Masonry Materials-II: (Concrete Masonry Units, Natural Stone, and Glass Masonry Units)
Masonry Materials-II: (Concrete Masonry Units, Natural Stone, and Glass Masonry Units)
Masonry Materials-II: (Concrete Masonry Units, Natural Stone, and Glass Masonry Units)
HAPTER OUTLINE
CONCRETE MASONRY UNITS-SIZES AND 25.6 NATURAL STONE
SHAPES
25.7 FROM BLOCKS TO FINISHED STONE
CONCRETE MASONRY UNITS-
MANUFACTURING AND SPECIFICATIONS 25.8 STONE SELECTION
5.3 CONSTRUCTION OF A (MU WALL 25.9 BOND PATTERNS IN STONE MASONRY WALLS
· chapter is a continuation of the previous chapter and deals with masonry materials not
vered there-concrete masonry units, natural stone, and glass masonry units. Because
int reinforcement and grout are an integral part of most concrete masonry walls, these are
discussed in this chapter.
Steel reinforcement, used in reinforced masonry, is the same as that used in reinforced
ncrete construction and was covered in Chapter 21 . Masonry construction systems are
' sed in Chapters 26 and 28.
573
,.:i!Jl iJ 0
M ATIJR IALS ANl\ S\'STI MS
01' CPN>I lll!C1lnN
Wa'o
Faoe ehell Cel 0ECTION A·A 0ECTION e.
5
D D -;t
Web 8 In.
nominal
A 1>5 Wldthofuhlt
.Ai v1rlo1 101
4 In., e 111
1..--1-------- 81
10 In, or 12 lh h,,
11omln1I ·
l>e
10 111. nominal
PLAN OF UNIT
Modular brick .. ,•
lateral loads. Unlike clay bricks, which are gene~all~ used in face veneers, CMu,
are used in both structural and face veneer applications. ·
8-in.-wide
-•·
CMU
StzEs OF CMUs
CMUs are available in several different sizes. The shape of a typical unit .
.,:-·.
--~
~ti··_'•.
. ~--«"',
.r<t'
..-v
shown in Figure 25.1. The leng\h_ and he_ight of all unit~ are gener~lly the sa :;
length = 16 in. nominal (15ii m. spec1~ed) and_ height_ = _B in, nominal
111
:;_· ...
(7i
in. specified). The width varies from~ m. to 12 m. nommal in steps_of2 in.,
that is, width = 4, 6, 8, 10, 12, or 14 m. Because the length and height of a
CMU are generally fixed, a CMU's size is generally specified by its width. An
Relative sizes of CMU and bricks. 8-in.-wide unit is most commonly used.
Volume of I CMU = volume of 12 modular bricks The face shells and the webs of a unit are generally flared at the top of the unit
as laid in the wall. Thus, a unit has a top and a bottom. The taper helps the mason
in lifting and placing the unit in a wall. ASTM specifications provide a minimum
thickness of face shells and webs for CMUs of different sizes, For example, an
t 15-5/8 in. (15.625.in.) t 8-in. CMU must have a minimum face shell thickness of 1t in. at the thinnest
1.5 in. 1.5 in. 1.5 in. point and a 1-in. minimum thickness for the webs.
5.56 in. 5.56 in The voids in a CMU are called cells. Most manufacturers make a two-cell
CMU. The longitudinal walls of a CMU are called face shells, and the trans-
verse walls are called webs. Thus, a two-cell unit has three webs. In an 8-in.
unit, the cells are approximately 23 in. 2-a space that is large enough for rein-
forcing and grout (see Section 25.5 for a discussion of grout).
574
CHA PTE R 25
M ASON RY M ATE RIAI.S-ll
(C ONCRETE MASONR Y
U NITS, NATURAL STONE,
AND GLASS MASONRY UNITS)
6ULLNOSE UNIT
LINTEL UNIT
Alined unit is U-shaped, Figure 25.6. When grouted and reinforced horizontally, several
lined units in the same course function like a concrete beam that can be used to span an open-
ing. For a large opening requiring a deeper lintel, some manufacturers make a 16-in.-high
((',l'O-COurse-high) unit.
A16-in.-deep lintel-can also be constructed by using an 8-in.-high lintel unit and
fullygrouting the lintel course and the course immediately above it. Similarly, a 24-in.-deep
Joint
~e SASH UNITS
57 5
16.1n.•hl9h lintel
unit• grouted
,nd r,lnforoed
16-ln.•hleh
&-ln.·hleh nnul unit
lintel unit
lintel can be obtained by grouting two courses of masonry above the standard B-in,.
high lintel. .
Lintels in a CMU wall may also be made of steel, precast concrete, or s1te•cast concrcit
Concrete masonry lintels have the advantage of maintaining the bond pattern, color, and
surface texture of the wall.
ffi
because the phenomenon is similar to the
behavior of an arch, which transfers the
gravity loads placed on it to side abutments.
Arching action occurs in all masonry walls
in which the head joints in one course are
(sufficiently) staggered from those in the
FIGURE2 upper and lower courses. Arching action
is altogether absent In a dry-stacked, stack- FIGURE 3 A load placed on the tep.olJ
bond wall. In a mortared stack-bond wall, directed downward, flaring at 45• (lioA\M
some arching action occurs due to vertical shear transfer from o~er the opening, therefore, ...,_
one unit to the other through mortar joints, but it is ignored. triangular (highlighted) ill'eil only.
576
EXP ANO YOU R KN OWLED GE (Con ti nued)
Masonry Walls (Continued::-")_ _ _ _ _ "
~ ~<;ttonu•
Distributed floor or roof load on either side cA the opening are sufficiently thick to absorb the
lateral thrust ~used by the arching action. .
If the wall ln Figure 4 carries a distributed superimposed
12 in. •k,ad (due to an overlying Aoor or rooO, it is not carried by the .
min. lintel but by the wall on either side of the opening. Because this
condition occurs commonly, the lintels over openings in masonry
walls need only a small amount of steel reinforcement.
However, a concentrated load directly above the opening
Lintel shpuld be considered a concentrated load on the lintel.
In the absence of arching action, the lintel must be designed
for the rectangular load of the wall plus any distributed and con•
centrated superimposed load above the lintel opening, Figure 5.
,_,. --c11-~----=--·-1-.-. .
RE 4 The lintel is designeq to carry this triangul I d
This part of the (distributed)
superimposed load on the
flG~sonry plus the self-load of the lintel. The distribu~ oa wall is carried by the lintel.
of111 rirnPosed (floor or rooO load on the top of the wall is not )
su~ed by the lintel. However, a concentrated load O th
carrt f the wall, lying
· d·,reelIboy a ve the opening, mustne be
top ~dered a distributed load on the lintel.
cons1
apening (to enable a 45° triangle to be formed with·
of the II) the load carried by the lintel is only the load of t,hn
.i.,, wa , 50 . I F. e
u.. I)' within the 4 tnang e, 1gure 4.
111~practice, a 12-in. depth of ma~onry a~~t the apex of a
45' triangle i~ needed_ to assume a triangular load on the lintel. In
words, ,f the height of ma~onry above the lintel is half th -t": '-------.. . . --------___.
,
span plus 12 in., arching action is assumed and the linter ' . :,f!GURE S In the ab$el'\Ce of arching action, the lintel must
' ~~igned for tria~gular loading p~usthe :self-load qf the !intet · _, '. · I).~ designed to ~rry this rectan~ul~r load of masonl)'. plus the
additional requirerne!'t foE,,~fCh!.~& 3:~ o'J:1~..t~afab,utnients ,'. i,,;;J,iilelf-l~ad of the hntel and ~ny (distributed and c~ncentrated)
An • _ ·" _ ,; , , , \ f• ,•--' · '"' <,; .: '" '}W,ltt·.t·":r::. 1 _ ·; supenmposed wall load directly above the opening.
577
H-unrte are ueed in a CMU
wall that is reinforud 8
ln.oncent.er
Joint
Reinforcing euet 6--- relnfo,Url'lllnt
FIGURE 25.7 The use of A-units and H-units in a reinforced CMU wall. (Photo courtesy of Brick Industry Association)
are laid in a running-bond pattern, the ribs align to produce continuous veni . i
Figure 25.10. cal hn~.
PILASTER PROJECTS ON
BOTH SIDES OF THE WALL
··· Maeonry
wall
.,•·· ·· Two-part
pilaster unit
578
Guillotine that
fracturee (with
an Impact) a
double CMU Into
two epllt-face
CMUe
5pllt·faae
aorner unit
uRE 25, 9 Split-face units are made by impact fracturing a double CMU through the middle into two units.
flG
.I. d 1111 its and are often used in interiors where no additional finish is required .
11.,,rit d.10 . II fi
../111 . ,•can a• lso be . use an extenor wa , o ten as accent bands in a wall made with
1he) nits Figure 25.11.
I.11 (:ice u ' . f I .
ip • lazed unit ha~ a facm? a g_azm_g mat~rial bonded to one or more faces of the u~it.
Ag .1 approximately To m. thick, 1s applied after the block has been made. The facmg
fhe;~: :fitde beyond the_ ~MU f~ce on all si_des, Figure 25.12. .
ei:rei I d CMU surface 1s impervious to moisture and dust collection and 1s easy to clean,
aze itary. Glazed CMUs, which are available in various colors, are often used in hos-
so ir ,_s san_ rs public kitchens, and so on-wherever surface cleanliness is important. The
. inteno , . b . . c
P". l 0 f glazed CMUs on exteriors must e verified with the manuracturer to ensure
suirabfaiicy ss and resistance to delamination by freeze-thaw action.
color stne
Glazed nu;ln0
Glazed facing
that extande
ellghtly i,eyond
the corner
FIGURE ') -
i 1C - ,~.11 l 1, ' l
' l:' CMU \\,1 ll. -~ nt ,um i,lwd un·1h •1'. ,Kcenl b,mds in a splil- FIGURE 25.12 A glazed concrete masonry unit.
,so
C 11 i1 1'1' HU ,.1'i
CMUe belno oured M ,\\I INIII' M .\ 11•111.\ 1,, Ii
In thne ohambert (( 11 N• 111111, MA>illNIII
l IN ! " · N.\ I 11 11 .\ 1 S l'll NI,,
.\N il l ilA." M.\ SII NII\ II NII S)
URE 25.14 Curing chambers for accelerated rnring of CMUs. OhsP,w 1lw w,Hm s,11ur,11i-d.,11r
uds. (The photograph was taken on a cold day; on .i really warm rl,1y, clouds ma y 1101ht• vlslhlt.>.)
The units are cured (typically for IO hours) and then unloaded from rhe mulrisrnck cart
wooden palettes, strapped into cubes, and stored in rhe yard for shipping ro the con-
ction site. Because the manufacturers do not want a large inventory in thdr sroragc
ds, it is possible that a unit may be sent to the construction site within a clay or two of
·ng manufactured.
I
arge less for laying them. However, because lightweight aggregate costs more (see Chapter
), lightweight units are generally more expensive than normal-weight units.
Lightweight units have the necessary strength for most situations. Where high unit
ength i_s needed, normal-weight u~its should ~e consi~ere~. !1~ :111y case, _the minimum
mpress1ve strength of a CMU used m load-bearing applications 1s 1,900 psi (based on the
net bearing area of the unit).
PRACTI CE Q uIz
question has only one correct answer. Select the choice tha\ best 4. The nominal width (through-wall thickness) of a typical CMU 11
the question. a. 18 In. b. Hi In.
e voids in CMUs are called c. 12 In. d. 8 In.
voids. b. cores. e. vtrlable,
cells.
..... d. frogs. 5. A typical CMU has
a. oneweb,
c. three webs.
b, two webs.
nominal length of a typical CMU Is d. four webs.
18 in. b. 16 In. e. nve webs.
12 in. d. 8 In. 6. A typical CMU has
a. one face shell. b. two face shells.
nominal height of a typica l CMU Is c. three face shells. d. four face snells.
18 in. b. 16 in. e. five face shells.
d. 8 in.
(Cont/11ued)
5!!1
____P_RAC!_~~-~-- g -~_IZ~(C::_on~t!!}_in~ue~d1_!_)~ ~ - ~ - · - - - - - - - - - ~ ~ ~ - - - - - - . . _ _
7 13. If a CMU wall is vertically reinforced at 16 in. o? centers,
• Which of the following CMU shapes is used to simulate a stack- the following units will you recommend for use rn the waij;"IChOf
bond wall, although the wall is, in fact, made with a running- A ·t b. H-unit ·
bo d a. -um
a. nLintel
pattern? c. Standard unit with three webs d. Sash unit
b• Bullnose unit e. Bond beam unit
c. Sash unit 14. If a CMU waif is vertically reinforced at 8 in. on _centers, wliic
d. Unit with projecting face shells the following units will you recommend for rn the Walfl hOf
e. Scored unit a. A-unit b. H-unlt
8. Which of the following CMU shapes has a rounded corner? c. Standard unit with three webs d. Sash unit
a. Lintel e. Bond beam unit
b. Bullnose unit lS. If a CMU wall is verticalfy reinforced at 24 in. on centers h·
c. Sash unit
d. Unit with projecting face shells a. A-unit b. H-unrt
w;
the folfowing units wilf you recommend for u~ in the ; ICb Of
1
e. Scored unit c. Standard unit with three webs d. Both (a) and (b)
9. CMUs with projecting face shells can be used on both sides of a e. Both (a) and (c)
control joint in a wall. The other unit that is commonly used in the 16. The center-to-center spacing of vertical reinforcement in a CMLJ
same situation is a cannot be Jess than 8 in. "'all
a. scored unit. b. bullnose unit. a. True b. False
c. sash unit. d. lintel unit.
1O. Which of the following CMU shapes has a U-shaped profile in its
17. before
Which being
of the laid
following
in the CMUs
waif? has slotted webs that are broken
vertical cross section? a. A-unit b. H-unit
a. Lintel unit c. Standard unit with three webs d. Sash unit
b. Bullnose unit e. Bond beam unit
c. Sash unit
d. Unit with projecting face shells 18. The terms pilaster and pier are synonymous.
e. Scored unit a. True b. False
11. Arching action occurs in a masonry wall with 19. Asplit-face CMU is made by treating a standard CMU with an
a. a running-bond pattern. oxyacetylene torch to produce a very smooth surface on one or
b. a stack-bond pattern. faces of the unit. lllore
c. both (a) and (b). a. True b. False
th
d. nei er (a) nor (b). 20. A burnished CMU is made by treating a standard CMU with an
12. A lintel over an opening in all masonry walls is designed to carry the oxyacetylene torch to produce a very smooth surface on one or rnor
load from triangle-shaped superimposed masonry. faces of the unit. e
a. True b. False a. True b. False
-············-·--··-···-········--------·-·········-···--··-·
I
not mortared. The exceptions are stack-bond walls and partially grouted CMU walls.
increase a wall's bending
Mortaring the webs on both sides of a grouted cell in a partially grouted wall prevent5
strength.
2. Because CMUs are laid in the grout from flowing into ungrouted cells. The first course of a CMU wall is laid
running bond, the webs of over a full bed of mortar regardless of the type of wall.
a CMU in the upper course • A typical CMU wall contains joint reinforcemenc for shrinkage control, which is nor
do not fully align with the required in brick walls other than a stack-bonded brick wall.
webs of CMUs in the lower • A reinforced CMU wall is generally partially grouted because only cells that contain
course. Therefore, if the reinforcement need the grout. Other cells are left ungrouted unless fire-resist~ce
mortar is placed on the and/ or sound-insulation requirements mandate a fully grouted wall. A reinforced bn~
webs, it will not serve any
wall, on the other hand, must be fully grouted in all cases-the grout being provid
purpose. Additionally, not
in the space between two masonry wythes, Figure 25.1 7.
mortaring the webs speeds
construction. The images in Figure 25. 18 highlight some of the similarities and differences berween
the construction of brick and CMU walls.
582
CMU WITH PROJECTED ENDS CMU WITH PLAIN ENDS
FIGURE 25.16 In a CMU wa ll, onl y face shells are generally mortared;
that is, the webs are not mortared, and th e hea d joints are mortared to
The la ying of a CMU is a two-hand operation versus
•E 25,15 I . b. k the depth of the fa ce shells.
fiG U• hand used in ay 1ng ri c s.
itl' 0ne
Vertical--........
reinforcement
(!,)
Longitudinal wire
No. 9 gauge
(deformed)
LADDER-TYPE JOINT
REINFORCEMENT
584
25
g.cu d'nal wires are slightly deformed (texrured) to •improve their . bond wit •h CHAPTER
1 1
I
9
fli' ;~e cross wires (al~~ No: ga~ge) are generally plain, spaced no more than 16 in. MJ\SONRY MATERIALS-II
10 r¢· J-{oc-dip ~vamzmg, 1~ which the reinforcement is dipped in a hot bath of zinc, (CONCR ET E MASONRY
o11•"' . ed for cor ros10n protection. The thickn ess of gal van1Z1ng
P JncefS• · · (zmc)
· · UNITS, NATURAL $TONE,
film required
..i1111r
• r•, on c e e
h xposure of the wall
. to corrosion · Wh ere corrosion protection 1s cntlcal ,
· · · .. AND GLASS MASONRY UNITS)
15
.dlds I •oint reinforcement 1s recommended.
Jcr·.,.,, scee J f. . . fi ( Id'
~ o"""[ab ·cacion o JOtnt rem orcement we mg of cross wires with longitudinal
fii' d ;:ccing co require~ leng~s) sho~d precede galvanizing. The alternative,
~irel che reinforceme~c is fabricated wtth galvanized wires, leaves the welded
th
I·p wli ~11h uc any protewon. If e laccer is the mode of fabrication the welded
1
~odar r
a rninirnum s . ~over muSc be provi'ded bY the mortar, Figure 25.21. There-
s•m.
r~r, c use in an 8-m. CMU wall, the out-to-out distance between wires is
. e ror 3.
lo/\~
(s
i -rcical
sl == 6ii_m.
5
spacing O
f. . . c
JOmt remrorcement in a wall is a function of the diameter
Theve · an d the th'ickn ess of the wall. With No. 9 gauge wires the
· udinal wires
f 1ong1t . . 16 . . ,
0 rnended spacing is m. on center. This amounts to placing the joint rein-
,ccorn nt every other course of masonry. If [G-in. longitudinal wires are used the
rorceine f. . .C b . )
·caJ pacing o JOtnt remrorcement can e increased.
,t~or: srrin~e~t ho~izontal reinforcement re~uirements (wire diameter and verti-
.1 cing of JOtnt reinforcement) than those given here for shrinkage crack control
r;i spa needed to resist. h'1gh-wm. d and se1sm1c
· · loads.
111aY be
Steel
reinforcement
'ICuRE 25.22 The use of bond beams for shrin kage crack control·
585
(a) 5tack·11ond wall (11) Runnlng-1,ond wall
The horizontal !lending etrengtli of a etack·llond When a runnlng·llond wall llende horizontally, the unite mu~t elide
wall le only a function of the (flexural tenelle) over the underlying unite. The reeletance of the unite to eliding
llond etrength of head jolnte. lncreaeee the !lending etrength of the wall. Note that thle
phenomenon le alleent In a etack·llond wall.
The vertical !lending etrength of 1,oth a etack·l,ond and a runnlng-
llond wall ls the eame (eee Figure 24.3). It can lie Increased lly Pl"Ovldln
vertical reinforcement In walle (eee Figure 24.4). 9
FIGURE 25.23 (a) The horizontal bending strength of a stack-bond wall is low because it is only a function of the flexural tensile bond
strength of vertical joints. (b) The horizontal bending strength of a running-bond wall is greater than that of a stack-bond wall because of th
shear (sliding) resistance provided by the units. e
CONTROL JOINTS
In addition to horizontal reinforcement, crack control in CMU walls requires the provi.
sion of continuous vertical control joints. The width of a control joint is usually the sam
as the thickness of a mortar joint-i in. The recommendations for control joint spacin;
are as follows:
• The length-to-height ratio of a wall between control joints should be less than or
equal to 1.5. In any case, the distance between control joints should not exceed 25 fi.
Thus, if the height of a wall (from floor to floor or from floor to roof) is IO ft, the
maximum distance between control joints is 15 ft. However, if the wall height is
20 ft, the maximum distance between control joints is 25 ft.
• In addition to meeting the first provision, several other provisions should also be met,
as shown in Figure 25.24.
The detailing of a control joint must ensure free horizontal movement of wall segments
in addition to the transfer of the lateral load between adjacent segments. A typical control
joint detail is shown in Figure 25.25(a) . An alternative derail, which uses a sash unit on
both sides of a control joint, is shown in Figure 25.25(b). A cross-shaped PVC gasket is ,
used in sash unit recesses. The parts of the gasket within the sash units are required to have
adequate hardness to function as shear key-to transfer the lateral loads across the joint.
25.5 GROUT
The purpose of masonry grout is to fill the voids in masonry walls so that the grout, the
masonry units, and che reinforcement are integrated into a composite whole. Grout is,
therefore, a cementitious mix, in many ways similar co concrete. Important differences
between grout and concrete, however, do exist. For example, the durability of concrete is
important, but chis is not a concern with grout because ic is protected by che units. A sm~I
amount of lime is permitted in grout but not in concrete.
586
u; near a comer are
,,ir01Joln l1e more closely spaced
Co ulret-1 wh two walls shrink In
,-,4 ei- e
0 ..i;9U6 ~lrec1'1ons.
~rer11<
f;PACING 6ETWEEN
CONTROL JOINTS
e grout is placed in masonry voids, ic contains more water than concrete. In ocher
Becaus " " . all . fl
d rout is a soupy mix to ow It to ow down the voids, which are relatively small
wor_ s, ~he required slump of grout is 8 to 11 in. , depending on the absorption character-
in.::;f masonry units, void dimensions, and the ambient temperature and humidity con-
isu_ t the time of grout placement.
d1uons a
TYPES OF GROUT
'd dimensions also affect the type of aggregate used in grout. Grout is classified as fine
, Vo1 fi h . f h
and coarse grout. In me grout, t e aggregate consists o sand only. In coarse grout, t e
grout
aggregate consists
. . of sand and coarse aggregate. The maximum size of coarse aggregate is
3.
generally limited to s m.
Preformed control
Mortar filling Joint an
to provide gaek
shear key ---.,,.;
587
PART")
-~.--
~'
.,
~ -~ -·~·
.
.
:
-
- ~- . ·_.
. .
.
-_"
\
ii i:! .
FIGURE 25.26 T~o alternative methods of placing grout are pumping and bucketing. In these images, the maso_ns are placin~ the grout in
the cells of underlying CMUs. The CMUs showing at the top of the wall are bond beam units, which will be provided wrth horizontal rein-
forcement at a later date.
Fine grout is used where void dimensions are small. If void dimensions are large (greater
than 1.5 in. X 3 in.), coarse grout is prefi:rred because it shrinks less than fine grout. In any case,
a shrinkage-compensating admixture may be specified for grout. Excess shrinkage (a result of
the large slump of grout) can leave voids, reducing the bond between the units, the grout, and
the reinforcement. Proper consolidation will, however, reduce shrinkage co some extent.
The compressive strength of grout muse be at least equal co chat of masonry but not less
than 2,000 psi. The strength of grout is established by testing specimens after 28 days of
casting chem. As an alternative co testing, grout may be proportioned by the requirements in
Table 25.1, which results in a grout with a compressive strength of approximately 2,500 psi.
Two methods are used co pour grout in masonry walls-pumping and bucketing, Fig-
ure 25.26. Pumping is more commonly used in a high-lift grouting operation. High-lift
grouting is used where the entire height of the wall (up to a maximum of 24 ft) is grouted
in one operation. Bucket placement is economiGtl in small jobs or where low-lift grouting is
specified. In low-lift grouting, the wall is grouted as ic is constructed, generally up co 4 ft in
height. Some architecrs and engineers prefer specifying low-life grouting because it provides
better qualiry control, particularly if the wall is heavily reinforced.
PRACTI CE QUIZ
Each question has only one correct answer. Select the choice that best d. all of lhe above.
answers the question. e. both (al and (b).
21. In a typical CMU wall, face-shell mortaring Is used. This implies that 23. Joint reinforcement refers to
the mortar is placed a. the vertical reinforcement in a masonry wall.
a. only on the horizontal surfaces of the face shells. b, the horizontal reinlorcement in a masonry wall.
b. on the horizontal and vertical surfaces of the face shells. c. both vertical and horizontal reinforcement in a masonry wall.
c. on the horizontal surfaces of the face shells as well as the webs.
d. on the vertical surfaces of the face shells only. 24. Joint reinlorcement in CMU walls generally consists of
a. a single wire.
22. The grouting of the cells of a CMU wall is required where b. two parallel wires connected together by c~ wire$.
._ the cells are provided with steel reinforcement. c. three parallel wires connected together b)! cross wi~
b. greater fire resistance of the wall is required. cl. two parallel wires without cross wires.
c:. greater sound insulation of the wall is required. e. none of the above.
588
·-~--··· ,............ _ PRACTICE QUIZ (Contin!:_!..d ~-·--·-··
~ ; i~:!:~!:~~;e; ~~~i:i;i::·~~;~ ·: -..·~·- - : ~~ mi~ure of
t;.
=
'(llti ~ the shear strength of the wall. a. portland cement and water.
: the com~ressive stress in the wall caused by the b. portland cement, aggregate, and water.
" p·· ion of umts. . · c. porttand cement, lime, and water.
the tensile stress m the wall ca~ by the expansion of ~ega~~ waf&!r. !
d, itS • the I
the tenSile stress rn wal caused by the shrinkage of units. 29. Mason~ grout has a slump of approximately
e, t,earns in a CMU wall can be used to serve the same purpose a, 2 to 3 in. b. 3 to 4 in.
·nforcement. c. 4 to S in. d. 5 to 6 in.
,. p j0i"1rei b. False e. none of the above.
• rrue . of control joints in a CMU wall 30. Some architects and engineers prefer to specify low-lift grouting in
,naci08 ft mason~ walls because
fhe ,,,- Id not exceed 25 •
f ,_ ~~r,etion of the length•to-height ~atio of the wall. a. it is more economical.
-"'ion of the average
i,. 1sjsa fu,,.,, annual air temperature of the locau· on. b. it saves construction time and effort.
c. it does not require the use of coarse agSregate.
,. (b) and (c).
d. it does not require portland cement.
d. (a) and (b).
t,
----------·-···........... -
e. none of the above.
.. .................................................................................... .................. ______________~----
_ NATURAL STONE
25 6
i rural scone is obtained.from rocks that constitute the earth's crust. Rock and scone are
Nancially the sam~ mat~n~s, e~cept that 3!te.r the rock has been quarried, it is called stone.
r5t chat is used m buildings ts called buzldmg stone. Clay and sand present on the earth's
are che ~esulc .of the physical and chemical disintegration of rock by rainwater and air.
The cerm dzmens~on stone refers to stone that has been fabricated to required dimensions,
re surface finish, and so on, and meets performance requirements for durability
tcll11 '
srrengch, water absorpnon, •
an d the l'k ·
1 e. :"he terr~ includes stone cladding panels, veneer'
~one, councercops and tabletops, wall copings, stau treads and risers, and balusters. It spe-
cificallyexcludes broken or.crush~d stone. . .
Srone is a natural matenal, so Its charactensncs (propenies and appearance) are incon-
sistent. There is a great deal of variability even in slabs or blocks obtained from the same
uarry pit. Scone is, therefore, too complex a material to describe with geological and
lemical precision here. Fortunately, such precision is not only unnecessary but counter-
productive, and chis fact is recognized by the industry and ASTM standards.
The reason for discouraging excessive precision is that many building stones with differ-
ent geological names have essentially the same performance characteristics. For example,
gabbro, gneiss, basalt, and some other stones have vinually the same density, durability,
abrasion resistance, and ability to accept polish as granite. So, these stones are referred to as
the granite group of stones. While the geochemical distinction between them may be of
interest to a geologist, it is unnecessary in commercial applications. Similarly, some stones,
though geologically defined as limestone, are sold commercially as marble because, in their
propercies, chey are closer to marble.
Building stones may be classified as follows:
• Granite or granite group
• Limestone and travertine group
' Marble or marble group
' Sandstone and quartzite group
• Slace
589
EXPAND YOUR KNOWLEDGE
granules determine the strength, color, and surface appearance of granite. Quam is the
strongest and most durable of the three minerals. Therefore, a greater amount of quam
gives a stronger and harder granite chat is more difficult to process-sawing, profiling, and
grinding.
Being silicon dioxide, quartz is chemically the same as sand and, hence, is white co light
pink in color. A granite low in quartz is generally darker in color. Commercial black granite
is extremely low in quartz, approaching 0%, and is really not granite, but a stone called
basalt by geologists. Black granite (basalt), which has a handsome finish, is commonly used
as tabletops or countertops. Being relatively weaker, it is not favored for use where high
strength or abrasion resistance is necessary, such as on floors and stair treads.
Both feldspar and mica present weakness in granite, particularly mica, because it decom-
poses more easily. Quartzite, a stone that is almost 100% quartz, is extremely strong. Ir is
commonly used as an aggregate for ultra-high-strength concretes.
LIMESTONE
Limestone is a sedimentary rock, consisting primarily of the carbonates of calcium and mag-
nesium, with small amounts of clay, sand, and organic material, such as seashells and other
fossils. Limestone consisting of approximately 95% calcium carbonate and 5% impurities is
called calcite limestone. That consisting of 60% to 80% calcium carbonate and 20% to 40%
magnesium carbonate is called dolomitic limestone. Dolomitic limestone is generally stronger
than calcite limestone.
Unlike gran_ite, limestone is generally nongranular, with a relatively uniform surface
appearance. It 1s softer than both marble and granite and hence easier to quarry, saw, and
shape. I_t ranges in color from white to gray and does not cake a polish.
Calcium carbonate reacts with acids. Acid in some foods (citric acid in lemons, limes,
~ranges, et_c., and acetic acid in vinegar and pickles) reacts with limestone. Thar is why
hmesto~e 1s not ~ecom?1ended for use as kitchen, dining, or bar tabletops. Limestone
fa~a~es m ar~as wnh senous acid rain problems have deteriorated. However, because acid
ram 1s a relanvely r~cent_ problem (related primarily to emissions from rhe use of pecroleurn
and coal) , the decenoranon oflimestone is also a recent problem.
590
ral historic buildings with Jim f: CHAPTER~
5eve f eactive atmospher . 1es~one acades have performed quite well in the MASONRY M/.TERIALS-Jl
O
ai,sence Nr y k C'ty h esp' me udmg the Empire State Building and Rockefeller
in ew or 1 , t e encagon · W hi • (CONCRET E MASONRY
Cellcer Ch' Ill' • L' m as ngton, D.C. , and the Chicago Tribune
in 1cago, mo1s. 1mestone is al l U NITS, NATUIVJ. STON E,
f ower so common y used as concrete aggregate. AND Guss MASONRY UNITS)
fitAVERTINE
f ravern· 0 e is a sedimentary
. rock
. obtained crrom the sediments
• .
of limestone ·
dissolve d ·m
.
spr1ngw acer. Springwater
)' (pamcularly
h' h fro h · ) • ·
m ot sprmgs runnmg over limestone epos1tsd ·
dissolved the u~esto n~ w ~- subsequently sedimented (i.e., were deposited) in a nearby
location, SometkimTes t e ~e !~enc trapped water, which eventually evaporated, leaving
~01'ds 1·0 the roe . ravertme 1s ' therefore , a porous stone, an d travemne· s1abs are pme· d
with voids.
'frav~rt!ne is closely related to lime~tone, but because it did not morph (change) like
marble, 1t 1s softer st0 ne. Mos~ travercme varieties, therefore, do not take a polish. Denser
varieties, wh1c~ take a good polish, are referred to as travertine marble.
Becau~e of Its porous ~tructure'. travertine does not have the durability required for
use in chm slabs _for extenor claddmg. However, architects, who like the surface texture
created by th~ pi~s, have used tra:ertine in building exteriors as (thick) masonry walls.
When traveru~e is used as a floonng material, its pitted surface can collect dirt, requir-
ing greater mamtenance unless the pits are filled with a portland cement (or an epoxy)
and ground smooth.
MARBLE
Geologically, marble is ~i~er~nt fro~ limestone because it is a metamorphic rock. Chemi-
cally, however, marble 1s s1m1lar to limestone. In fact, marble is limestone, which under
centuries of high pressure and heat in the earth's crust morphed from a sedimentary rock to
a metamorphic rock.
Because of the pressure and heat, marble is stronger and denser than the original lime-
stone but weaker than granite. Like granite, it takes a good polish. As stated previously,
denser varieties oflimestone that accept polish are sold (and used) commercially as marble.
--
Marbles vary in surface appearance, which can be without patterns or with patterns-
veiny, or mottled, or both, Figure 25.28. The presence of veins often indicates the presence of
fuults, weakness, or cracks in marble. The use of veiny and variegated marble is generally dis-
CX>uraged for exterior applications. Marbles vary greatly in color-from white to black, pink, FIGURE 25.28 Veiny surface of
~ dso on. Being chemically identical to limestone, marble _is also vulnerable to acid anack. marble.
SANDSTONE
S,andstone is a sedimentary rock formed by layers of sand (quartz) particles with oxides of
calcium, silicon, and iron as cementing agents. If the cementing agent consists primarily of
the oxide of silicon, sandstone is light in color and strong. If cemented by iron oxide, the
~ dstone is brown or red in color and softer. San~~tone th~t has a large amount of calcium
oxide as cement is relatively more vulnerable to d1smtegrat1on.
SLATE
Slate is a metamorphic rock formed by the morphosis of clay and mica sediments. Slate has
a nongranular, smooth texture and is characterized by distinct cleavage planes that permit
easy splitting in slabs as thin as ¼in. That is why slate is used as roofing and flooring mate-
~- It is available in various colors, ranging from black to pink and light green.
591
r P AE T 2
M.>ITElUhl.s -'.!•v SnTDd!,
OT V.JN.\.nu;cn0 _._
Cross-sectional profiles for round columns, column caps, balusters, wall copings, win-
dow sills, and so on, are obcained by machining che sawn material to the desired shape.
Differenc types of power-driven cools or tool anachmencs are available for diflerem profiles.
Although most scone fa brication is auromared, complex ornamental work requires working
with hand cools such as chisels, picks, and hammers, Figure 25. 3 1.
592
N STONE SLABS AND PANELS CHAPTER 25
1~1st-1ES O . . MASONRY MATERIALS-II
f 511rface5 of stone slabs and panels can be fimshed m several ways. The finish not only (CONCRETE MASONRY
fb' the surface appearance of th~ sto~~ but also its durability. A honed or polished finish UNITS, NATURAL STON!l,
/eet-5 all more durable because 1t facilitates the drainage of water from the surface. The AND GLASS MASONRY UNITS)
i, geo~r :e some of the commonly used finishes on stone slabs and panels:
uowiog .
finish: If the stone 1s not finished beyond
sawn . call d .
• saw1n . g, the surface 1s ks e a sawn finish. A sawn fin-
. h has visible saw mar .
ned finish: When a _sawn finish is ground smooth
' -~ an abrasive material, a honed finish is obtained.
~oning requires repe~ted grindi~g with increasingly
fine abrasives. Water 1s used con~muously during the
honing process to control dust, Figure 25.32.
POfished finish: Conceptually, there is no difference
' b rween a honed and a polished finish. A honed fin-
. is smooth but with a matt appearance. A polished
~nish is obtained by .grin~ing the stone surface
beyond the honed fimsh with finer abrasives and
finally buffing it with felt until the surface develops
a sheen. A polished finish brings out the color of
stone to its fullest extent by reflecting light like a • I,
........__ 593