Ateneo de Zamboanga University

MatMod I/H
College of Science & Information Technology
RRGuerrero
Mathematics Department
First Semester, Session 1, AY 2020-2021

I. NATURE OF MATHEMATICS
1.1 Patterns and Numbers in nature and the World
1.2 The Fibonacci Sequence
1.3 Mathematics for our World

Objectives:
1. Discuss and argue about the nature of mathematics, what it is, how it is expressed, represented, and used
2. Identify patterns in nature and regularities in the world by citing examples, describing, inferring
3. Express appreciation for mathematics as a human endeavor by articulating the benefits that man can get from
mathematics

1.1 Patterns and Numbers in Nature and the World

Watch Cristobal Vila’s video clip “Nature in Numbers” http://vimeo.com/9953368

Mathematics in the modern world: patterns & regularities
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=dLU78Xyb0io

 Patterns are regular, repeated, or recurring forms or designs.

o Snowflakes and Honeycombs

Symmetry indicates that we can draw an imaginary line across an

object and the result is a mirror image of each other. Bilateral
symmetry is evident in most animals, including humans.

There are two types of symmetry depending on the number of sides or

faces that are symmetrical.

Leonardo Da Vinci’s Vitruvian Man, showing

proportions & symmetry of the human body.

Spiderwort with 3-fold Starfish has a five-fold symmetry

symmetry

 If you rotate the spiderwort and starfish by several degrees, you can still achieve the same
appearance as the original position. This is known as rotational symmetry.

 The smallest angle that a figure can be rotated while still preserving the original formation is called
the angle of rotation.

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 Order of Rotation. A figure has a rotational symmetry of order 𝑛 (𝑛-fold rotational symmetry)
if 1/𝑛 of a complete turn leaves the figure unchanged.
360°
To compute for the angle of rotation, we have this following formula: Angle of rotation =
𝑛

Consider the image of a snowflake:

 Observe that the patterns on a snowflake repeat six times,

indicating that there is a six-fold symmetry. To determine the angle
of rotation, simply divide 3600 by 6 to get 600.

 Many combinations and complex shapes of snowflakes may

occur, which lead some people to think that “no two are alike”. If
you look closely, however, many snowflakes are not perfectly
symmetric due to the effects of humidity and temperature on the
ice crystal as it forms.

Another marvel of nature’s design is the structure and shape of

honeycombs.
 People have long wondered how bees, despite their very minute
size, are able to produce such arrangement while humans would
generally need the use of a ruler and compass to accomplish such
a task.
 It’s been observed that such formation enables the bees colony to
maximize their storage of honey using the smallest amount of wax.

Packing problems involve finding the optimum

method of filling up a given space such as a cubic or
spherical container.

The bees have instinctively found the best solution,

evident in the hexagonal construction of their hives.
These geometric patterns are not only simple and
beautiful, but also optimally functional.

Illustration: Suppose you have circles of radius 1 cm, each of which will then have an area of 𝜋 cm2.

For square packing, each square will have an area of 4 cm2. Note from the figure that for
each square, it can fit only one circle (4 quarters). The percentage of the square’s area
covered by circles will be

𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑎 𝑐𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝜋 𝑐𝑚2

× 100% = × 100% = 78.54%
𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑟𝑒 4 𝑐𝑚2

For hexagonal packing, we can think of each hexagon as composed of six equilateral triangles with side equal to 2cm.

𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 2 ∙√3 (2 𝑐𝑚)2 ∙√3 4𝑐𝑚2 ∙√3

The area of each triangle is given by 𝐴 = = = = √3 𝑐𝑚2 .
4 4 4

This gives the area of the hexagon as 6√3 cm2. Looking at the figure, there are 3 circles that could fit inside one
hexagon (the whole circle in the middle, and 6 one-thirds of a circle), which gives the total area as 3𝜋 cm2.

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 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑙𝑒𝑠
The percentage of the hexagon’s area covered by circles will be 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 ℎ𝑒𝑥𝑎𝑔𝑜𝑛
×
3𝜋 𝑐𝑚2
100% = × 100% = 90.69%
6√3 𝑐𝑚2

Comparing the two percentages, we can clearly see that using hexagons will cover a larger
area than when using squares.

o Tigers’ Stripes and Hyena’s Spots

 Patterns are also exhibited in the external
appearances of animals. We are familiar with how
a tiger looks – distinctive reddish-orange fur and
dark stripes.
 These seemingly random predator from
Africa, are also covered in patters of spots. These seemingly random designs are
believed to be governed by mathematical equations.

 According to a theory by Alan Turing, the man famous for breaking the Enigma code during World War II,
chemical reactions and diffusion processes in cells determine these growth patterns. More recent studies
addressed the question of why some species grow vertical stripes while others have horizontal ones.

 A new model by Harvard University researchers predicts that there are three variables that could affect the
orientation of these stripes – the substance that amplifies the density of stripes patterns, the substance that
changes one of the parameters involved in stripe formation, and the physical change in the direction of the
origin of the stripe.

o The Sunflower
 Looking at a sunflower up close, notice that there is a definite pattern of clockwise and
counterclockwise arcs or spirals extending outward from the center of the flower. This is
another demonstration of how nature works to optimize the available space. This is
another demonstration of how nature works to optimize the available space. This
arrangement allows the sunflower seeds to occupy the flower head in a way that
maximizes their access to light and necessary nutrients.

o The Snail’s Shell

 The most common spiral patterns can be seen
in whirlpools and in the shells of snails and other similar
mollusks.
 Snails are born with their shells, called protoconch, which start out as
fragile and colorless. Eventually, these original shells harden as the
snails consume calcium.
 As the snails grow, their shells also expand proportionately so that
they can continue to live inside their shells.
 This process results in a refined spiral structure that is even more
visible when the shell is sliced. This figure is called an equiangular
spiral, follows the rule that as the distance from the spiral center
increases (radius), the amplitudes of the angles formed by the radii to
the point and the tangent to the point remain constant.
 This is another example of how nature seems to follow certain set of
rules governed by mathematics.

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 o Flower Petals
 Flowers are easily considered as things of beauty. Their
vibrant colors and fragrant odors make them very appealing as
gifts or decorations. If you look more closely, you will note that
different flowers have different number of petals.
 Take the iris and trillium, for example. Both flowers have
only 3 petals. Flowers with five petals are said to be the most
common. These include buttercup, columbine, and hibiscus.
 Among those flowers with eight petals are clematis, delphinium, while ragwort and
marigold have thirteen. These numbers are all Fibonacci numbers.

 Exponential Growth Model

o World Population
 As of 2017, it is estimated that the world population is about 7.6 billion.
World leaders, sociologists, and anthropologists are interested in studying
population, including its growth.
 Mathematics can be used to model population growth.
 Recall that the formula for exponential growth is 𝐴 = 𝑃𝑒 𝑟𝑡 , where A is the
size of the population after it grows, P is the initial number of people, r is the rate
of growth, and t is time.
 Recall further that e is Euler’s constant with an approximate value of 2.718.
 Plugging in values to this formula would result in the population size after
time t with a growth rate of r.

Example: Population Growth

The exponential growth model 𝐴 = 𝑃𝑒 𝑟𝑡 , describes the population of a city in the Philippines in thousands, t years
after 1995.
a. What was the population of the city in 1995?
b. What will be the population in 2017?

Solution:
a. Since the exponential growth model describes the population t years after 1995, we consider 1995 as 𝑡 = 0
and then solve for A, our population size.

𝐴 = 30𝑒 0.02𝑡
𝐴 = 30𝑒 (0.02)(0) replace t with 𝑡 = 0
𝐴 = 30𝑒 0
𝐴 = 30(1) 𝑒0 = 1
𝐴 = 30 Therefore, the city population in 1995 is 30,000.

b. We need to find A for the year 2017. To find t, we subtract 2017 and 1995 to get 𝑡 = 22, which we then
plug in to the exponential growth model.

𝐴 = 30𝑒 0.02𝑡
𝐴 = 30𝑒 (0.02)(22) replace t with 𝑡 = 22
𝐴 = 30𝑒 0.44
𝐴 = 30(1.55272) 𝑒 0.44 = 1.55271
𝐴 = 46.581
Therefore, the city population would be about 46,581 in 2017. 

Try this: The exponential growth model 𝐴 = 50𝑒 0.07𝑡 describes the population of a city in the Philippines in
thousands, t years after 1997. What is the population after 20 years? In 2037?

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EXERCISE 1.1:

A. Determine what comes next in the given patterns.

1. A, C, E, G, I, ___
2. 15, 10, 14, 10, 13, 10, ___
3. 41, 39, 37, 35, 33, ___
4. 100, 99, 97, 94, 90, 85, 79, ____
5. 5, 15, 45, 135, 405, 1215 ____

B. Substitute the given values in the formula 𝐴 = 𝑃𝑒 𝑟𝑡 to find the missing quantity.

6. 𝑃 = 680,000 𝑟 = 12% per year 𝑡 = 8 years

7. 𝐴 = 1,240,000 𝑟 = 8% per year 𝑡 = 30 years
8. 𝐴 = 786,000 𝑃 = 247,000 𝑡 = 17 years
9. 𝐴 = 731,093 𝑃 = 525,600 𝑟 = 3% per year

1.2 The Fibonacci Sequence

Fibonacci sequence in nature

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=nt2OlMAJj6o
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-GVQ2-3Nv2s

 Sequence
A sequence is an ordered list of numbers, called terms, that may have repeated values. The arrangement
of these terms is set by a definite rule.

Example 1: Generating a Sequence

Analyze the given sequence for its rule and identify the next three terms.
a. 1, 10, 100, 1000
Looking at the set of numbers, it can be observed that each term is a power of 10: 1 = 10 0, 10=101,
100 = 102, 1000 = 103. Following this rule, the next three terms are: 104=10,000, 105 = 100,000, and
106= 1,000,000

b. 2, 5, 9, 14, 20
The difference between the first and second terms (2 and 5) is 3. The difference between the
second and third terms (5 and 9) is 4, between third and fourth terms (9 and 14) is 5, fourth and
fifth terms (14 and 20) is 6. Following this observation, it can be deduced that to obtain the next
three terms, we should add 7, 8, and 9 respectively, to the current terms. Thus, the next three
terms are 20 + 7 = 27, 27+8 = 35, and 35 + 9 = 44.

Try the following: Analyze the given sequence for its rule and identify the next three terms.
a. 16, 32, 64, 128 b. 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8

The Fibonacci sequence is named after the Italian mathematician Leonardo of Pisa, who was better known
by his nickname Fibonacci. He is said to have discovered this sequence as he looked at how a hypothesized
groups of rabbits bred and reproduced.

The problem involved having a single pair of rabbits and then finding out how many pairs of rabbits will be
born in a year, with the assumption that a new pair of rabbits is born each month and this new pair, in
turn, gives birth to additional pairs of rabbits beginning at two months after they were born. He noted that

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the set of numbers generated from this problem could be extended by getting the sum of the two previous
terms.

Starting with 0 and 1, the succeeding terms in the sequence can be generated by adding the two numbers
that came before the term:

0+1=1 0, 1, 1
1+1=2 0, 1, 1, 2
1+2=3 0, 1, 1, 2, 3
2+3=5 0, 1, 1, 2, 3, 5
3+5=8 0, 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8
5 + 8 = 13 0, 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13
… 0, 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, …

While the sequence is widely known as Fibonacci sequence, this pattern is said to have been discovered
much earlier in India. According to some scholarly articles, Fibonacci sequence is evident in the number of
variations of a particular category of Sanskrit and Prakrit poetry meters. In poetry, meter refers to the
rhythmic pattern of syllables.

Interesting properties of Fibonacci sequence:

 This pattern is very visible in nature such as spiral snail’s shell
 The ratios of successive Fibonacci numbers approach the number 𝜑 (phi), also known as the Golden
ratio which is approximately equal to 1.618.

1 2 3 5 8
= 1.0000 = 2.0000 = 1.5000 = 1.6667 = 1.600
1 1 2 3 5

13 21 34 55 89
= 1.6250 = 1.6154 = 1.6190 = 1.6177 = 1.6182
8 13 21 34 55

 The Golden Ratio can also be expressed as the ratio between two numbers, if the latter is also the
ratio between the sum and the larger of the two numbers. Geometrically, it can also be visualized
as a rectangle perfectly formed by a square and another rectangle, which can be repeated infinitely
inside each section.

Shapes and figures that bear this proportion are generally considered to be aesthetically pleasing.
As such, this ratio is visible in many works of art and architecture such as in the Mona Lisa, the Notre
Dame Cathedral, and the Parthenon.
The human DNA molecule also contains Fibonacci numbers,
being 34 ångstroms long by 21 ångstroms wide for each full cycle
of the double helix spiral. In the figure at left, this approximates
the Golden Ratio at a value of about 1.619 (1 ångstroms= 10-10
meter or 0.1 nanometer).

Golden rectangle with the golden spiral

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EXERCISE 1.2:
A. Let 𝐹𝑖𝑏 (𝑛) be the 𝑛th term of the Fibonacci sequence, with 𝐹𝑖𝑏 (1) = 1, 𝐹𝑖𝑏(2) = 1, 𝐹𝑖𝑏 (3) = 2,
and so on.
1. Find 𝐹𝑖𝑏 (8)
2. Find 𝐹𝑖𝑏 (19)
3. If 𝐹𝑖𝑏 (22) = 17,711 and 𝐹𝑖𝑏 (24) = 46,368, what is 𝐹𝑖𝑏 (23)?
4. Evaluate the following sums:
a. 𝐹𝑖𝑏 (1) + 𝐹𝑖𝑏 (2) = _____
b. 𝐹𝑖𝑏 (1) + 𝐹𝑖𝑏 (2) + 𝐹𝑖𝑏 (3) = _____
c. 𝐹𝑖𝑏 (1) + 𝐹𝑖𝑏 (2) + 𝐹𝑖𝑏(3) + 𝐹𝑖𝑏 (4) = _____

B. Answer completely.
5. If you have a wooden board that is 0.75 meters wide, how long should you cut it such
that the Golden Ratio is observed? Use 1.618 as the value of the Golden Ratio.

1.3 Mathematics for Our World

Why Math is the Best way to Make sense of the world
https://www.quantamagazine.org/why-math-is-the-best-way-to-make-sense-of-the-world-20170911/
http://teachingmathsscholars.org/news/try-to-imagine-a-world-without-mathematics

 Mathematics for Organization

A lot of events happen around. In the blink of an eye, several children have already been born, liters of water have
been consumed, or thousands of tweets have been posted. To help make sense of all available information,
mathematical tools are helpful to arrive at sound analysis and better decisions.

 Mathematics for Prediction

It is at times said that history repeats itself. Mathematics can provide critical models of existing data to generate
analysis and interpretations to help make well-thought conclusions.

 Mathematics for Control

There seems to be an underlying mathematical structure in the way that natural objects and phenomenon behave.
It is then interesting to ponder on how mathematics, an invention of the human mind, seemingly permeates in the
natural laws that hold the universe together. Furthermore, it is also through the use of mathematics, man is able to
exert control over himself and the effects of nature.

 Mathematics is indispensable
How is it possible that mathematics, a product of human thought that is independent of experience, fits so
excellently the objects of reality? - Albert Einstein

EXERCISE 1.3: Answer the following.

1. Vlad had a summer job packing sweets. Each pack should weigh 200 grams. Vlad had to make 15 packs of
sweets. He checked the weights, in grams, correct to the nearest gram. Following are his measurements:
212 206 203 206 199 196 197 207
197 209 206 198 191 196 206
What is the most frequent data?
2. A certain study found that the relationship between the students’ exam scores (y) and the number of hours
they spent studying (x) is given by the equation 𝑦 = 10𝑥 + 45. Using this information, what will be the
estimated score of a student who spent 4 hours studying?

Reference: Aufmann, R. et al (2018). Mathematics in the Modern World, Philippine Edition. Rex Book Store Inc, pp 2 – 20.
Photos obtained from google.com