INTRODUCTION TO ASEAN LITERATURE Two Mains Divisions of Litearature

Meaning of Literature
• litteratura -"writing formed with letters”
• belles letters -“beautiful writing”
• a term used to describe written and
sometimes spoken material.
• The most recent amendment to what
constitutes literature is the inclusion of oral
Fiction
narratives.
• The word is from the Latin FICTIŌ, “the act of
making, fashioning, or molding.”
“Literature transforms and intensifies ordinary • Types of literature in the fiction genre include the
language, deviates systematically from everyday novel, short story, and novella.
speech”. – Terry Eagleton
Fundamental Literary Terms that Identify
Qualities of Literature Components of Narratives
• Artistic – sense of beauty • “FICTION” is defined as any imaginative re-
• Intellectual Value – literature stimulates critical creation of life in prose narrative form.
thinking that enriches mental processes of abstract • Fiction writers aim at creating “legitimate
and reasoning, making man realize the untruths,” since they seek to demonstrate
fundamental truths of life and its nature. meaningful insights into the human condition.
• Suggestiveness – literature unravels and • Therefore, fiction is “untrue” in the absolute sense,
conjures man’s emotional power to define but true in the universal sense.
symbolisms, nuances, implied meanings, images
and messages, evoking visions above and beyond NARRATOR/NARRATIVE VOICE
the plane of ordinary life and experience. A. Omniscient - a story told in the third person; the
• Spiritual Value – literature elevates the spirit and narrator's knowledge, control, and prerogatives are
the soul and this has the power to motivate and unlimited, allowing “authorial” subjectivity.
inspire, drawn from the suggested morals or B. Limited Omniscient - a story told in the third
lessons of the different literary genres. person in which the narrative voice is associated
• Permanence – literature endures across time and with a major or minor character who is not able to
draws out the time factor: timelessness, remaining “see/know” all, may only be able to relate the
invariable throughout time. thoughts of one or some characters but not others,
• Style – literature presents peculiar way/s on how may not know what happened “off stage” or in the
man sees life as evidenced by the formation of his past.
ideas, forms, structures, and expressions which are C. Framed Narrative – some narratives,
marked by their memorable substances. particularly collections of narratives, involve a frame
• Universality – literature appeals to everyone, narrative that explains the genesis of, and/or gives
regardless of culture, race, gender, and time which a perspective on, the main narrative or narratives
are all considered significant. that follow
D. First Person - the story is told from the first
person "I” personal point-of-view, usually that of the
ELEMENTS OF FICTION main character.
Association of Southeast Asian Nations  Interior Monologue – first-person, train of
(ASEAN) thought “overheard” by the reader (NOT
• 1967 - Indonesia, Malaysia, the Philippines, spoken out loud as is a monologue), or
Singapore, and Thailand sometimes “overheard” and reported by an
• 1984 – Brunei omniscient narrator; other times it occurs as
• 1995 – Vietnam stream of consciousness
• 1997 - Laos and Myanmar  Subjective Narration - first person, narrator
• 1999 – Cambodia seems unreliable, tries to get readers to
share his/her side or to assume values or
views not usually presumed by the reader.
 Detached Autobiography - first person,
reliable narrator that guides the reader.
Narrator is main character, often reflecting
 on a past "self” – sometimes an adult Development of Plot
recounting an event from childhood. When it
is the latter, it is important to notice “how”
the adult voice affects the child’s story.
 Memoir or Observer Narration - first
person, narrator is observer rather than
main participant; narrator can be
confidant(e), eyewitness or "chorus"
(provides offstage or background
information). This narrator can be reliable or
unreliable.

SETTING
A. Where (place)
1. Local Color: The use of regional details to add
interest and (sometimes) meaning to the story.
• Use of Local Color may include description of a
specific locale, a manner of dress, customs, speech
patterns (dialect or accent), and slang expressions.
• Critical thinkers will determine if these details are F. Resolution: Type of Conclusion/Ending
just a decorative motif or if these details reflect or 1. Happy ending – everything ends well and all is
enhance a theme, add to the meaning, or serve as resolved.
a key to some aspect of the narrative or characters. 2. Tragic or Unhappy ending – many events in life
do not end pleasantly, so literary fiction that
B. When (time) emulates life is more apt to have an unhappy
1. *What is the period (century, decade, year) conclusion, forcing the reader to contemplate the
during which the action occurs? complexities of life.
2. *Over how many hours, days, weeks, months, 3. Open-ended/Lack of Resolution/Partial
years, decades, etc. does the action take place? Resolution/Indeterminate – no definitive ending or
3. The effects of the setting may include a particular resolution occurs, leaving the reader to ponder the
atmosphere, insight to the characters and/or their issued raised by the story
motivations, and a key or connection to or reflection G. Suspense (What is going to happen next?):
of other aspects of the story. Critical investigation will ask the more important
question “Why?” rather than “What?”
PLOT & Plot Structure Suspense is most often produced either by mystery
The plot is the series of events and actions that or by dilemma
occur in a story. H. Deus ex Machina (literally, God from the
A. Conflict (in the sense of “friction” or “battle” but Machine): Plot device in which someone or
not military/war) in fiction is the opposition of forces something appears "out of the blue" to help a
or characters; this “friction” usually fuels the action. character to overcome a seemingly insoluble
B. Order – Narrative events may be related in difficulty.
different orders: for example, Chronological/Linear I. Motifs: recurring structures, contrasts, or literary
(natural order); in media res (in the middle of devices that can help to develop and to inform the
things); or begin in the present and return to the major themes of the story.
past
C. Flashback: a scene inserted into a film, novel, PLOT ELEMENTS IN OTHER WORDS
story, or play to show events that occurred at an • The Hook: The hook is what gets people
earlier time; this technique is used to complement interested in what you have to say. Hooks are well-
the events in the “present” of the story. placed at the beginning but can be found elsewhere
D. Foreshadowing: a literary device in which the in the plotting as well.
outcome of the struggle or conflict is anticipated or • Back-story: There is more to every story than
hinted at by such elements as speeches or actions what we actually read. The characters each have a
of characters or by symbols in the story. past and there are usually important events that
have taken place prior to the story itself, and
sometimes the past will drive the action in the
present. Sub-plots: A story within a story…
• Sub-plots are the little things going on in the • Protagonist - Central character whom action
background that often make the main plot more centers and experiences conflict, pushes the action
interesting by giving the reader more to think about. forward, attempts to accomplish something, usually
These little events are especially effective when seen as a good person or hero/heroine, usually
they tie in seamlessly with the main plot. round and dynamic
• Antagonist - Character or force that holds the
CHARACTER action back, in opposition to the central character,
• Character is the mental, emotional, and social usually seen as bad person/force or villain, the
qualities to distinguish one entity from another cause of the conflict
(people, animals, spirits, automatons, pieces of
furniture, and other animated objects). Anthropomorphic characterization is the
• Character development is the change that a characterization of animals, inanimate objects, or
character undergoes from the beginning of a story natural phenomena as people. Skilled authors
to the end. The importance of a character to the can use this to create fantasy even from stuffed
story determines how fully the character is toys (Winnie-the Pooh).
developed.
• Characterization = process by which fictional The characterizing of inanimate objects from tiny
characters are presented/developed soldiers to trees and so on has many effects in
stories – however, sometimes a bird is just a bird, a
Techniques to achieve characterization cigar is just a smoke, and water is simply water.
• By using the narrative voice to describe the
character ATMOSPHERE
• By showing the actions of the character and of Atmosphere (Mood) is the dominant
those reacting to her emotion/feeling that pervades a story.
• By revealing the thoughts or dialogue of the • It is less physical and more symbolic, associative,
character and suggestive than setting, but often akin to the
• By showing the thoughts or dialogue of others setting.
• By direct and indirect characterization A. Every story has some kind of atmosphere, but in
some, it may be the most important feature or, at
How to conceptualize a short storythrough least, a key to the main points of the story
characterization? B. Atmosphere is created by descriptive details,
dialogue, narrative language, and such. For
example, Poe’s story, “The Cask of Amontillado,”
contains narrative description of entombment. The
dialogue and word choice contribute to a sense of
morbidity and horror

TONE
Sound Devices
• Assonance - The repetition of vowel sounds that
form internal rhymes in a line. Example: “Faye’s
days are lazy and wasteful.”
• Alliteration - The repetition of the same sounds
• Round character - Well-developed, has many at the beginning of two or more adjacent words or
traits: both good and bad, realistic and life-like, is stressed syllables. Example: “furrow followed free”
anyone who has complex personality, he/she is (from The Rime of the Ancient Mariner by Samuel
often portrayed as a conflicted and contradictory Taylor Coleridge)
person. • Consonance - The repetition of consonant
• Flat character - Not well-developed, this literary sounds, usually at the end of words. Example:
personality is notable for one kind of personality “Wash the leash off of mush to keep Ash from
trait or characteristic, sometimes stereotyped. having a rash”.
• Static character - remains the same throughout • Cacophony - is the use of jarring, unpleasant
the story, although something may happen to the sounds, usually harsh because the sounds do not
character, it does not cause the character to go together; meant to convey disorder and would
change. sometimes be hard to pronounce. Example: “ Twas
brillig, and the slithy toves, did gyre and gimble in
the wabe; All mimsy were the borogoves, and the Filipino Feminist short stories:
mome raths outgrabe” Excerpt from “Jabberwocky” 1. The "Summer Solstice” Written by Nick Joaquin
by Lewis Carroll (a known feminist) it is a short story that has
• Euphony - The use of devices such as received recognition both critical and praising. The
alliteration, rhyme, and assonance; meant to create items in conflict were paganism against Christianity,
a pleasant experience to the ear. Example: “Than the primitive against the civilized, and the status of
Oars divide the Ocean, too silver for a seam— Or men against the status of women. It is a pro-woman
Butterflies, off Banks of Noon Leap, plashless as story. A tale of triumphant woman because of the
they swim.” Excerpt from “A Bird came down the husband's submission to his wife, the portrayal of
Walk” by Emily Dickinson women's reproductive role that made them rulers of
men.
LITERARY TECHNIQUES 2. The short story written by Paz Latorena titled
Figurative Language "Desire" is about a woman who longed to be loved
• Simile - A comparison of two things that are and valued for who she is, not for what she has or
essentially different, usually using the words like or could give. The story shows women’s objectification
as. Example: “Oh my love is like a red, red rose.” in the society, as the title itself, desire, the
(from “A Red, Red Rose” by Robert Burns) protagonist was desired by men because of her
• Metaphor - A subtle comparison in which the ideal body that they neglect who she truly is. Where
author describes a person or thing using words that it may mirror the present, people has this certain
are not meant to be taken literally. Example: “Time standard of beauty that they look for.
is a dressmaker specializing in alterations.” (Faith
Baldwin) 2. New Historicism - Deals with the cultural
• Metonymy - a word or phrase that is substituted context during the writing of the piece of literature. -
for another that is closely associated to it. Example: this approach interprets literature for its meaning or
The Malacañang Palace released a statement idea in a particular sociohistorical atmosphere -
regarding the President’s health. how the history happened
• Oxymoron - a combination of two ideas that
appear to be opposite or contradictory. Example:
complete break, dirty white, tuck out Linguistic Approach
• Paradox - an assertion that seems to be This literary reading adheres to Roland Barthes’s
contradictory or silly but actually reveals some famous maxim, “the author is dead.” Reading
truth. Example: "I must be cruel to be kind." - through a linguistic context focuses on the
Hamlet, William Shakespeare language used in the literary work and how it is
• Irony- words are used to express a contradiction used to convey meaning.
between appearance and reality 1. Formalism/ New Criticism - This approach
 Verbal Irony - A speaker or writer says one focuses on form, stressing symbols, images, and
thing but actually means the opposite. Its structure and how one part of the work relates to
types are either overstatement or other parts and to the whole. - it is concerned
understatement exclusively with the text in isolation from the world,
 Situational Irony - The reverse of what we author, or reader.
expect will be or happen.
 Dramatic Irony - The audience is aware of Sample Analysis
something that a character doesn’t know. The poem by Edith Tiempo titled “Bonsai”, if it is to
be analyzed thru formalism approach it can be
Literary Approaches (Contextual Reading interpreted as -- love could be scaled down to
Approaches) simple objects and memories so that it could be
Sociocultural Approach preserved by passing it on to another. However, if
1. Feminism - concerned with "the ways in which the poem is to be seen thru feminism approach it
literature (and other cultural productions) reinforce could be interpreted that – a woman's love
or undermine the economic, political, social, and (pertaining to the writer) is present socially,
psychological oppression of women" (Tyson, 1983). economically, and morally. She regards her
mementos, memories, and values important in
- It uplifts women goals by defining and establishing giving love. She is also expected to act with
equality in the family, civil, social, political, and acceptable behavior that she could pass on to the
economic arena. younger generation.
PHILIPPINE LITERATURE  In medias res- narration that starts at the
Philippine literature is literature associated with the middle of the story
Philippines from prehistory, through its colonial  Narrative hook- tells a catchy story
legacies, and on to the present. opening to hook the attention of the readers
 Hypodiegetic- a story within a story
“Literature is a force that motivated society”. Prof.  Plot twist- surprise ending
Zeus Salazar, 1995  Poetic Justice- tells a reward to the good
characters and punishes the bad characters
Genoveva Edroza-Matute  Cliffhanger- tells and abrupt end in which
• retired teacher places the main character in a perilous
• In 1980, she was the head of the Philippine situation with no resolution
Normal College under the Department of Filipino,
 Flashback- interjected scene of the story
and Dean of Instruction
that takes it back in time from current point
• known Feminist
in the story and often used to tell the events
• author of Si Mabuti
that happened before another event;
• received four Palanca Awards for her creative
 Flashforward- tells a scene that tales the
works
narrative to a future time from the current
point of the story.
Vocabulary words:
1. malirip - maisip  Foreshadowing- indicates or hints
2. agam-agam – pag-aalinlangan something is coming in the latter part of the
3. Naulinig - narinig story.
4. napatda - nahinto
STYLE
Narrative Conventions  Figures of Speech –hyperbole, metonymy,
1. Point-of- View Euphemism
2. Settings  Pathos or
3. Development of the Plot emotional
4. Style appeal
 Sensory detail
POINT OF VIEW  Leitwortstil
 First person point of view  Dramatic Visualization
 Third person point of view
Things to consider: THEME
 Who is telling the story?  Underlying message or the central idea. It is
 What point of view is used? about life that the author is conveying in the
 Why is she telling the story? story which is universal in nature. It is about
human experience.
SETTING
 Where did the story take place?  What does the story tell about the human
life?
NARRATION  Does the title suggest the theme?
 How is the story told? What technique  What reality of life is shown in the story?
is used?
 What do you think if the story is told in Literary Criticism
another perspective? The Basic Idea:
 The point of criticism is to argue your point
Development of the Plot of view on a work of literature.
 Back story- tells all the events of the story  You don’t have to “criticize” a text
that happen before the present story  You do have to analyze a text and support
 Checkhov’s Gun- tells of an inherent object your assertions with specific evidence from
inserted in the narrative. It comes from Anton experts and the text.
Chekhov’s famous book writing advice: ‘If in the  It’s crucial to go beyond plot development
first act you have hung a pistol on the wall, then and into more abstract, higher-level thinking
in the following one it should be fired. Otherwise like theme, tone, purpose, etc.
don’t put it there.
  A critical analysis is an in-depth examination
of some aspect of the literary work MORNING IN NAGREBCAN
 You may examine any element of the text:
character development, conflicts, narrative Manuel Estabilla Arguilla
point of view, etc.  author of Morning in Nagrebcan
 Literary critical theories inform us of certain  June 17,1911 – August 30, 1944
ways to approach big ideas in the novel.  Was an Ilokano writer in English, patriot,
 There are many different approaches we and martyr
can take to critical analysis  His birthplace was in Barrio Nagrebcan,
 Literary theories provide a framework for Buang, La Union
our discussion of a text
PUBLICATION
EMOTIONAL APPEAL  Japanese Occupation - (Second 45
 It is a way or method used by the author to Philippine Republic, more formally known as
create emotional response among his the Republic of the Philippines)
reader or audience.
 Show not tell! SETTINGS
 TIME - It was during sunrise,
Literary Reading through Sociocultural Context  CONDITION - the sun gives warmth to the
“Art is not created in a vacuum; it is the work not whole barrio
simply of a person, but of an author fixed in time  PLACE - At the House of Baldo in
and space, answering a community of which he is Nagrebcan, situated near the cornfields and
an important, articulate part.”- Wilbur Scott tobacco fields where the Katayaghan Hills is
visible.
Perspectives
 Feminism - Feminism uplifts women goals THEME
by defining and establishing equality in the  REALITY OF LIFE - Physical fight of the
family, civil, social, political, and economic brothers
arena. Feminist literature is often associated  RELATIONSHIP - The reconciliation of the
with literary pieces written by women that brothers
deal with women in the society. It involves  PARENTHOOD - The mother like Nana
characters or ideas which chide the Elang
common gender norms dominated with  EXISTENCE - Tang Ciako’s rudeness
masculinity. This approach gives an impact
to the voice of women. SYMBOLISM
 New Historicism - New Historicism deals  Symbol in literature is anything that stands
with the cultural context during the writing of for something else. Authors use symbols
the piece of literature. This approach to give deeper and significant meaning to
interprets literature for its meaning or idea in their content or story.
a particular socio-historical atmosphere. It  Symbolism makes the author convey ideas
needs an understanding of the author’s to readers/ audience in a poetic matter
milieu and the cultural context during its instead of its outright expression.
production.
 Queer Theory Strategies you may use to read a text through
 Literary Reading through Sociocultural the linguistic context
Context  Analyze the diction or choice of words in the
 Historicism text.
 Post-Colonialism  Examine the texts’ syntax or use of
 Marxism sentences, clauses, phrases, line cuts, etc.
 Observe the use of figurative language.
 Analyze the mood and tone of the text.
 Observe the text’s overall structure.
 Analyze the content of the text.
 is form, structure, technical features as
SYMBOLISM more important than the content.
 The sun at the beginning and end of the
story – life, chances, hope THEME: HISTORICAL BACKGROUND
 The black-spotted puppy  ABUSED AND PROSTITUTED– to refine
 The eating of banana with its skin – putting and elevate consciousness of the Filipinos,
things into perspective as a nation.
 The single bamboo pole that served as the
railing

Reading Style: Imagery

 Several fishermen wearing coffee-colored
shirts and trousers and hats made from the THE CHERISHED DAUGHTER (1700 AD)
shell of white pumpkins passed by. The Vietnamese Arranged Marriage
smoke of their home-made cigars floated Marriages are regarded primarily as a social
behind them like shreds of the morning mist. contract and traditionally they were arranged by the
Women carrying big empty baskets were parents through intermediaries. The parents' choice
going to the tobacco fields. They walked was influenced more by considerations affecting
fast, talking among themselves. Each the welfare of the lineage than by the preferences
woman had gathered the loose folds of her of the participants.
skirt in front and, twisting the end two or
three times, passed it between her legs, Vietnamese Culture about Marriage
pulling it up at the back, and slipping it Factors to be seriously considered when
inside her waist. The women seemed to be choosing a marital partner in Vietnam are the social
wearing trousers that reached only to their status of the families and the astrological-mystical
knees and flared at the thighs. Day was affinities of the marriage partners. The uniformity of
quickly growing older. the mixture of various religious concepts in Vietnam
—except among tribal peoples—tends to give
Literary Approach: Feminism uniformity to marriage arrangements, ceremonies,
1. Comment on Tang Ciako’s treatment of Nana feasts, dowry, etc. Because the individual is less
Elang. important than the family, it is expected that the
2. Is the bitch a good mother to her puppies? family will have a major voice in the selection of
3. If you were the author will you treat Nana Elang wives and husbands of their children. This is often
the same? done through a "go-between" (male or female) to
save "face" in case it is deemed best to break off
NEW HISTORICISM bargaining. Another major factor in the choosing of
1. The author, Manuel E. Arguilla, spent his marriage partners is consulting of horoscopes.
childhood in Nagrebcan, Bauang, La Union, his
birthplace. This was a peaceful place he Magpie
immortalized in his stories. Enumerate the cultures In ancient China, the arrival of magpies was
of the place that you have seen in the story. regarded as an auspicious omen of new
2. Do you think these are the same at present? opportunities, be it a new job or a new love. The
3. Are there words or things in the story which are symbol of the magpie is often used as a traditional
scarce or not present anymore? feng shui cure to help remove obstacles in one's
career or love life.
Formalism
 This uses close reading of a piece of Matchmakers in Vietnam
literature. This means that the formalists’ If the newlyweds were happy, the
interpretation of a work of art is formulated matchmaker became their benefactor and was
by the information and details of the piece thanked with a bowl of steamed sticky rice, a boiled
itself. Formalists do not interpret a work chicken, and a silk dress following the wedding.
based on matters that are outside the When the couple celebrated the one-month
confines of the work like history, politics, anniversary of their first child, the matchmaker was
society, time or even the author. They see it invited to the party. Following an introduction by the
autonomously and can be gauged through matchmaker, the groom’s family would visit the
internal structure and language. Considered bride's family to ask after their daughter's name and
age. This ceremony was an important first step, as  Asking for wedding presents was a feudal
the girl's age determined in her suitability as a custom that placed a lot of strain on both
bride. The groom's family would study the families. Some couples had to break up
horoscopes of the prospective couple, only because the girl's family demanded gifts
agreeing to a wedding if the pair's horoscopes were beyond the groom's family's means. The
complementary. As well as having suitable bride's family might request dresses, bottles
horoscopes, the couple should come from the of wine, cakes, betel nuts, rice, pigs,
same social class. chickens, jewellery, and money.
Sometimes, the groom's family would go
Dating Apps deep into debt, forcing the young couple to
Vietnam Cupid is the leading Vietnamese spend years paying back the costs incurred
dating and personals site that successfully by their wedding. Resentment between the
connects thousands of Vietnamese singles with bride and groom and their respective
their ideal matches for love, dating and long term families was inevitable.
relationships. If you are specifically looking for an
interactive and exciting Vietnamese dating The making-meaning of the poem
experience, ‘The Cherished Daughter’ is bound up in the
Vietnam Cupid is the site for you. culture rather than the stylistics of it. In Vietnam,
considering the social status of the families should
Use of Astrology in Vietnam in Choosing be considered when choosing a marital partner.
Marriage Partners During 1700, it is expected that the family will have
Astrology is an important consideration in a major voice in the selection of wives and
choosing a marriage partner among ethnic husbands of their children. As portrayed by the
Vietnamese. Compatible mystical affinities among mother, she never let her daughter to get married
bride and groom will allow them to marry in keeping unless her standard will be sufficed.
with the harmony of the universe; incompatible
readings indicate discord which will result in serious The Cherished Daughter: Interpretation
martial difficulty. The author used repetition (‘Mother, I am eighteen
this year and still without a husband. What, Mother,
Example: A man born under Venus marrying a girl is your plan?’) to emphasize the feeling of a
of Mars would find arguments, unhappiness, etc., daughter longing to get married at the right age
whereas the same man marrying a girl under however, because of the cultural value and respect
Mercury's influence would be happy. Similarly, if the to her mother ,she needs to follow and obey what
man is of fire influence and the wife of water, she ought her to do. It shows the daughter’s
countless arguments, poverty and perhaps divorce desperation in some part, trying to break the chain
is their predetermined fate; but if man is under from her mother.
influence of fire and the girl of wood, they will have
many children and prosperity. Sound Devices: Repetition
 is the repetition of words or phrases to form
Bride-price rhythm or to emphasize an idea.
The arrangement was formally sealed with Example:
the payment of bride price to a fund controlled by Mother, I am eighteen this year and still without a
the village or community where the girl lived. husband. What, Mother, is your plan? The magpie
The gifts are prepared by the fiancé family brought two matchmakers and you threw them the
several days before the engagement ceremony. challenge:
Traditionally the gifts was placed a number of trays. (Check the full text of The Cherished Daughter)
The number must be an odd number 5, 7 or 9 trays
depends on the condition of the fiancé family. The Sound Devices: Alliteration
gifts are covered by the red color paper or cloth. In  The repetition of the same sounds at the
Vietnamese beliefs, the odd number and the red beginning of two or more adjacent words or
color will bring luck to the young couple. The gifts stressed syllables.
include betel leaves, areca nut fruits, wine, tea, Example:
husband-wife cake and sticky rice. One of the most five full quan, five thousand areca nuts, five fat
important gift is the whole roasted pig which placed pigs, and five suits of clothes’ – The Cherished
in a large tray. Both families also choose 5, 7 or 9 Daughter
people who bring and receive the gifts.
A SCHOOL BOY'S APOLOGY BY LE THANH
HUAN A School Boy's Apology: The War
The most immediate effect of the Vietnam People running from the front to look out for
War was the staggering death toll. The war killed themselves
an estimated 2 million Vietnamese civilians, 1.1 Cheating, lying, stabbing others in the back
million North Vietnamese troops, 200,000 South Some of my friends have fallen. No one knew, no
Vietnamese troops, and 58,000 U.S. troops. Those one cared, they were dewdrops that’ s all. My home
wounded in combat numbered tens of thousands will be burnt to the ground
more. The massive U.S. bombing of both North and The way back cut off, partitioned...
South Vietnam left the country in ruins, and the
U.S. Army’s use of herbicides such as Agent Consonance
Orange notonly devastated Vietnam’s natural Symbolism: ‘dewdrops’
environment but also caused widespread health Ellipsis: Cliff-hanger (Rhetorical Statement)
problems that have persisted for decades.
During the war years life for children was Psychological Effect on Children
very hard, in both the North and the South of  Psychological suffering. Children are
Vietnam. Houses and schools were bombed and exposed to situations of terror and horror
destroyed. Many children became homeless and during war – experiences that may leave
their schools had to be moved around or lessons enduring impacts in posttraumatic stress
had to take place after dark to avoid being targeted disorder. Severe losses and disruptions in
by heavy bombings. For example, one school in a their lives lead to high rates of depression
liberated area in the South had to move site three and anxiety in war-affected children. These
times in four months due to the American air raids. impacts may be prolonged by exposures to
Wherever they stopped, teachers and pupils built further privations and violence in refugee
bamboo and palm leaf cottages in the midst of situations.
forests as their school (Việt Nam, no.132, 9, 1968,
p. 10).)

A School Boy's Apology: Setting

If sometimes I fall asleep in a lecture
Or shout and scream as if alone
Please forgive me, please don’t be angry
For I have no place to play.
 Why is the persona in the poem
apologizing? Is it a proper act?

A School Boy's Apology: Hopes and Dreams

I’m growing up I want to be a sailor
I’m wishing for a giant arena, a stream
I feel like yelling my life is beginning
Every minute I want to hold tight to my dreams.
 What does this stanza tell about the
persona?

Literary Device: Situational Paradox

A School Boy's Apology: History

But the fires of war have shrivelled my joys
At every step I see guns turned on me
At every word I hear the crash of steel
Not believing, not understanding I only stare.
The slaughter goes on and on,
Blood and bones and hatred all strained red.
 What does the use of the word ‘but’ at the
start of stanza three suggest?
 What does this tell about the persona?