Natural Approach Communicative Language Audio-lingual Method

Teaching (CLT) (ALM)

Proposer/ Crashen & Terrell/ 1977 ?/1972 Charles Fries /1939
advocato
r
Goals Students can acquire the Be able to communicate Be able to listen, speak,
target languages in a natural with others in the target read, and write in the target
and communicative situation. language in different language, with emphasis on
situations listening and speaking
Mother Tongue No mother tongue Both mother tongue and Less mother tongue
target language
Merits 1. Students acquire the target 1. Students have the 1. Students can learn target
language in a natural and opportunities to express language in natural order:
easy way. their own thoughts and listening—speaking—
2. Teaching materials are opinions. reading—writing.
designed very well. 2. Students have the 2. Students can speak the
Students ca acquire opportunities to correct answers without
language from easy to communicate with each thinking by overlearning.
difficult, from simple to other in the classroom.
complex, and from 3. Students can learn the
concrete to abstract. culture of the target
language because the
teaching materials are
related to the social
environments.
4. The communicative
situation makes students
reconstruct their
knowledge and thoughts,
so students can learn to
fluently speak the target
language more easily.
Limits 1. Students may use the target 1. It’s difficult for a 1. It fails to teach the long-
language fluently, but they nonnative speaking term communicative
cannot use it accurately. teacher who is not very proficiency.
2. Teachers should collect proficient in the target 2. Structural linguistics
language to teach
various teaching aids and didn’t tell us everything
effectively. Teacher
use them appropriately. training and certification about language that we
3. Special teaching designs is are needed. needed to know.
necessary for the students 2. Students’ pronunciation 3. It’s impossible and
with better abilities. and grammatical unnecessary to teach
knowledge is poor. students without using
3. It is difficult for teachers native languages.
to evaluate students’ 4. It’s boring for students to
expression in the learning overlearn the drills and
 process. it’s tiring for teachers to
teach.
Teaching Aids Visual aids, such as pictures, (a)Interesting and meaningful Textbooks, drills, tapes,
maps, advertisement; games materials, such as linguistic language labs
games, role plays, and
problem solving materials.
(b) Technology—films,
videos, TV, computers, can be
used as teaching aids.

Features 1. 5 important hypothesis 1. Language learning is 1. New material is presented

A. the Acquisition-Learning H learning to communicate. in dialogue forms
The primary function of 2. There’s dependence on
Students acquire language language is for
mimicry, memorization
subconsciously in the interaction and
communication. of set phrases, and
natural and communicative
2. Classroom goals are overlearning.
situations.
focused on all of the 3. Structural patterns are
B. the Monitor H
components of taught using repetitive
Students may call upon
communicative drills.
learned knowledge to
competence and not 4. There’s little or no
correct themselves when
restricted to grammatical grammatical explanation.
they communicate, but that
or linguistic competence Grammar is taught by
conscious learning has only
3. Students learn to use the inductive analogy
this function.
appropriate language explanation.
C. the Natural Order H
forms in the different 5. There is much use of
The acquisition of
places. tapes, language labs, and
grammatical structures
4. Communicative activities visual aids.
proceeds in a predictable
include functional 6. It is based on Behaviorist
order.
communicative activities psychology. Students’
D. the Input (i+1) H
and social interaction successful responses are
Students acquire language
activities. immediately reinforced
best by understanding input
5. Teachers are assistants, and their errors are
that is slightly beyond their
guides, counselors and corrected immediately.
current level of competence.
group process managers. 7. The teaching sequences
E. the Affective Filter H
6. Students are expected to are aural training,
Student work should center
interact with each other pronunciation training,
on meaningful
rather than with the speaking, reading, and
communication rather than
teacher. writing.
on form; input should be
7. Learners should take the 8. Structures are sequenced
interesting and so contribute
responsibility of the failed by means of contrastive
to a relaxed classroom
communication. analysis and taught one at
atmosphere.
8. Language is created by a time.
-------------------------------------
the individual through
2. The teacher was the
 source of the learner’s trial and error. Correction
input and the creator of of errors may be absent
an interesting and or infrequent.
stimulating variety of 9. Students can speak
classroom activities. fluently but not
3. Learners don’t need to say accurately.
anything during the “silent 10. Four language skills are
period” until they feel practiced. Reading and
ready to do so. Writing can start from the
4. Start with TPR commands. first day, if desired.
5. Use visuals, typically
magazine pictures, to
introduce new vocabulary.
6. The focus in the classroom
is on listening and
reading abilities.
7. No sentence patterns
practice and no error
correction during the
process of acquisition.

Hypothesis Definition
the Acquisition-Learning H “Acquisition” is a unconscious and intuitive process of constructing the
system of a language. “Learning” refers to a process in which conscious rules
about a language are developed. Learning cannot lead to acquisition.
the Monitor H Conscious learning can function only as a monitor or editor that checks and
repairs the output of the acquired system.
the Natural Order H The acquisition of grammatical structures proceeds in a predictable order.
Errors are signs of naturalistic developmental processes and during
acquisition, similar developmental errors occur in learners, no matter what
their mother tongue is.
the Input (i+1) H People acquire language best by understanding input that is slightly beyond
their current level of competence. If an acquirer is at stage or level “i”, the
input (s)he understands should contain “i+1.” Input should neither be so far
beyond their reach nor so close to their current stage.
The ability to speak fluently cannot be taught directly; it emerges
independently in time.
the Affective Filter H The learner’s emotional state or attitudes as an adjustable filter that freely
passes, impedes, or blocks input necessary to acquisition. Three kinds of
affective or attitudinal variables are: (1) motivation, (2) self-confidence (3)
anxiety. The best acquisition will occur in environments where anxiety is low
and defensiveness absent.

Direct Method Natural Approach

Similarity
1. It emphasized that the principles underlying the 1. It is believed to conform to the naturalistic
method were believed to conform to the principles principles found in successful second acquisition.
 of naturalistic language learning in young
children.
Difference
DM focuses on: NA focuses on:
1. Teacher monologues 1. Exposure input
2. Direct repetition 2. Optimizing emotional preparedness for learning
3. Formal questions and answers 3. Listening & Reading
4. Accurate production of target language sentences
 Total Physical Response Community Language Learning (CLL)
(TPR) Counseling Learning Method
Proposer/ Asher/ 1964 Curran/1961
advocator
Goals Be able to respond To get the language competence and performance by asking
physically to the sentences questions.
made in the target language.
Mother Tongue No mother tongue Both mother tongue and the target language
Merits 1. It provides rapid and 1. Each student lowers the defenses that prevent open
rather permanent interpersonal communication.
language gains on early 2. The anxiety caused by the educational context is lessened
levels, so students can
by means of the supportive community.
remember the learned
vocabulary for a long 3. The teacher’s presence is not perceived as a threat, but as
time. a counselor.
2. Students respond
actively and feel
interested in the learning
processes.
3. It’s easy for teachers to
teach students verbs.
Limits 1. It’s difficult to teach the 1. The counselor-teacher can be too nondirective. Some
abstract content with intensive inductive struggle is a necessary component of
TPR second language learning. Learning “ by being told” is
2. Students’ pronunciation much better.
is poor. 2. Translation is an intricate and complex process that is
3. Teachers have to do often “easier said then done.” If subtle aspects of
obvious actions language are mistranslated, there could be a less than
carefully or students effective understanding.
would be confused and 3. The training is required for an ideal knower. (s)he would
be misled by the have a perfect command of the foreign language and
unnecessary hints. would have to be professionally competent in both
4. TPR has been an psychology and linguistics.
experimental model 4. It has limitations in a large-group situation with one
with volunteer students; teacher.
its, not useful for the 5. There’s a need for clients who speak a common
inactive students. language.
5. TPR is especially
effective in the
beginning levels of
language proficiency,
but then loses its
distinctiveness as
learners advance in their
competence.
Teaching Aids No text. Body language and Various materials for different purposes; colored coded
practical materials. signals; tapes; recorders
Features 1. Based on 3 important 1. The sense of belonging needed by both students and
hypothesis: teachers.
(A) the Bio-program H 2. Both teachers and students have the responsibility for the
Children, in learning learning activity.
their first language, 3. In a good knower-client relationship, there quickly
appear to do a lot of develops a warm, sympathetic attitude of mutual trust
listening before they and respect. The client emulates the language and person
speak, and their listening of the knower; the knower is fulfilled and enriched
is accomplished by through the counseling-teaching experience.
physical responses. 4. More important to learners is the freedom and initiative
(B) the Brain they are permitted.
Lateralization H 5. The most basic ingredient in CLL is a mutual interest,
Motor activity is a right- respect and concern of teachers for students and students
brain function that for students.
should precede left-brain 6. A group of ideas concerning the psychological
language processing— requirements for successful learning are collected under
speaking. the acronym—SARD. (S-security, A-attention and
(C) Reduction of Stress H aggression, R-retention and reflection, D-discrimination)
An important condition 7. The teaching procedure:
for successful language (a) The students sit in a circle, and the teacher(s) is(are)
learning is the absence outside the circle.
of stress. (b) During the first stage, a tape recorder is normally used.
2. Imperative(祈使句) The only voices taped are those of the student-clients
drills are the major when they are speaking in the target language.
classroom activity in (c) The students initiate the conversation in their native
TPR. language and the knower Translates it into the target
3. Commands are easy language. They then repeat in the target language what
first, and then become they have heard the knower said.
more and more (d) Students assist each other and they use the teacher when
complex. there is a need. The knower provides translation only
4. Students are listeners when someone signals by raising his/her hand.
and performers. They (e) Color coded signals are used. If red is flashed, an error
do a lot of listening and has been made. If amber, there is a more suitable idiom
acting until they master and a better way. If green, the utterance is acceptable.
the commands. They are Blue indicates native expertise.
required to respond both 8. Students’ developmental stages:
individually and (a) The “Embryonic Stage” (胚胎期)
collectively. Students are totally dependent on the teacher.
5. Students respond to the (b) The “Self-assertion Stage”(自我肯定)
commands physically. The student-clients begin to show some independence and
No verbal response is tries out the language.
necessary. (c)IThe “birth Stage” (誕生期)
The students speak independently. They are most likely to
resent what they feel unnecessary assistance from the knower.
(d) The “Reversal Stage”(逆轉期)
They are secure to take correction.
(e) The “Independent Stage”(獨立期)
Interruptions are infrequent. They occur for enrichment
and improvement of style.
 The Silent Way Suggestopedia / Suggestology
Proposer/ Gattegno/ 1972 Lozanov/ 1978
advocato
r
Goals Let students use the target language to express Conduct the many negative “suggestions”
their own thoughts and feeling independently or fears which inhibit learning feelings of
and develop the ability to correct their errors by
incompetence and fear of making mistakes,
themselves and make students learn the target language
in a relaxing atmosphere.
Mother Tongue Both mother tongue and the target language Both mother tongue and the target language
Features 1. Learning is facilitated if the learner 1. In a relaxing atmosphere with carpeted
discovers or creates rather than remembers floor, easy chairs and classic music –
and repeats what is to be learned. The Baroque, integrated the use of music,
learners should develop independence, the element of lecture and theater,
autonomy and responsibility. through the reputation of the method
2. Learners in a classroom must cooperate and the instructor, students’ language
competence, confidence and wills to
with each other in the process of solving
communicate are reinforced.
language problems. 2. Students are encouraged to be as
3. Teachers provide single-word stimuli, or “childlike” as possible, yielding all
short phrases and sentences once or twice, authority to the teacher.
and then students must refine their 3. Every student is provided a new name
understanding and pronunciation and a new role within the target
themselves. language on the first day of class. They
4. Teachers utilize a set of Cuisinere rods— live with a new identity rather than
small colored wooden rods of varying struggle with a foreign language. The
lengths to introduce vocabulary, verbs and new names also contain phonemes from
syntax, especially about the spatial the target language culture that learners
relationships and related prepositions as find difficult to pronounce.
well as every aspect of language ranging 4. The dialogues are presented to the
from comparisons to tense, the conditional students in three phases:
and the subjunctive. (a) explicative reading
5. Teachers use a series of colorful wall charts (b) intonational reading
to introduce pronunciation models, (c) concert
grammatical paradigms. 5. Students engage in interaction activities
6. The teacher is silent as much as possible, to review the material and involve new
and make students work out solutions utterances as much as possible.
themselves. 6. The teacher maintains a solemn attitude
7. Four language skills are emphasized and towards the session and shows absolute
students are encouraged to read and write confidence in the method.
the sentences they have heard and spoken.
8. Students correct the errors themselves and
teachers view these errors as the responses
to the teaching and give students some
hints and help.
 Merits 1. Students interact not only with teachers but 1. Students are willing and able to
also with each other. communicate in the target language and
students learn the target language in a
relaxing atmosphere.
2. Easy grammatical explanation helps
students learn the target language more
easily.
Limits 1. Teachers must know their teaching 1. Students don’t concentrate on the
objectives clearly and make use of the language learning because eof the
teaching aids effectively. music.
2. Students may be confused with the 2. Students’ speech is somewhat
symbols of the colored wooden rods. inaccurate grammatically and
3. Students waste too much time struggling phonologically.
with a concept that would be easily 3. All students need to share a common
clarified by the teachers’ direct guide. native language.
4. It is difficult for teachers to evaluate 4. Teachers must be proficient not only in
students’ progress in their learning process. the target language but also I students’
native language.
5. Not all teachers are skilled in acting,
singing and choosing the appropriate
music and not all students can
appreciate the music.
Teaching Aids Cuisinere rods, phonic charts, transparencies A carpet, sofas, classic music tapes, flowers
and pictures
 Grammar-Translation Method (G-T) Direct Method (Natural Method)
Proposer/ 1840~1940 ?
advocator
Goals To learn a language in order to read its Students can understand the target language
literature or in order to benefit from the without translation
mental discipline and intellectual
development that result from foreign
language study.
Mother Tongue Both mother tongue and the target No mother tongue
language
Limits 1 Students learn the target language 1.
It overemphasizes and distorts the
indirectly. similarities between naturalistic first
2 Students just learn the knowledge of language learning and classroom foreign
language learning and it fails to consider the
books not the common language, so
practical realities of the classroom.
they may have trouble applying their
2. It lacks a rigorous basis in applied linguistic
knowledge to the real social theory.
situations. 3. It requires teachers who are native speakers
3 Students have poor listening and or who have native like fluency in the
speaking ability because they seldom foreign language. It is largely dependent on
practice listening and speaking. the teachers’ skill, rather than on a textbook,
and not all teachers are proficient enough in
the foreign language to adhere to the
principles of the method.
4. Sometimes a simple brief explanation in the
students’ native tongue would have been a
more efficient route to comprehension.
Merits 1 With translation of the native 1 Students can learn the target language
language, students can read and write directly and systematically.
the target language I an easy and 2 Students can pronounce correctly.
meaningful way.
3 Students can learn to use both the written
2 Students can learn the grammars of
form and oral form of the target language.
the target language with a systematic
4 Students can have interest in learning.
and correct way.
Teaching Aids Textbooks and grammar books Pictures and articles related to the textbooks
Features 1. Reading and writing are the major 1. Classroom instruction is conducted
focus; little or no systematic exclusively in the target language.
attention is paid to speaking or 2. Only everyday vocabulary and sentences are
listening.
taught.
2. Vocabulary is based on the reading
3. Oral communication skills are built up in a
text used, and words are taught
carefully graded progression organized
through bilingual word lists,
around question and answer exchanges
dictionary study and memorization.
between teachers and students in small-
3. The sentence is the basic unit of
intense classes.
teaching and language practice.
4. New teaching points are introduced orally
4. Accuracy is emphasized.
before students see the written form.
5. Grammar is taught deductively.
6. The student’s native language is the 5. Concrete vocabulary is taught through
medium of instruction. demonstration objects and pictures; abstract
vocabulary is taught by association of ideas.
6. Both speech and listening comprehension
are taught.
7. Correct pronunciation and grammar are
emphasized; grammar is taught inductively.
8. Students have to offer the interesting
materials to draw students’ curiosity to learn
the target language.
 The St. Cloud Method Microwave Device
Proposer/ ?/1951 Stevick/1964
advocator
Goals To learn target languages in a situation To organize the power of the structure,
presented by various media vocabulary and communication of the target
language in a short-term intensive language
program.
Mother Tongue Both mother tongue and the target language Not limited
Features 1. A carefully structured course in which 1. This device is like a microwave cycle. It
students are immersed in multi-media consists of an utterance which includes a
language presentations. question and 4 to8 replies.
2. Cultural, situational and nonverbal 2. The cycle of instruction includes an M
component should permeate the phase (mimicry, manipulation and
presentation. mechanics) and a C phase
3. The Direct Method is employed. (communication, conversation and
4. Initially students watch a picture continuity).
sequence, then repeat the material 3. It should play “a supporting role” , or at
chorally. Students don’t see the written most “a co-starring role” in language
language until after sixty hours of materials.
instruction.
5. Communication depends on asking
questions and answering.
Merits 1. Because courses and related media are 1. Because of the different learning goals,
designed well, it is appreciated by non- students can learn different materials.
native teachers who are not completely 2. Students can communicate with others in
secure in the language they are
the accurately structured target language
teaching.
2. It produces better phonological than in a short time.
communicative competence.
3. It has proven more satisfactory with
younger students than with those of
college age.
4. The meaning of the pictures or films
and the goal of course are easy to
know.
Limits 1. Students’ communicative competence 1. It just supplies variable activities instead
and performance are not good. of a complete course.
2. It is difficult for teachers to evaluate 2. It sacrifices the practices of reading and
students’ progress in their learning writing to reinforce the listening and
process. speaking competence.
3. It wastes too much time speaking and
listening without writing.
4. It’s difficult to get the teaching media
and appropriate teaching materials.
Teaching Aids Film strips are the dominant medium and Variable materials for different special
pictures are supplement. purposes
 Situational Reinforcement Method Aural Discrimination Method
Proposer/ Hall/1978 Winitz & Reeds/1973
advocator
Goals Be able to use the target to communicate in Learn to discriminate the vocabulary,
the real situations inflection, phonology and syntax by a
visually-cued listening approach.
Mother Tongue Not limited Not limited
Features 1. Discard the sequenced grammatical 1. Teachers introduce vocabulary four or
approach. five times as fast as possible. Students
2. It involves students in “authentic listen to teachers’ pronunciation and
then from four pictures select the one
communication.”
which best represents what they have
3. It’s built in cognitive choices in order to heard.
avoid mere mechanical repetition. 2. Students don’t speak until they have
Students may analyze language and use it mastered the basic structures and
effectively in the new situations. vocabulary of the target language.
4. Students learn concrete objects before
they learn abstract ideas.
Merits 1. Students enjoy the realistic situations 1. It’s interesting and meaningful to utilize
which enhance students’ willing to learn. pictures as teaching media, and they
2. By simulating the realistic language attract students’ attention easily.
situations, students can understand what a 2. Students have the opportunities to think
language is and why to learn it. about the messages by judging the
3. Students learn to communicate with these different pictures according to what
materials quite soon and they can use the they heard.
materials even outside the classroom.
Limits 1. Teachers have to spend lots of time and 1. Students just can learn the concrete
energy creating the real situation and not objects; they cannot learn the abstract
every situation can be simulated well. ideas.
2. Excessive repetition is in the lesson 2. It focuses on listening competence, and
format. ignores speaking, reading and writing.
3. The unstructured-unsequenced material As a result, students’ listening ability is
can give students the feeling that they are good, but their three other language
not making any real progress. abilities are poor. Therefore, it just can
be seen as an assistant method rather
than as a major teaching approach.
3. It lacks the variety of some methods
and the relevance inherent.
Teaching Aids Authentic languages Pictures, tapes, and video tapes
 Stylized Mnemonics Structured Tutoring
Proposer/ Lipson/1971 Harrison/1976
advocator
Goals In order to learn the target language by Make students learn the target language in
recalling the memory of the drawings an individually structured course.
Mother Tongue Both mother tongue and the target language Both mother tongue and the target language
Features 1. Use translation at the outset of instruction. 1. Initially, this approach is used to teach
2. A corpus of sentences is learned through disadvantaged children how to read. It
involved volunteer tutors—adults or
choral repetition and translation, but
peers.
drawings replace translation almost 2. It focuses on reading and writing, even
immediately. introduces to beginners during the
3. Interesting and culturally relevant second week of instruction.
vocabulary is combined in exotic 3. It is an informal remediable course
situations to teach the target language. designed for the low-achievement
4. Some grammatical explanation are students.
presented but the emphasis is on 4. The courses are well structured.
communication Students cannot learn the next unit until
5. The situations become more and more they reach the goals of the last unit.
involved, new combinations of language 5. Tutors spend 80 percents of their time
are constantly generated. on grammar during seven out of the
eight units.
6. The tutors should be volunteers, and
their mother tongue is the target
language. Before they start to help the
students, they have to be trained.
7. The students who must be literate
native tongue, receive one-hour tutorial
visits a week and work four to six hours
on their own.
Merits 1. This approach is cognitive, culturally 1. Students can reach the learning objects
oriented, systematic and interesting. in a short period of time.
2. Variable comprehensible drawings as cues 2. It includes the negligible cost involved
to introduce vocabulary are interesting to simply administrative and material
students and can help them memorize the charges.
new vocabulary more easily. 3. Students get the needed help, so the
good will is generated in their hearts.
Limits 1. This approach requires bilingual teachers. 1. It’s difficult to find volunteer native-
2. Not all teachers are artists; not every speaking tutors overseas.
teacher can draw pictures well. 2. Some experienced teachers think their
3. Initially students should be linguistically teaching skills are bound under the
homogeneous at least. tightly controlled tutorial materials.
4. The bizarre situations of the drawings 3. It overemphasizes reading and writing,
may create an amuse detachment on the students’ speaking competence is
 part of learners. ignored.
4. It’s boring with the one-by-one
teaching.
5. Students may feel bored with the
overemphasis on the grammar teaching.
Teaching Aids Pictures with explanatory words Well structured teaching materials