sets of data even when they are expressed in different
units of measurement.

𝑠𝑑
𝑐𝑣 =
𝑥̅
Where:
𝑐𝑣 = Coefficient
of variance
𝑠𝑑 = standard deviation
𝑥̅ = mean

Example: The time taken (in minutes) to complete a homework by 6 students in a day are
given by 24, 26, 33, 37, 29, 31
a. Find the range.
b. Find the coefficient of variation.

Solution;

a. Find the range.


24, 26, 29, 31, 33, 37 arrange the data in ascending/descending order
R=H–L
R = 37 – 24
R = 13
b. Find the coefficient of variation.
Step 1. Find the Mean
24+26+29+31+33+37
𝑥̅ = = 30
6
Step 2. Construct a table for easier computation later
x x-𝒙 ̅ ̅ )2
(x - 𝒙
Follow this process and do the
24 24 – 30 = - 6 (-6)2 = 36
same for the next data
26 -4 16
29 -1 1

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31 1 1
33 3 9
37 7 49
∑(𝑥 − 𝑥̅ )2 = 112

Step 3. Solve for the Standard deviation

∑(𝑥 − 𝑥̅ )2
𝑠𝑑 = √
𝑛−1

112
𝑠𝑑 = √
6−1
sd = 4.73

Step 4. Solve for the coefficient of variance or cv


𝑠𝑑
𝑐𝑣 =
𝑥̅
4.73
𝑐𝑣 =
30
cv = 0.16 Hence, the coefficient of variation of the given data is 0.16.

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REFERENCES
Bluman, Allan G (2012). Elementary Statistics: a step by step approach. (8 th Ed) New York: McGraw-
Hill,
Blay, Basilia e. (2007). Elementary Statistics. Pasig City: Anvil Publishing, Inc.,
Calmorin, Laurentina P.,Pledad Ma. Lauremelch (2008). Nursing Biostatistics with Computer. Manila:
Rex Bookstore,
Baltazar, E.C, Ragasa, C, Evangelista, J.(2018). Mathematics in the Modern World. C & E.
Publishing:Quezon City Philippines.
Concepcio, Benjamin P. et.al. Business Statistics with Computer Applications. Sta. Monica Printing
Corp.: Manila, Philippines.
Calano, Roel B., et.al. (2009). Biostatistics. (1st ed) Educational Publishing House: Ermita, Manila,
Philippines

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