Basics of

1.1 INTRODUCTION Electricity

Electricity is so closely linked to our day-to-day life that living without

electricity would be a suffocating thought to many of us. Electricity, in its
commonly usable form, is a manufactured product. It is not something you
pump out of the ground or mine or collect from the sun or wind.

Electricity is the flow of electrical power or charge. It is a secondary

energy source, which means that we get it from the conversion of other
sources of energy, like coal, natural gas, oil, nuclear power and other
natural sources, which are called primary sources. The energy sources
we use to make electricity can be renewable or non-renewable, but
electricity itself is neither renewable nor non-renewable.

Electricity is one of our most widely used forms of energy.

 Objectives
After studying this unit, you should be able to

 explain electricity,

 describe what is matter, free electrons, etc.,

 explain the key terms voltage, current, power, energy,

 define resistance and impedance,

 describe three types of electricity loads,

 define power system efficiency,

 discuss power factor and phase angle,

 differentiate between active and reactive power, and

 explain magnets and types of magnets.

1.2 BASICS OF ELECTRICITY

Electricity is so vital to modern life that all of us need to understand it fully

in order that we can enjoy all the benefits it brings.

Most people don't understand what it is. They just turn on a light switch
and there is brightness, or start an appliance or push a button and
something works. It's only when there is no electric power available that
we start to consider the importance of it in our daily personal and working
lives.
9
Elementary Let us start with building a good understanding of basic terms and
Electrical and
Exposure to Tools concepts most often used to describe and discuss electrical issues.
Please take the time necessary to grasp these basic terms and concepts
to build working knowledge.

The materials we observe and interact with from day-to-day are formed
from atoms and molecules that are electrically neutral, having an equal
number of positive charges (protons, in the nucleus) and negative
charges (electrons, in shells surrounding the nucleus).

1.2.1. Matter

Anything, which possesses mass and occupies space, is called matter.

Matter can be in any of the three forms : Solid, Liquid and Gas.

The matter consists of molecules. The molecules are made up of one or

more atoms.

 Solid

In a solid, molecular forces closely bind the molecules to one

another. A solid holds its shape and the volume of a solid is fixed by
the shape of the solid.

 Liquid

In a liquid, the molecular forces are weaker than in a solid. Hence,

the molecules are free to move around. A liquid will take the shape
of its container. However, a given quantity of a liquid has a fixed
volume.

 Gas

In a gas, the molecular forces are very weak. A gas fills its
container, taking both the shape and the volume of the container.

 Plasma

Plasma is the fourth state of matter. In general, we know that there

are three states of matter; solid, liquid and gas, but there are actually
four. The fourth state of matter is plasma.

To put it very simply, a plasma is an ionized gas, a gas into which

sufficient energy is provided to free electron from atom and
molecules.

The matter consists of molecules.

10
The molecules are made up of one or more atoms. Atoms of different Basics of
Electricity
types may combine to make a molecule.

Figure 1.1 : Three States of Matter

1.2.2 Atomic Structure

An Atom is the smallest particle of any element, which can be identified. It
is composed of smaller sub-atomic particles. The properties of an element
are identified in the atom, but not in the sub-atomic parts.

Atoms are made up of three types of sub-atomic particles : electrons,

protons and neutrons. The centre part of an atom is called “nucleus”, and
is made up of protons and neutrons. The electrons move around the
nucleus.

Figure 1.2 : Structure of an Atom

These sub-atomic particles have different properties.

 Electrons

 Electrons are tiny, very light particles that have a negative

electrical charge ().

 These particles spin in around the nucleus in zones (called

shell) somewhat like the planets in the orbit of sun. 11
Elementary  Protons
Electrical and
Exposure to Tools  Protons are much larger and heavier than electrons and have
the opposite charge, i.e. protons have a positive charge, which
is equal (in magnitude) to the charge of an electron.

 The protons are situated in nucleus.

 Neutrons

 Neutrons are large and heavy like protons; however neutrons

have no electrical charge.

 These are also situated in nucleus.

Each atom is made up of a combination of these particles.

1.2.3 Free Electrons
The electrons spinning in last shell of the atom are called free electrons.
These free electrons can be removed or liberated from its shell by a
relatively smaller force. These free electrons are the carriers of electricity.

The reason for the free electrons to be released could be many, e.g.
mechanical, chemical, presence of external electrical field, etc. In the
case of a battery cell, a chemical reaction leads to the release of
electrically charged ions, which release free electrons on to the terminals
of the cell.

 Check Your progress 1

Describe the difference between electrons and protons.

1.2.4 Current, Voltage and Resistance

Electricity is identified by two basic parameters : Current and Voltage.
These two are measurable quantities. Resistance defines the relation
between Current and Voltage in an electrical circuit. We start by thinking
about current as the flow of charge. Resistance comes in as a measure of
opposition to the flow of charge.

 Current

The flow of electrons in any conducting material from one point to

another is called electric current. While the electrons move from the
negative terminal to the positive one, by convention the current is
said to flow from the positive to the negative terminal.

12
 Basics of
Points to remember: Current Electricity

 Basic unit (measurement) of current is Ampere (A).

 Instrument to measure current is called Ammeter.

 Ammeter is connected in series with the circuit, i.e. the same

current that is to be measured flows though the Ammeter, as
well.

 Voltage

The electromotive force or potential difference causing the flow of

electrons (current) in any conductor is called voltage. The voltage is
measured between the two ends of the circuit.

Points to remember: Voltage

 Basic unit (measurement) of voltage is Volt (V).

 Measuring instrument of voltage is called Voltmeter.

 Voltmeter is connected in parallel to the circuit, i.e. to the two

terminal points between which the current flows.

 Resistance

This is the property of a substance, which gives opposition to flow of

electrons through itself. If we apply the same voltage to the ends of
different materials, the amount of current that flows will differ in each
case. Resistance is the property that causes this difference. Higher
the resistance, lesser would be the current. In general, metals have
less resistance and hence are suitable as conductor of electricity.
The most common conductors are copper, aluminium.

 Resistance is measured in Ohm ().

 Instrument to measure resistance is called Ohmmeter.

Some types of material show very low resistance value. All metals
have this property. The material with very low resistance is called a
conductor, i.e. it conducts electricity.

Some other types of material show value of high resistance. Such

material is termed as a non-conductor. If a non-conducting material
13
Elementary is used to deliberately prevent electricity being conducted, it is
Electrical and
Exposure to Tools named as an insulator.

 Check Your Progress 2

Explain resistance. If there is no voltage applied, is the resistance zero?

Ohm’s Law

Ohm’s law is the basic statement of the relationship between the two
basic quantities associated with electricity, i.e. Voltage and Current,
and their relationship with Resistance.

Ohm’s law states that, for a conductor at constant temperature,

the current in the conductor is directly proportional to the
potential difference across it.

Imagine a conductor through which a current I is flowing and let we

be the potential difference between ends of the conductor then
Ohm’s law states that

VI

or V=RI

where constant of proportionality R is callled the resistance of the

conductor. Its measuring unit is Ohm (). Current is inversely
proportional to resistance.

Current ‘I’
Resistance ‘R’

Voltage ‘V’

Figure 1.3 : Voltage and Current are Related by Resistance

1.2.5 Power, Energy and Efficiency

We are interested in electricity because it can do useful work for us.

Therefore, we want to quantify how much work can be derived from it.
This capacity is defined in terms of Power and Energy.

14
 Power Basics of
Electricity
Remember that power P is the rate of doing work. In the case of
electricity, we define it as the product of voltage and current. Power
is used to produce real work.

Points to remember : Power

 Measuring unit of power is joule/second or watt.

 Power = voltage  current

P=VI

 1 Watt = 1 Volt  1 Ampere

Bigger unit of power is kilowatt (kW)

1 kW = 1000 Watt

 Similarly, 1000 kW = 1 MW (Mega Watt)

 Energy

The capacity for doing the work is called energy. To say it differently,
it is the rate of doing work (i.e. Power) multiplied by the time for
which that power is applicable.

Points to remember: Energy

 Usual measuring unit of energy is kWh

 1 kWh = 1000 watt for one hour = 36,00,000 Joule

 1 kWh = 1 Unit of Electrical Energy

It is also known as Board of Trade Unit (BOT)

 A larger unit is MWh, which is 1000 kWh

 Efficiency

In an ideal situation and using a perfect machine, we should be able

to convert every bit of the energy fed to the machine to useful work,
as its output. Unfortunately, in any real life situation, a perfect
machine does not exist. Hence the output of any machine is always
less than the input energy. The difference is usually wasted as
unrecoverable heat, due mainly to friction.

15
Elementary The efficiency is the ratio of desired form of energy obtains from a
Electrical and
Exposure to Tools machine to the total energy fed to the machine.

Output (useful) Energy

(a) Efficiency =
Total Input Energy

Intput Energy  Losses

(b) Efficiency =
Input Energy
Output (useful) Energy
(c) % Efficiency =  100
Total Input Energy

 Efficiency of Power System

The efficiency of power system is maximized when the total
combined load is purely resistive. Therefore, when the total
load on the system approaches purely resistive, the total
current requirements and losses are minimum. Total power that
has to be produced is minimized. The total power becomes
“real” power (i.e. minimum power required to serve all loads).

When efficiency is maximized then benefits are realized as-


 Power losses of system are minimized.

 Extra capacity is made available in transmission lines,

distribution lines and substation equipment because these are
rated on the amount of current carrying capability. If the
current flow is less, then more capacity available to serve
additional load.

Instrument to measure resistance is called Ohmmeter.

One way to measure the power system efficiency is by
calculating the power factor.

 Check Your Progress 3

Differentiate between power and energy.

1.2.6 Inductance, Capacitance and Impedance

In the earlier sections, we learnt one electrical property of a material,

namely, Resistance. In the case of time-invariant (not changing with time)
16 current, it may be the only electrical property of interest. However, if we
consider currents, which keep changing with time, the word ‘resistance’ is Basics of
Electricity
to be replaced by the word impedance. This ever-changing current is
called Alternating Current or AC. It is explained further in the next section.

Impedance has a resistive part and the remaining could be either

capacitance or inductance or both,

 Inductance

While inductance is associated with every conductor, it is easily

manifested in the case of a conducting coil. When such a coil is
exposed to changing magnetic force-field, an electromotive force
(e.m.f.) (voltage!) is generated at the terminal of the coil. In fact, this
is how generators work.

Inductance is that property of a coil by virtue of which an e.m.f. is

induced in the coil when the magnetic flux linked with that coil is
changed. The change of flux may be due to Changing Current or
AC. Frequency is the number of times the current completes the
cycle of change in one second and is denoted by ‘f’.

 The measuring unit of Inductance is Henry (H).

 It is denoted by L.

 Inductive Reactance

Effective opposition offered by inductance.

 It is denoted by XL and it is equal to 2fL, (where f is the

frequency). The combination ‘2f’ is often replaced by the
symbol ‘’.

 Its measuring unit is ohms().

 Capacitance

An assembly of two conducing plates separated by a dielectric is

called a capacitor. A capacitor can store electrical charge and in this
process offers impedance to the flow of changing current or AC,
across it. Of course, a non-changing current (Direct Current or DC)
cannot flow across a capacitor.

 The capacity to store charge is called Capacitance and is

denoted by C.

 Its measuring unit is Farad.

17
Elementary  Capacitive Reactance
Electrical and
Exposure to Tools Effective opposition offered by a capacitance is called capacitive
reactance.
1
(a) It is denoted by Xc and it is equal to .
(2  f C )
(Where f is frequency).

Impedance

The total opposition offered by a series circuit containing resistance

inductance and capacitance is called impedance.

 It is denoted by Z, where Z = R + j X

 Its measuring unit is ohm.

In this ‘X’ denotes reactance due to inductance or capacitance or a

combination of both. ‘R’ is the resistance. ‘j’ is the symbolic
representation of square root of – 1 or  1 . This is called imaginary
number and is used in the calculation of complex equations in
relation to electricity.

Using this representation of impedance, the associated current also

has two components: Real and imaginary, or Active and reactive.
We will deal with this in the next section.

1.2.7 Three Types of Electrical Loads

Devices that are connected to the power system are referred to as
electrical loads. The three load types are resistive, inductive, and
capacitive.

 Resistive Load

Units of electrical power associated with resistive load are watts.

Light bulbs, toasters, electric hot water heaters, and so on are
resistive loads.

 Inductive Load

Inductive load require a magnetic field to operate. All electrical loads

that have a coil of wire to produce the magnetic field are called
inductive loads. Examples of inductive loads are hair dryers, fans,
blenders, vacuum cleaners, and many other motorized devices. The
units (measurement) of inductance are called henrys.

18
 Regarding electrical motors, a load placed on a spinning shaft to Basics of
Electricity
perform a work function draws what is referred to as real power (i.e.
rotating watts) from the electrical energy source. In addition to real
power, reactive power is also drawn from the electrical energy
source to produce the magnetic fields in the motor. The total power
consumed by the motor is, sum of both real and reactive power. The
units associated with reactive power are called positive VARs. VAR
stands for volts-amps-reactive.

 Capacitive Load

A capacitor is a device made of two metal conductors separated by

an insulator called a dielectric (i.e. air, paper, glass, and other
nonconductive materials). Dielectric materials become charged
when voltage is applied to the attached conductors. Capacitors can
remain charged long after the voltage source has been removed.

Examples of capacitor loads are TV picture tubes, long extension

cords, and components used in electronic devices. The units
(measurement) of capacitance are called farads.

Similar to inductors, the power associated with capacitors is also

called reactive power, but has the opposite polarity. Capacitors have
negative VARs. Negative VARs of inductors can be cancelled by the
positive VARs of capacitors; capacitors cancel out inductors in
electrical circuits and improve system efficiency.
1.2.8 DC and AC Voltage/Current
 Direct Current (DC)

We take the example of a Battery, as in a car electrical circuit. The

Potential Difference or the voltage across the terminal of the battery
is, more or less, a steady value. The current flowing through any
point in the car’s circuits is also a steady value, and essentially does
not change as a function of time. This is Direct Current or DC.
Working with DC is simpler as we deal mainly with resistance of the
circuits. It is rare to have to provide for reactance. The mathematics
gets simpler
Voltage

Voltage is constant over time

Time

Figure 1.4 : Direct Voltage

19
Elementary However, DC has limitations when we have to provide for heavy
Electrical and
Exposure to Tools currents and long distances, as is usually the case with
Transmission of Electrical Power in our day-to-day life.

 Alternating Current (AC)

As against the DC, we consider the case where the voltage (as also
the current) changes as a function of time. We shall consider only
the case where this change follows the shape of a sine wave. The
voltage/current increases from a zero value to a maximum value,
then reduces back to zero, continues down to a minimum value
(equal to the maximum value, but with negative sign), and finally
rises back to zero. This constitutes a full cycle, which repeats
thereafter. The number of cycles per second is the frequency (f).
Being a sine wave, the value at any time point may be expressed as
the trigonometric function sin , where  is an angle with a value
between 0 and 2  (0-360 degree).

Unlike DC, reactance plays a major role in the case of AC. This form
is capable of being transformed to higher or lower voltage. This
property is very useful for Transmission and Distribution networks.

AS stated, AC voltage and current both follow sinusoidal waveform.

Both have to have the same frequency and are related by the Ohm’s
law. However, the start of the cycle may not coincide for the two.
The difference is denoted by an angle. This is named as the phase
of the current. The phase value 0 means the waveforms coincide.
Any other phase value points to a reactance in the circuit, i.e.
reactance changes the phase of AC.

Positive Voltage

Peak Positive

1 Cycle
0

Time

Peak Negative

Negative Voltage

Figure 1.5 : Alternating Voltage or Current

20
 Basics of
Electricity

Amplitude Current

Phase
Angle (  ) Time

Figure 1.6: Phase Difference between Voltage and Current

1.2.9 Active and Reactive Power

As we have learnt, every circuit current has two components :

 Active component, and

 Reactive component.

Sometimes, it is easier to see this relationship graphically.

Basically, resistors dissipate energy in the form of heat. The power

associated with resistive loads is expressed as watts.

Figure 1.7 : Active and Reactive Power Associated

with Resistors, Inductors and Capacitors

The power associated with capacitive and inductive loads is expressed as

VARs. As it is reactive power, the VAR is watt less power and does not
contribute to real work functions. However, VARs are required in motors,
transformers, and most coils to produce magnetic fields in order for the
inductive load to function.
21
Elementary The interesting factor that exists in ac power systems is that
Electrical and
Exposure to Tools inductive VARs are opposite of capacitive VARs and can cancel each
other out if they are of the same value.

The graphical means of showing the relationship between the real and
reactive power associated with resistors, inductors, and capacitors is
shown in Figure 1.7.

.
Figure 1.8 : Electrical Power Triangle

Active Power or Real Power = V I cos 

Reactive Power or Wattless Power = V I sin 

The term ‘cos ’ is called the power factor.

1.2.10 Power Factor

Efficiency of a power system can be viewed as: how much total power
(i.e. “real power + reactive power”) is required to get the “real” work done.

Typically, power factors above 95% are considered “good” (i.e. high).

The Power Factor (PF) may be defined as :

 Cosine of the angle between voltage and current

R Resistance
 Power Factor = Z  Impedance

 Power Factor = Real Power/Total Power

If the reactive power component is made zero, the power factor becomes
unity.

 Check Your Progress 4

What would be the power factor in the case of DC?

22
1.2.11 Magnet Basics of
Electricity
Some of the properties of magnets have been known for many centuries.
The ancient Greek discovered an iron ore called lode stone which, when
hums from a thread, will come to rest always pointing in the same
direction. This was the basis of the magnetic compass, which has been in
use since about 1500 BC as a means of Navigation.
The magnetic compass is depending on the fact that a freely suspended
magnet will come to rest pointing north-south. The ends of the magnet are
said to be poles. The pole pointing to the north is referred to as the North
Pole and the other, the South Pole. It is now known that a compass
behaves in this way because the Earth is itself a magnet.
You may like to note the following important aspects about magnet :
 Magnet is the substance having the property of attracting iron
and its alloys (i.e. ferromagnetic material).
 Every magnet has two poles : North and South Pole.
 These two poles can never be separated.
 If a magnet is broken in to pieces, each piece becomes an
independent magnet.
 Like poles repel each other.
 Unlike poles attract each other.
 It magnet is freely suspended it comes to rest pointing roughly
towards earth’s geographic north and south directions.

Figure 1.9 : Property of Magnet

There are two classes of magnet.

 Natural Magnet

The magnet found in nature. It’s mineral name is Magnetite.

Figure 1.10 : Natural Magnet 23

Elementary  Artificial Magnet
Electrical and
Exposure to Tools The magnet prepared by man-made methods is called artificial
magnet. It is classified as

(a) Permanent magnet, and

(b) Temporary magnet or electromagnet.

 Permanent magnet

The magnet which retains it’s magnetic properties for a long

period is known as Permanent Magnet. Any change in its
properties comes about only on account of some external
cause, e.g. great shock or heat.

Figure 1.11 : Permanent Magnet

 Temporary Magnet or Electromagnet

A temporary magnet is a piece of some ferromagnetic material.

In its normal state, it does not show any magnetic property.
However, by subjecting it to some external magnetizing
influence, it gains magnetic property. As soon as the external
influence is removed, the induced behavior also vanishes.

24 Figure 1.12 : Electro Magnet

The simplest external influence is the presence of a powerful magnet in Basics of
Electricity
the vicinity. Of interest to us is the use of electricity to create an
electromagnet. By putting the temporary magnet inside a conducting coil
and passing a current through the coil, the magnetic behavior is
manifested. As soon as the current is stopped, the magnetic behavior
also vanishes. Such an electromagnet is very useful part of a magnetic
crane, or inside a generator or a motor.

1.3 LET US SUM UP

We have learnt about basics of electricity and magnetism.

Electricity is basically measured in terms of Voltage and Current. We saw

the difference between Direct and Alternating Current (DC and AC). AC
voltage and current keep changing with time and if we were to draw a
graph, the voltage or the current would be shown as a sine-wave. Ohm’s
law defines the relation between Voltage and Current passing through a
material. The ratio of voltage to current is the impedance of that material
or circuit. In case of steady state DC, the impedance is same as the
resistance. However, in all other cases, we have added possibility of
inductance and/or capacitance being added to the circuit, leading to a
complex value of impedance. In this case there could also be an angular
difference between the voltage and the current. This difference is the
phase, and cosine of the angle is named as the power factor.

We have learnt the types of magnets. We also understand that electricity

passing through a coil produces magnetism. On the other hand, a
changing magnetic field crossing a coil produces voltage across it. Thus,
Electricity and Magnetism are related. In fact, theses two topics are
normally addressed together under a common heading, namely, Electro-
magnetism.

Electro-magnetism helps us to understand the working of generator for

producing electricity as well as working of motor to produce force for
providing motion to the rotor . There are other diverse uses, e.g.
electromagnetic cranes, magnetic levitation trains, etc.

Electricity is an extremely useful form of energy. Only, it is not available in

nature in a useful form. We produce electricity, transmit it over long
distances, and distribute it to be used productively.

1.4 KEY WORDS

Current : Flow of electrons through a material. 25
Elementary Voltage : The potential difference between the two
Electrical and
Exposure to Tools ends of a material, which causes the
electrons to flow between them.

Magnetism : A property of magnets (Natural/

Electro-Magnets) to attract
Ferro-magnetic substances.

Impedance : The property of any material to restrict the

flow of electrons, hence the current
through, itself.

Resistance : The impedance offered by a material to

steady-state DC.

Inductance : The impedance offered by a coil or a coil

like device to AC.

Capacitance : The impedance offered by a pair of

conducting plates separated by a
non-conducting material, to AC.

Natural Magnet : An ore consisting of Iron Oxide, which

shows magnetic properties.

Electromagnet : A conducting coil connected to a source

of electrical power, displaying magnetic
properties perpendicular to the plane of
the coil. In many cases, a soft iron core is
inserted within the coil.

1.5 TERMINAL QUESTIONS ?

(a) How is electricity related to matter?

(b) What would be preferred to transmit power over a distance,

conductor or insulator?

(c) If air is non-conducting, how does lighting flow from the clouds
to ground?

(d) Which component of power is useful, active or reactive?

(e) How is a natural magnet useful to travelers?

(f) Which property of an electromagnet makes it a controllable

26 device?
 Basics of
1.6 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR
PROGRESS  Electricity

Ans. 1

Electrons are very light particles with a unit negative charge,

whereas, Protons have a unit positive charge and are many times
heavier than the electrons. Also, Protons reside in the nucleus of an
atom, while Electrons revolve around it.

Ans. 2

Resistance is the property of a material by virtue of which it opposes

the flow of current through itself. The value of the resistance is
related to the property of the material and not to the presence of a
voltage or current. However, it should be noted that the resistance is
only ‘noticed’ (and can be measured) when a voltage is applied and
a current flows through the material.

Ans. 3

Energy is the total capacity available to do work, whereas, power is

the rate of doing work, i.e. the amount of work done in one unit of
time.

Ans. 4

In case of DC, there is no concept of frequency. Hence, there cannot

be any phase differential between the voltage and the current.
Therefore DC shall always phase angle 0, and power factor value 1.

1.7 ANSWERS TO TERMINAL QUESTIONS 

(a) We have learnt that matter consists of atoms, which, in turn,
has free electrons in its outer shell, and these free electrons
can easily leave the atom and move around. We have also
learnt that electricity is the accumulation or depletion of
electrons. Hence, matter is a basic requirement for electricity.

(b) By definition, a non-conductor is bad for the flow of current,

and hence, power. Therefore, presence of a conducting
material is a necessary requirement for transmission of power
over a distance.

(c) As we saw, non-conductors impede the flow of current. This is

true for air, as well. However, the voltage built up in the clouds
is so high (in millions of volts!) that it removes some electrons
27
Elementary from the air atoms and it is these forcibly removed electrons
Electrical and
Exposure to Tools which become responsible for electricity to flow from the clouds
to Earth, is the form of lightning.

(d) Active power is available to do work. Reactive power, in

general, does not perform any usable work.

(e) Since a natural magnet always aligns itself in the

(approximately) north-south direction, it may be used by a
traveler to identify his direction of travel. This is the principle of
a compass.

(f) As we saw, an electromagnet gains its magnetic property only

while a current flows though its coil. Therefore, by controlling
the flow of current, we can control the magnet. For example, in
a crane, to lift a ferro-magnetic material, the electromagnet
would be energized. And when the material is in the desired
position, the current would be switched off, thereby releasing
the material.

28