Petrology of Sedimentary Rocks

INTRODUCTION
Sedimentary rocks are also called secondary rocks. This group includes a wide variety of rocks
formed by accumulation, compaction and consolidation of sediments. The sediments may be defined as
particles praduced from the decay and weathering of pre-existing rocks or may be derived from
remains of dead sea or land animals in suitable environments. The accumulation and compaction of
these sediments commonly takes place under water or at least in the presence of water.
Availability of sediments or the solid matter making the sedimentary rocks may be from varied-
sources. Rocks already existing on the surface of the earth at any given point of time are exposed
to the action of natural agencies surrounding or operating on them such as atmosphere, wind,
water, ice and chemical environment. The net result is breakdown of these rocks into smaller and
still smaller parts, the ultimate size being of the sediments. These sediments are transported to
varying distances and finally deposited in suitable basins (large depressions on the body of the
earth), such as sea and ocean floors, lakes and river beds.
Some sediments may be derived as precipitates or evaporites from springs, lakes and more
often from lagoons, bays and seawater. Animal and vegetable life, including microorganisms also
contribute a fairly large supply of organic residues, which on gradual accumulation after the death
of the source get compacted and turn into hard massive bodies of sedimentary rocks.
Sedimentary rocks are known to cover as much as 75 per cent of the surface area of the earth,
the rest being covered by the igneous rocks and the metamorphic rocks. But depth wise, they
disappear at shallow depths at most of the places; in fact, in the upper 16 km of the crust of the
earth, the volume of sedimentary rocks is estimated to be less than ten percent, ranging between
5-8 percent in most studies.
 
1.2. FORMATION
The process of formation of sedimentary rocks is ever prevailing. Even at present, millions of
tonnes of existing rocks are broken every year in different areas of the earth by natural process. The
 
 Sedimentary 1
sediments soproduced are transported to the settling basins such as sea floors where they are
deposited, get compacted and consolidated and finally transformed into a cohesive solid mass.- That
is a sedimentary rock. Similarly, millions of sea and oceanic organisms perish every month and their
hard parts are accumulating at the floors of these water bodies. These hard parts gradually get
compacted and converted into sedimentary rocks of a different origin. Some chemical processes
especially evaporation and precipitation regularly operate on surface of water bodies containing
dissolved salts and produce solids that settle down in those bodies. Here is another type of sedimentary
rock being formed. Similar processes are believed to have operated right from the beginning of
the Earth as a distinguished planet of the Solar System. Hence, at present, formation of sedimentary
rocks has to be explained with specific reference to the type of the source of the sediments/particles
and the environment in which these materials have been deposited.
Sedimentary rocks are broadly grouped into three classes on the basis of their mode of formation:
Mechanically formed or Clastic Rocks; Organically formed Rocks and Chemically formed Rocks.
In many books the last two groups are considered as a single class and named as Non-Clastic Rocks.
A. Clastic (Mechanically Formed) Rocks
A series of well-defined steps are involved in the formation of clastic rocks.
(a) Decay and Disintegration. As alreadsaid rocks existing on the surface of the earth are
exposed to decay and disintegration by the action of natural agencies like atmosphere, water
and ice on them. The original hard and coherent rock bodies are gradually broken down into
smaller and still smaller fragments, grains and particles. The disintegrated, loosened material
so formed and accumulated near the source is called detritus. Hence, clastic rocks are often
also called as detrital rocks.
(b) Transport of Sediments. The detritus produced from the decayꞏ and disintegration of the pre-
, exis ing rocks forms the source of the sedimentary rocks but it has to be transported to a suitable
place for transformation again into a rock mass. The wind, running water and ice in the form
of glaciers are the very strong and common agents of transport for carrying millions of tonnes
of sediments and particles from one place to another including seas and oceans. The winds
transport the sediments from ploughed fields, the deserts and dry lands in series of jumps
(saltation) and in suspension modes. These loads of sediments are dropped down wherever
intercepted by rains. The mightiest agents of transport of sedintents are, of course, streams and
rivers, all terminating into lakes or seas. The running water bodies transport the sediment load
as bed-load, suspended-load and dissolved load, all dumped at the settling basins. Ice in the
form of huge moving bodies called glaciers also breaks the rocks along their bases and sides (in
valley glaciers) and dumps the same at snow lines thereby making large volumes of the clastic
load available for further transport by other agencies. It is easy to imagine that millions of tonnes
of land mass as scratched by these surface agencies is transported to seas and oceans every year
and deposited there.
(c) Gradual Deposition. The sediments as produced through weathering and erosion are transported
to settling basins. These basins may be located in different environments such as on the continents,
along the seashores or in deep-sea environments. As such sedimentary rocks formed in different
environments will show different inherent characters. In the continental environments may be
included the glacial deposits, the fluvial deposits, the glacio-fluvial deposits and the eolian deposits,
each type giving rise to a definite type .of sediment accumulation. In the marine deposits, some
sediments may be dropped just along the sea-shore, or at some shallow depth within the sea or
miles away in the deep-sea environment.
The most important phenomenon that happens to the sediments during their transport and
deposition is SORTING or grading according to their size, shape, and density. Hence, these sediments
 2 --------------" Geology for Civil Engineers
get deposited in the form of layers in most cases. Deposition generally takes place under ordinary
- pressure and temperature conditions.
The sediments deposited in the settling basins gradually get converted to cohesive, hard and
massive rock formations through the process of compaction, consolidation and cementation, which
is collectively known as diagenesis.
(d) Diagenesis. The process of transformation of loose sediments deposited in the settlement basins
to solid cohesive rock masses either under pressure or because of cementation is collectively
known as diagenesis. It may be achieved by either of the two methods: welding or cementation.
Welding is the process of compaction of the sediments accumulated in lower layers of a basin
due to the pressure exerted by the load of the overlying sediments. This results in squeezing out
all or most- of the water from in between the sediments, thus bringing them closer and closer and
consolidating them virtually in a solid rock mass. In fact the degree of packing of sediments in a
sedimentary rock is broadly directly proportional to the load of the overlying sediments.
Cementation is the process by which loose grains or sediments in a settlement basin get held
together by a binding material. The binding material may be derived from within the accumulated
particles or the fluids that percolate through them and also evaporate or precipitate around those
particles thus binding them, in a rock like mass.
,
B. Chemically Formed (Non-clastic) Rocks
Water is a great solvent. Water from rains, springs, streams, rivers, lakes and underground water
bodies dissolves many compounds from the rocks with which it comes into c<.,ntact. In most cases
all these dissolved salts are carried by the running water to its ..1lttn1ate r. :;t;nation -the sea. Hence
the brackish or saltish taste of the sea water. In many other cases also, the local water-bodies may
get saturated with one or other dissolved salt. In all cases, a ꞏstage may be reached when the
dissolved salts get crystallized out either through evaporation or through precipitation. Thus, limestone
Il).ay be formed by precipitation from carbonated water due to loss of carbon dioxide. Rock salt may
be formed from sodium-chloride rich seawater merely by the process of continrled evaporation ift
bays and lagoons. Chemically formed rocks may be thus of two types : precipitates and evaporite .
Examples are limestones, rock salt, gypsum, and anhydrite.
C. Organically Formed (Non-clastic) Rocks
Oceans and seas cover more than 70 per cent of the globe. These extensive water bodies
sustain a great variety of animal and plant life. The hard parts of many sea organisms are constituted
chiefly of calcium and/or magnesium, carbonates. Death and decay of these organisms within the
water bodies gradually results into huge accumulations of carbonate materials, which get}:ompacted
and consolidated in the same manner as the normal sediments. Limestones are the best examples
of organically formed sedimentary rocks. Generally the evidence of the source material gets obliterated'
from these rocks with the passage of time. In some cases, however, it may not be much difficl}!i to
ascertain the same from uncompacted or partly compacted fragments.
 
1.3. ENVIRONMENT OF FORMATION
Facies. As said earlier, sediments may accumulate at many different places in vastly different
environments. The concept of formation of a sedimentary rock in a particular type of environment
is explained by the term facies. Three main facies are recognised with respect to the format-Jon of
sedimentary rocks :
(a) Continental Facies. Sedimentary rocks formed on the continents such as in lakes, rivers,
streams and alluvial fans are said to belong to the .c mti ental facies. Coarse-grained r cks
like breccia, conglomerates and soft sandstone are typical examples of rocks of continental
 Sedimentary --------------------------------3
facies. Boulder clays of glacial origin and varved clays of lacustarine origin also belong
to continental facies although they differ at sub-facies level. The rocks of continental facies are,
in general, relatively less dense, loosely packed, and often cemented.
(b) Transitional Facies. Some sedimentary rocks may be formed by accumulation and
compaction of sediments along the seashore, or on the continental shelf that remains partly
submerged under sea such as beaches and d ltas. These sediments and hence rocks developed
from them represent the transitional facies. Many types of sandstone, siltstone and claystone
are formed in the transitional facies.
(c) Marine Facies. All sedimentary rocks formed at sea floor and ocean floors are covered
under marine facies. These may be further subdivided if\ shallow sea deposits and deep-
marine deposits formed on ocean floors.

Facies of Sedimentary Rocks

a = continental; b = transitional; c = marine
 
Fig. 1.1.
 
1.3.4. MINERALOGICAL COMPOSITION
Sedimentary rocks show great variation in their mineralogical composition. Rocks of simplest
composition, that is, containing one or two minerals only, ( e.g. limestones) are very common.
Similarly, rocks containing host of minerals like clays and shales are also not less common. This
variation is explained by following factors :
(a) The Nature of Gathering Ground. The agents of decay, disintegration and transportation
are the suppliers of the sediments. The composition of an ultimate sedimentary rock will
actually reflect the sum-total of the composition of the areas over which these agents operate
for obtaining the sediments. Streams eroding carbonate-rich hills will carry mostly carbonate
particles in them and, therefore, may become the source for limestone rocks; similarly those
running over silica-rich terrain may contain quartz as a dominant load fraction and become
the source of sandstones. But where the same stream flows over a sequence of igneous,
se_dimentary and metamorphic rocks, its load would be made up of different types of
minerals.
(b) Duration of Transport. This factor defines the extent in terms of time and distance for which
any load of sediments is_ transported from the gathering groundl to the settlement basin. Sediments
that are soft and fragile wear out easily whereas hard, resistant and durable grains from the
gathering ground are often transported to the ultimate destination. Quartz is one ꞏexample of
resistant minerals and hence is represented in many types of sedimentary rocks.
 4 Engineering and General Geology
 

(c) Mixing up of Sediments. In rocks formed along sea shore (transitional facies) from the
detritus carried up to that place by many long-distance streams, a variety of sediments may
get mixed up by waves and currents before actual settling starts. Thus a rock formed in such
a situation may have a complex mineralogical composition. In the continental facies, however,
the glacial environments may not allow the embedded load any chance for sorting. The morainic
rocks formed at glacial terminals, therefore, may show all smts of mineral and rock fragments
occurring in the same sedimentary rock.
In spite of the factors mentioned above, the bulk of most common sedimentary rocks is
made up only of few common rock forming minerals like quartz (sandstones, quartzites), calcite
(limestones), felspars (greywacks), gypsum and clay-minerals ꞏ(shales).
(d) Allogenic and Authigenic Minerals. Sometimes the minerals of sedimentary rocks are
grouped into two classes: allogenic and authigenic. The allogenic (detrital) minerals are
those which have been formed outside the basin of deposition, that is, they have been brought
there by some natural agent of transport. Quartz, felspar, amphiboles, pyroxenes, olivine and .--
corundum are some examples of allogenic minerals. The authigenic minerals are those that have
been formed within the basin of deposition. Commonly they are the result of chemical,
biochemical, or biomechanical activity that takes place in the basin of deposition. Calcite,
dolomite, anhydrite and gypsum are few examples of minerals of this group.
 
:1.3.5. TEXTURES OF SEDIMENTARY ROCKS
Sedimentary . rocks show considerable variation in their texture (or mutual relationship of tHe
constituent minerals). Their texture is determined by at least si:! contributing factors:
(i) Origin of Grains. A sedimentary rock may be partially or wholly composed of clastic (or
allogenic) grains, or of chemically formed or organically contributed parts. Thus the rock
may show a clastic texture or a non-clastic texture.
(ii) Size of Grains. The grain size in the sedimentary rocks varies within wide limits. Individual
grains of less than 0.002 rnm and more than 250 mm may form a part or whole of these
rocks. Three textures recognized on the basis of grain size are:
Coarse-grained rocks; average grain size > 5 mm
Medium-grained rocks; average grain size between 5 and 1 mm.
Fine-grained rocks; average grain size < 1 mm
(iii) Shapes of Grains. The sediments making the rocks may be of various shapes: rounded,
subrounded, angular ꞏ and subangular. They may show spherecity to various degrees.
Roundness and spherecity are the indications of varying degree of transport and abrasion
suffered during that process. Thus, Breccias are made up mostly of rough and angular
fragments indicating least transport and abrasion. Conglomerates are full of rounded and
smooth-surfaced pebbles and gravels indicating lot of transport and rubbing action during
their transport before getting deposited and consolidated into a rock mass.
(iv) Packing of Grains. Sedimentary rocks may be open-packed or porous in textures or
densely packed depending upon their environment of formation. The degree of packing is
generally related to the load of the overlying sediments during the process of deposition.
(v) Fabric of Grains. A given sedimentary rock may contain many elongated particles. Their
orientation is studied and <i §cribed in terms of orientatioof their longer axes. If.all or most
of the elongated particles are arranged _in such a way that their longer axes lie in the sa'll.e general
direction, the rock is sai4 to show a high degree of preferred orientation. This direction is
generally indicative of the direction of flow of the current during the period of deposition.
 Sedimentary ------------ --------------------5
(vi) Crystallisation Trend. In sedimentary rocks of chemical origin, the texture is generally
defined by the degree and nature of crystallized grains. Rocks may show pelfectly interlocking
grains giving rise to crystalline granular texture or they may be made up of non-crystalline,
colloidal particles when they are termed as amorphous.
 
1.6. STRUCTURES OF SEDIMENTARY ROCKS
The term structure signifies some large-scale features developed in the rock masses during the
process of their formation. These can be studied under following three headings:
 

1.6.1. Mechanical Structure

These are the most prevalent structures of clastic group of sedimentary rocks. They are
developed due to physical processes operating at the time of deposition of the sediments. Following
are common mechanically developed structures of sedimentary rocks.
 

--stratification
By stratification is understood a layered arrangement in a sedimentary rock. This may be developed
very prominently and can be seen from a distance of miles or in other cases may have to be ascertained
after close examination of the rock. The different layers, also called beds or strata may be similar or
dissimilar in colour, composition, grains size and texture. Planes of weakness - the bedding planes
separate the beds from each other. The thickness of each layer in a sedimentary formation may show great
variation: from a few centimeters to many meters. In lateral extension, the layered structure may sho.w
continuity for several meters to hundreds of kilometers. Further, the layers may be horizontal or slightly
inclined when they are undisturbed after their formation; in other cases ꞏthey be steeply inclined, folded
or bent and broken or overturned if affected by tectonic forces after their original deposition.
 

-------
A ----
t:=--:-
--------
-:-::=-::=:--::-=:-=-:===-::-
....,
  =-;=--=---=---------
L 1i=l ---- l=-r--=J-=--I =;-=1=-1-=1=1
. ,.
.-.
Z: z

 
 
-----------
L= Laminae
-
Stratification, Beds and Bedding Lamination
   
Fig. 1.2. Fig. 1.3.
 
Lamination
This is also a layered structure similar to stratification as found in the sedimentary rocks. In lamination,
however, the individual layers are quite thin (generally less than 1 em. in thickness). Lamination is a
characteristic structure of fine-grained sedimentary rocks like clays and shales. The individual layers are
called laminae and are distinguished commonly on the basis of difference in colour.
Cross Bedding
It is a sedimentary structure in which various layers lying one above another are not parallel
but bear an irregular or inclined relationship to each other. Such a structure often results from
deposition having taken place in a shallow-water environment. In such environment the stream
suffers repeated changes in direction of flow or the currents produced in the body of the water. The
structure is sometimes referred as false bedding or current bedding. Following are common types
of false bedding :
 6 ---------------------- Geology for Civil Engineers ꞏ
(a) Tabular. A type of cross bedding in which the top and bottom surfaces of the deposit are
essentially parallel, indicating its deposition in the same main channel, but the intervening
layers are inclined differently with respect to each other. (Fig. 1.4a)
(b) Lenticular. A type of cross-bedding in which all tbe layers show an extreme irregularity in
their shape and disposition; each individual layer may be intersected by many others lying
at different angles. (Fig. 1.4b)
(c) Wedge shaped. In this case, the cross-bedding structure is highly complex: the individual layers
exist in well defmed sets of parallel layers but these sets bear angular relationships to each
other. These layered sets are sometimes mutually inclined in such a way that they give the
appearance of interwoven wedges when seen in vettical cross section. (Fig. 1.4c).
 

(a) (b) (c)

False Bedding (Some Common Types)
   
Fig. 1.4.
 
Graded Bedding
/ -In some stratified rocks the component sediments in each layer appear to be characteyistically
sorted and arranged according to their grain size, the coarsest being placed at the bottom and the
finest at the top. Such an individual layer is said to be graded. When a sequence of rocks is--1hade
of such graded layers, the structure is called graded bedding. Normally such perfectly grade<i beds
are the result of sedimentation in bodies of standing water where factor of gravitative settling from a
mixed load is the predorriinant process. In many cases, however, the exact cause of graded bedding is
far from simple and may be attributed ' to such unrelated processes as subaqeous landslides and
submarine earthquakes.
Mud Cracks
These are common structural features of many fine-grained sedimentary rocks. The structure
consists of polygonal or irregular cracks spread along the surface of an exposed seclimentary layer.
Their development is xplained by an analogy of development of similar cracks on the surface of
drying mud in shallo environments even at present. Once these cracks are covered under further
layers of mud, they get\ reserved in the body of the deposits. They come to light once again when
the overlying layers are roded with the passage of time.
 

Rain Prints
These are irregular, small crater-shaped depressions seen on fine-grained dried sediments. Like mud
cracks, their formation can also be explained on the analogy of present day process: rain falling forcefully
on fine-grained compacted clays often makes crater like depressions. These may get dried up and
\
subsequntly preserved under another layer of mud. The imprints become a part of the deposit.
 

Ripple Marks
These are also quite common types of sedimentary structures of mechanical origin found in
deposits made in shallow water environment. They are defined as symmetrical or asymmetrical,
wave-like undulations or irregularity in a layer. Ripple marks generally result from interplay of
 Sedimentary 7
wind action and wave action during the process of deposition. The direction of a shallow water
cunent 'can easily be effected by strong winds blowing over the current: the fine sediments get
dragged along with the currents because of the waves so generated and deposited as and where the
waves become weaker. Another change in the direction of the current would create another layer
of deposits in opposite direction and so on.
The mud cracks, rain prints and ripple marks when encountered in sedimentary formations are taken
as confirmatory evidence of thformation having bn deposited in . shallow water environment.
 
1.6.2. Chemical Structures
Many sedimentary rocks are formed due to chemical processes such as evaporation, precipitation
and crystallisation. These rocks often show peculiar structures quite different from those found ꞏin
clastic rocks. A few types are described below in outline.
Concretionary Structures
In this type, the sedimentary rock is made up of concretions of various shapes and dimensions. The
individual concretions may be rounded, sub-rounded, rough or smooth and quite small like the egg of
fish or of quite appreciable size, like that of a walnut. When large number of such concretions are
cemented or compacted together, the rock is said to show a concretionary structure. Bauxite is a typical
----example. The Oolitic and Pisolitic Structures are also examples of concretionary structures differentiated
on the basis of size of the concretions. In the Oolitic structure, the concretions are of the size of fish
eggs (0.1 to l.Omm); the rock appears as an assemblage of fish-eggs, whereas actually it is a chemically
formed sedimentary rock. In the Pisolitic structure, the individual size of a concretion is like that of a
peanut. Limestones and bauxite show both these structures.
Nodular Structure
This type of str ucture is seen in some limestones and is differentiated by development of
irregularly shaped nodules of chert, iron oxides, iron carbonates and clayey ironstones. Sometimes
these nodules show elongation or flattening parallel to the bedding planes indicating their deposition
away from their place of formation.
Geode Structure
A geode is actually a hollow shell of rock, the interior of which is lined with inwardly projecting
crystals. Generally the rock shell is made up of chalcedony and the inner encrustations are of
quartz crystals. It is believed that this type of structure resulted from crystallization of quartz crystals
on inner walls of an original cavity.
 
1.6.3. Organic Structures
Some structures develop in the sedimentary rocks due to the manner in which the organic source
material gets accumulated and compacted to form a rock. The fossiliferous structure and the
stromatolitic structures may be described as the organic structures.
The fossiliferous structure is due to the presence of fossils of plants or animal life in the rock.
Sedimentary rocks are known as the only source of fossils. Some rocks may be highly fossiliferous
whereas others may contain little or no fossils in them. The stromatolitic structure is produced by
the presence of remains of algae, a kind of lower vegetation in the rocks.
 
1.7. CLASSIFICATION OF SEDIMENTARY ROCKS
Sedimentary rocks have been variously classified on the basis of their mineralogical composition,
environment of deposition, rrlode of formation and textural and structural features.
 8 ...,_.--------------4 Geology for Civil Engineers
For practical purposes classification system combining most of the above features has been
greatly favoured and shall only be followed in this book. In this classification, all the sedimentary
rocks are grouped under two main divisions: the clastic and the non-clastic rocks. This is done on
the basis of their mode of formation. These groups are further subdivided on the basis of their grain
size, composition and nature of the source material.
A. Clastic Rocks
. These are also called mechanically formed or detrital rocks and include all those sedimentary
rocks that have been formed from pre-existing rocks by operation of four processes: weathering and
erosion, transport, deposition and diagenesis. ꞏ
Further classification of the clastic rocks is based on the average grain size or grade of the
sediments making the rock . Following four-fold terminology is widely followed by the
sedimentalogists for grading the clastic sediments :
 

Gravels Sands Silts Clays

Grain size >2.00 mm 2 mm & 1/16 mm I /16 and 11256 mm <1/256 mm
The gravels, sands, shales and clays are further classified to lower limits of grain size in the
following manner :
(a) Gravels. All sediments and clastic fragments of rocks above the size of 2mm irrespective of
their composition and shape are broadly termed as gravels. However, specific terms are used to
name the gravels on the basis of their range of grain size in which they actually fall :
• Boulders. When grain size is bigger than 256 mm. - ꞏ
• Cobbles. When grain size is between 256-16 mm
• Pebbles. Grain size lies between 16-2mm
(b) Sands. All sediments that lie within the size range of 2 mm and 1116 mm are grouped as
sands. Petrologically the term is generally used for siliceous sediments. Sand may be
further divided into three sub-groups on the basis of grain-size as follows:
• Coarse sands. Size range between 2 mm and 112 mm
• Medium sands. Size range .between 112 mm and 1/4 mm
• Fine sands. Size range between 114 and 1116 mm.
(c) Silts. These are very fine-sized particles o( varying composition lying in the range between
1116 mm and 11256 mm. They are further divided into coarse, medium and fine silts
although such a distinction is generally not possible with the naked eye. It is also not
necessarily required for many practical applications. The silts are the major constituents of
rocks known as shales.
(d) Clays. All particles finer in size than 1/256 mm are commonly referred to as Clays. They
are materials formed in a variety of ways and abound in nature both as soils and rocks. as
claystone, mudstones and shales, etc.
The above grade-classification is shown diagrammatically as follows : (Fig. 1.5)
254 mm 64 mm 2 mm 1/16 mm 1/256 mm
 
 
 
 
 
Gravels Sand • Silts ---..- Clays --+
Boiulders I Cobbles I Pebbles I Coarse I Med I Fine I
Sub-Division of Clastic Rocks
 
Fig. 1.5.
 Study of Rocks . ------ ------------------ ------9
Based on the predominance of sediments of a particular grade, the clastic rocks are further sub-
divided into following three groups :
1. Rudites (Psephites). These are also called rudaceous rocks and include all coarse-grained
rocks of heterogeneous composition. The average grain size of the constituents in rudites is
greater than 2 mm. Rudites are made up of boulders, cobbles and pebbles collectively
known as gravels. These gravels are held together in the form of a rock by a natural
cementing material (clay being the most common).
Examples: Breccias and conglomerates are important examples of rudites.
2. Arenites (Psamites). These are also called arenaceous rocks. These are made up of sediments
ꞏ of sand grade (2mm-1/16mm). The sand grains may be held together in the rock form either
by cementation or by compaction under load from overlying sediments. In a particular rock,
the sand grains of particular size range may be predominating giving rise to coarse, medium
and fine arenites.
Examples: Sandstones, grewackes and arkoses are common types of arenites.
3. Lutites (Pelites). These are also called argillaceous rocks. Lutites may be defined as
sedimentary rocks of the finest grain-size. They are made up of particles of silt and clay
grades (less than 1116mm), which are invariably packed together with varying degree of
compaction. These are among the softest of rocks showing a complex behaviour towards
imposed loads when found in sites of construction.
Examples : Shales, clays, mudstones, siltstone.
It may be mentioned here that many a times a clastic rock may be made of sediments
of more than one grade. It is the dominant grade that is taken into consideration while
classifying the rock. If the other grade sediment is also present in a significant proportion, say
more than 5 percent, it is also reflected by adopting a mixed nomenclature for the rock. For
example: argillaceous sandstone, arenaceous shales, siliceous clays and so on.
B. Non-Clastic Rocks
This group includes all those sedimentary rocks that have been formed by any one of following
two processes :
(1) Operation of simple chemical processes such as evaporation, precipitation and crystallisation
at ordinary temperature and pressure from natural solution in different environments;
(2) Accumulation of hard parts of organisms or remains of plant life followed by their
compaction and consolidation.
The non-clastic rocks are also called non-detrital rocks. They are generally homogenous in
character, f1ne-grained in particle size and varying in chemical composition. This group is further
divided into two sub-divisions : chemically formed rocks and organically formed rocks.
(a) ChemlcaUy Formed Rocks
They are generally formed by precipitation, evaporation or crystallization from natural aqueous
solutions carrying the weathered material in the form of dissolved load. On the basis of their
chemical composition, these rocks are further sub-divided into following groups:
(i) Siliceous Deposits. In which silica (Si02) is the chief constituent. Some forms of silica like
chalcedony and opal are slightly soluble in water. When solutions saturated with this type
of silica enter environments where evaporation is possible, deposits of siliceous masses are
made. Examples: flint, chert, jasper.
(ii) Carbonate Deposits. These are precipitated from carbonate rich waters under different
 10 Geology for Civil Engineers
J • .

conditions that control the concentration of carbon dioxide. Many deposits of limestone,
dolomite and magnesite are of chemical origin formed from sea waters rich in calcium
car9onate and magnesium carbonate. Carbonate deposits of iron (siderite) having a similar
origin are also known.
(iii) Ferruginous Deposits. Oxides and hydroxides of iron are common examples of chemically
precipitated iron deposits. At plac;;es these deposits make huge formations extending over
several kilometers so that they can be extracted as a source (ore) of iron. The so-called bog-
iron-ores are iron hydroxides of chemical origin.
(iv) Phosphatic Deposits. These deposits mostly form from sea-waters rich in phosphoric acid.
Some limestones and shales may also contain phosphate compounds in good proportion
formed in them due to some chemical process.
(v) Evaporites. These may be treated as a distinct class of sedimentary rocks formed by the
process of evaporation. Some very important sedimentary rocks of economic value that belong
to the evaporites are: rock salt, anhydrite, gypsum, borates, rock sulphur and nitrate. These
deposits have formed from bodies of seawater (such as bays and estuaries) that got detached
from the main sea. Loss of moisture from these bodies due to evaporation with passage of time
,.,. increased the concentration of the salts to an extent that these salts separated out as rock masses.
Even at present common salt is manufactured from s water by the same process.
(b) Organic Deposits
Sedimentary deposits formed exclusively or predominantly from remains of organisms (both
plants and animals) fall under this group. The organisms might have contributed in the formation of
these deposits di ectly or indirectly. The rocks in which the bulk of their material is made of the
remains of the organisms have their direct contribution. Coral limestone is an example. Indirect
contribution is made by organism in a different manner. Some types of bacteria may help or even
be solely responsible f0r precipitating the rock components from solution.)
Following types of organic deposits are distinguished on the basis of thf chemical composition :
(i) Carbonate Rocks. A great part of the limestones found in different areas of the world is
actually marine and organic in origin. It has been formed by gradual accumulation and compaction
of shells and skeletal bones of sea organisms like foraminifera, corals, crinoids and-crustacea etc.
(ii) Carbonaceous Rocks. Sedimentary rocks rich in carbon are callea as carbonaceous rocks.
In their formation, the source material for carbon is mainly derived from plants. Some
carbonaceous shales may be cited as examples. Coals are also carbonaceous materials in
their first stage of formation. Wood gets accumulated in huge volumes in sedimentary basins.
Biomechanical and bio-chemical processes convert the wood to various grades of coal.
(iii) Phosphatic Deposits-Guano. As already discussed, most phosphate rocks are of chemical
origin. Guano is the name given to small volumes of phosphatic composition that are
actually accumulations of excreta of some birds and hencconsidered organic in origin.
These birds live on islands and mostly eat fish. Their excreta naturally contain high content
of phosphate. When accumulated over a period of time guano forms rich source of
phosphate salt. Large deposits of guano occur in islands of eastern Pacific Ocean and also
in West Coast of India.
(iv) Ferruginous Deposits. These are mostly iron carbonate deposits of good volume. In many
fresh water lakes and also in swamps some bacteria are thought to be responsible for
reduction of ferric oxide to ferrous oxide and finally to its precipitation as iron carbonate.
Hence the organic origin of some siderite that 1is used as ore of iron.
 Sedimentary 11
Miscellaneous Deposits
Some sedimentary rocks have complex mode of formation so that they cannot be easily placed
under any one of the above classes. It is customary to describe them separately. These include
Bauxite, Terra Rosa and Laterites. Weathering, (decay and decomposition) of pre-existing rocks
accompanied with many other chemical processes are believed to have cooperated intimately in
their formation.
 

 
 
-ꞏ TABLE 1.1. Tabular Classification Of Sedimentary Rocks.

Comps. Mechanically Non-Clastic Non-Clastic Residual

  Formed or Clastic Chemically formed Organic deposits Deposits
   
  Siliceous Rudites Flint, Radiolarian  
   Examples: Breccia, Chert, rocks  
    
   Conglomerate Silliceous Sinter Diatomaceous
Arenites
 
earth  
      
   Example: Sandstone      
  Argillaceous Lutites     Terra Rosa
       
  Example: Clays,  
   
  shales. i:narl      
  Calcareous Calcareous. Limestone, Kankar, Limestones and  
   
  Conglomerates and Travertine Chalk
Sandstones  
   
     
  Carbonaceous Carbonaceous   Coals, lignite,
   
  'Shales' Bituminous coal,  
     
  Anthracite  
     
  Ferruginous Ferruginous Bog-lron-Ore Some Iron Ores  
   sandstones
   

        
  Miscellaneous Salts: Gypsum, Phosphate rock Bauxite
  Anhydrite, Rock Guano Laterite
  salt, Caliche,
 
  Phosphate rock.
 
1.3.8. IMPORTANT SEDIMENTARY ROCKS
 

1. Breccia
It is a mechanically formed sedimentary rock classed as Rudite. It consists of angular fragments
of heterogeneous composition embedded in a fine matrix of clayey material. The fragments making
breccia are greater than 2 mm average diameter but some times these may be quite big in dimensions.
The angularity of the fragments indicates that these have suffered very little or even no transport
after their disintegration from the parent rocks. On the basis of their source, following types of
breccia are commonly recognized :
(a) Basal Breccia. This rock is formed by the sea waters advancing over a coastal region
covered with fragments of chert and other similar rocks. The advancing waters supply the
fine mud, which is spread over the rock fragments and acts as a binding material. Once the
seawater retreats, the loose chert fragments get cemented together as breccia rocks.
(b) Fault Breccia. This rock is also called crush-breccia. Such rocks are so named because
they are made up of angular fragments that have been produced during the process of
 12 ------------- --1 Geology for Civil Engineers
faulting. The fragments so produced due to crushing effect of the block movements
subsequently get embedded in clay and other fine material (often also derived during the faulting
process and called gouge) and ultimately form a cemented rockꞏ- the crush breccia.
(c) Agglomeratic Breccia. It is a specific type of breccia containing angular and sub-angular
fragments derived from volcanic eruptions. It may also contain some fused material that has
been cemented together with the solid material broken and thrown out of the craters.
Matrix
 
 
 
 
.111#-<f---..... Fragments
(Angular)
 
 
 
 
A Block of Breccia A Block of Conglomerate
   
Fig. 1.6. Fig. 1.7.
 
2. Conglomerates
Definition. These are sedimentary rocks of clastic nature and also belong to rudaceous group.
They consist mostly of rounded fragments of various sizes but generally above 2 mm, cemented
together in clayey or ferruginous or mi ed matrix. The roundness of gravels making the rock is a
useful characteristic to differentiate it from breccia in which the fragments are essentially angular.
The roundness indicates that the constituent gravels have been transported to considerable
distances before their deposition and transformation into conglomerate rock.
The constituent gravels of conglomerates may differ considerably in their chemical composition: they
may be pure minerals or rock gravels of different classes that got cemented together in a natural manner.
Similarly, the cementing matrix may be siliceous, calcareous or of mixed type.
Types. Conglomerates are generally distinguished on the basis of the dominant grade of the
constituent gravels in following three types:
Boulder-Conglomerates Co ble-Conglomerate Pebble-Conglomerate .
(gravels > 256mm) (gravels: 64-256 mm) (gravels: 2--64 mm)
Sometimes the conglomerates are distinguished on the basis of source of the gravels, as:
(i) Basal-conglomerates. Having gravels derived from advancing sea-waves overꞏ subsiding
land masses;
(ii) Glacial-conglomerates. In which gravel making the conglomerates are distinctly of
glacial origin;
(iii) Volcanic-conglomerates. In which gravels are of distinct volcanic origin but h e
subsequently been subjected to lot of transport resulting in their smoothening and polishin
by river transport before their deposition and compaction or cementation.
On lithological basis (that is, the type of rock they are made up of), conglomerates are grouped
in two classes :
(a) Oligomictic. Simple in composition, these gravels are made up of quartz, chert and calcite;
(b) Polymictic. In these conglomerates the constituent gravels are derived from rocks of all sorts:
igneous,ꞏ sedimentary and metamorphic, all cemented together. The so-called Fanglomerates are
conglomerates formed and found at the base of alluvial fans and cones. ꞏ
 I
Study of Rocks .--------------------- 13
Significance. Conglomerates are of special geological sigrtificance when they occur in the form
of well-defined layers of good thickness in sedimentary formations. They are indicative of shallow-
water phase in the depositional environment.
 
3. Sandstones
Definition. Sandstones are mechanically formed sedimentary rocks of Arenaceous Group. These
are mostly composed of sand grade particles that have been compacted and consolidated together
in the form of beds in basins of sedimentation. The component grains of sandstones generally range
in size between 2 mm and-1116 mm. Silica in the form of very resistant mineral QUARTZ is the
dominant mineral constituent of most sandstones.
Composition. As said above, quartz (Si0 2) is the most common mineral making the sandstones.
In fact some varieties of sandstone are made up entirely of quartz. Besides quartz, minerals like
felspars, micas, garnet and magnetite may also be found in small proportions in many sandstones.
In some sandstones the component grains may be cemented together by a cementing material that
may be siliceous, calcareous, argillaceous or ferruginous in composition. In other sandstones, the
component minerals may be welded together by natural pressures from overlying sediments
Texture. Sandstones are, in general, medium to fine-gntined in texture. The component grains
show a great variation in their size, shape and arrangement in different varieties. Thus, when the
texture is determined on the basis of the grade of the component grains, three types are recognized:
 

Type: Coarse-grain Medium-grain Fine-grain

Size-range: 2 mm-1/2 mm 112 mm-1/4 mm J/4 mm-1116 mm
The individual grains may be round or angular in outline, loosely packed or densely packed and
in simple or interlocking arrangement. The shape and mutual arrangement of the component grains,
or the texture, is greatly responsible for the engineering and other properties of sandstone. In fact,
the properties of porosity and permeability of these rocks are the critical parameters that make them
useful or useless in different situations.
Colour. Sandstones naturally occur in a variety of colours: red, brown, grey and white being
the most common colours. The colour. of sandstone depends on its composition, especially nature
of the cementing material. For example, presence of iron oxide is responsible for the red, brown and
yellow shades; presence of glauconite gives a greenish shade to the sandstones.
Types. Many types of sandstones are distinguished on the basis of their composition and the
nature of the cementing material. Following types are of common occurrence:
(i) Siliceous Sandstones. Silica (Si02) is the cementing material in these sandstones. Sometimes
the quality of the siliceous cement is so dense and uniform that a massive compact and
homogeneous rock is formed. This is named QUARTZITE. This type of sedimentary quartzite,
when subjected to loading fractures across the grains showing clearly very dense nature
and homogeneity of the cementing silica with the main constituent silica of the rock.
(ii) Calcareous Sandstones. are those varieties of sandstones in which carbonates of calcium
and magnesium are the cementing materials.
(iii) Argillaceous Sandstones. These are among the soft varieties of sandstone because the
ꞏ _ cementing material is clay that has not much inherent strength.
(iv) Ferruginous Sandstones. As the ꞏname indicates, the cementing material is an iron oxide
compound.
 14 --- ------- Geology for Civil Engineers
On the basis of mineralogical composition, following types of sandstones are commonly
recognized :
(i) Arkose. This is a variety of sandstone that is exceptionally rich in felspar minerals
besides the main constituent quartz. It is believed that these rocks are formed due to
relatively quick deposition of detritus derived from weathering and disintegration of
crystalline igneous and metamorphic rocks like granites and gneisses _respectively.
Arkose rock generally occurs in horizons that can be genetically related to some crystalline
massif occurring in close neighbourhood.
(ii) Greywacke. These are broadly defined as grey coloured sandstones having a complex
mineralogical composition. They contain a fine-grained matrix. In this matrix, grains
of quartz and some felspars are found embedded side by side with fragments of rocks
like felsites, granites, shales etc. The exact composition of the matrix is so complex
that it may not be easily determined in most cases. However, it is invariably clayey in
nature, interspersed with particles of pyrite, epidote, mica, quartz and felspars. The
minerals and rock-constituents are generally angular to subangular in outlines indicating
least transport before compaction.
(iii) Flagstone. It is a variety of sandstone that is exceptionally rich in mica dispersed in
parallel or subparallel layers. The abundance as well as arrangement of mica, typically
muscovite, renders the stone weak and easily splitting. Hence its use in load bearing
situations is not recommended.
(iv) Freestone. It is a mass ve variety of sandstone that is rich in quartz and does not
contain bedding plans or any mica. It is compact, dense, massive and a strong rock
suitable for construction demanding high crushing strength.
(v) Ganister. It is another type of sandstone consisting of angular and subangular quartz
grains and cement of secondary quartz with some kaolin.
Uses. Sandstones of hard, massive and compact character are very useful natural resources.
They are most commonly used as materials of construction: building stones, pavement stones,
road stones and also as a source material for concrete. The Red Fort of India is made up of red
sandstones.
Distribution. Next to shales, sandstones are the most abundant sedimentary rocks found in the
upper 15 km of the crust and make an estimated 15 percent of total sedimentary rocks of the earth.
 
4. Shale
 

Definition. Shale is a fine-grained sedimentary rock of argillaceous (clayey) composition.

Shales are generally characterized with a distinct fissility (parting) parallel to the bedding planes
and are made up of very fine particles of silt grade and to some extent of clay. Besides fissility, some
shales show the laminated structure. ꞏ
Composition. The exact mineralogical composition of shales is often difficult to ascertai!"l because
of the very fine size of the constituents. Generally speaking, shales are very intimate. mixtures of
quartz, clay minerals and accessory minerals like oxides of iron, carbonates, and organic matter.
Silica and clay minerals together make more than seventy percent of shales in most cases.
Chemically speaking, shales exhibit still greater variation. According to F.W. Clarke, the average
chemical composition of typical SHALE rock is as follows :
 
Sedimentary -----------------------------------15
TABLE 1.2. Average Chemical Composition of Shales
 

S.No. Oxide %age S.No. Oxide %age

   
1 Si02 58% 5 CaO 3%
2 Alp3 15% 6 K 20 3%
3 Fe-Oxides 6% 7 Nap 1%
4 MgO 2% 8 Hp 5%
Structures:
(a) Fissility. Shales are characterized with a distinct property of fissility, which may be defined
as "tendency of a rock to split into flat, shell-like fragments parallel to bedding."
The fissility of shales is partly primary and partly secondary in nature. The primary
fissility results during the process of depositiqh itself when the mica-like constituents of
shale tend to get deposited in parallel orientatiq'n. The secondary fissility develops after the
deposition when under the imposed load of layers of sediments, the flaky and platy minerals
present in the lower layers of shale (having 1a primary fissility) undergo further orientation _
imparting the ultimate fissile character tp the rock.
(b) Lamination. Shales also show larninatioit or deposition in very thin layers. The laminae
or the layers may range in thickness :t;fom 0.05 mm to 1.00 mm depending upon the
environment of deposition.
Types. Shales have been classified variou,Sly. For example, F.J. Pettijohn divides them into
following three classes on the basis of their rigin:
(i) Residual Shales: These are formed from decay and decomposition of pre-existing rocks
followed by compaction and consqlidation of the particles in adjoining basins without
much mixing;
(ii) Transported Shales: These are dfft>osits of clastic materials of finer dimensions transported
over wide distances before final ' settlement in basins of deposition.
(iii) Hybrid Shales: In such shales, .materials derived both from clastic sources and non-clastic
especially those from organic ources make up the rock.
In another classification, which is due to W.C. Krumbein and L.L. Sloss, four types of shales
are recognized on the basis of their ;ffiineralogical composition:
(i) Quartz shales: rich m free/ quartz content.
(ii) F lspathic shales: in whiph felspars and clay minerals predominate; silica becomes a
secondary constituent.
(iii) Chloritic shales: in theset shales, minerals of chlorite group and clay-group make the bulk
of the shales.
(iv) Micaceous shales: thesq are rich in muscovite mica and other flaky and play minerals.
In a simpler classification, sli,ales are distinguished into four classes on the basis of the predominant
group of sediments: Siliceous hales, Calcareous shales, Ferruginous shales, and Carbonaceous
shales. on., SHALES are a tyf/e of carbqnaceous shales that contain rich amount of organic matter
in fairly decomposed form. Tftte so-called }?lack shales may contain about 25, percent or more of
organic matter.
Formation. Shales are t;brmed from compaction and consolidation of sediments of silt and clay
grades materials. The proce,l;s starts from the compaction of mud rich in moisture. Compactiof of
mud, generally due to loacf from overlying sediments, results in squeezing out of water resuIing
I I
 16 --..-------------- Geology for Civil Engineers
 
in its shrinkage. Compacted muds that still retain 10-15% of moisture are lithologically (and not
mineralogically) termed as clays. However, continued compaction may result in further loss of
moisture and during this stage, there may take place orientation of the clay and platy minerals in
parallel or sub-parallel layers. If orientation (within the particles) does take place, the deposit attains
the property of fissility, it becomes shale. If it gets compacted further and without any fissility, it
may simply be a mudstone or claystone and not a shale.
As regards the ideal environment of formation of shales, a marine environment, with a quieter
water and depth of 50 meters or more, is most suitable for the deposition of clays and their gradual
transformation into shales at the lower levels. The fine load is transported to these places by streams
and even by winds.
Uses. Shales are variously used for manufacture of bricks and tiles. These are at place source
of alumina, paraffin and oil.
Distribution. Of all the sedimentary rocks occurring on the surface of the earth, shales are the
most predominant forming 70-80 percent of this group. These rocks occur in massive formations
and beds extending over several hundred kilometers in many cases.
 
5. Limestones
Definition. These are the most common sedimentary rocks from the non-clastic-group and are
composed chiefly of carbonate of calcium with subordinate proportions of carbonate of magnesium.
They are formed both bio-chemically and mechanically.
Composition. Pure limestone is invariably made up of mineral calcite (CaC0 3). In the limestone
rock formations, however, presence of dolomite CaMg(CQ3)z, quartz (Si02), felspar minerals and
iron oxides is rather a common feature.
In terms of chemical composition, limestones are chiefly made up of CaO and C0 2 . Magnesium
Oxide is a common impurity in most limestones; in some its percentage may exceed 2 percent, the
rock is then called magnesian limestone. Other oxides that may be present in limestone are: silicon
dioxide, ferrous and ferric oxides (or carbonates); and aluminium oxide. Strontium oxide is also
present in some limestones as a trace element.
Texture. In view of the diverse ways in which the limest :mes are formed, these rocks show a
great variety of textures. The most important textural feature of limestones is their fossiliferous
nature. Fossils in all stages of preservation may be found occurring in limestones. Other varieties
of limestones show dense and compact texture; some may be loosely packed and highly porous;
others may be compact and homogeneous. Concretionary texture is also common in limestones.
Types. Many varieties of limestones are known. Broadly speaking these can be divided into two
groups: autochthonous and allochthonous. The first group includes those varieties which have been
formed by biogenic precipitation from seawaters. The allochthonous types are formed from the
precipitated calcareous sediments that have been transported from one place to another where they
were finally deposited.
Following are common types of limestones.
1. Chalk. It is the purest form of limestone characterised by fine-grained earthy texture.
Common colour of chalk is white. Some chalks may be exceptionally rich in the remains
of very small sea organisms called foraminifera.
2. Shelly Limestone. Also called fossiliferous limestone, it has a rich assemblage of fossils
that are fully or partly preserved. When the limestone is made up entirely of fossils, it is
termed coquina.
 Study of Rocks 17
 
3. Argillaceous Limestone. These limestones contain clay as a significant constituent and are
clearly of allochthonous origin. When the clay and carbonate factions are present in almost
equal proportions, the rock is termed marl.
4. Lithographic Limestones. These are compact massive homogeneous varieties of pure
limestones that find extensive use in litho-printing.
5. Kankar. It is a common nodular or concretionary form of carbonate material formed by
evaporation of subsoil water rich in calcium carbonate just near the soil surface. It is non-
marine in origin.
6. Calc-Sinter. It is a carbonate deposit formed by precipitation from carbonate rich spring
waters. These deposits are also known as travertine or calc-tuffa and commonly occur
around margins of Hot Springs.
Of all the varieties of limestone, the commonest is the normal marine limestone.
Formation. As has been said above, limestone may be purely organic or inorganic in origin.
The three different environments of formation of limestones are:
(i) Biohermal Limestones - which occur in the form of reefs or mounds and are actually
transformed deposits of corals and similar sea organisms. These are highly fossiliferous.
(ii) Biostromal Limestones: These are sheet-like accumulations of biogenic deposits that may
have single or complex types of organisms involved in their formation. These may represent
accumulations of limestone precipitated from local solutions or precipitates from other lime-
secreting areas.
(iii) Pelagic Limestones: These are formed from the accumulations of limy secretion of floating
type pf sea organisms, such as foraminifera. These are mostly free from fossils of bigger
types of sea-organisms.
The mechanically deposited limestones are formed by accumulation of particle of calcite derived
from pre-existing rocks in much the same way as those of any other clastic rock.
Uses. Limestones and dolomites find important applications in many industries and engineering
practice. Thus, limestone is a primary source material for manufacture of Portland Cement and
for a large variety of limes. Its other uses include those in metallurgical industries as a flux and in
construction practice as building stone and road stone. Limestone is also used in chemical industries.
Pure dolomite is a good source of magnesium.
Occurrence. Limestones and dolomites are among the most common non-clastic sedimentary
rocks forming mountains and hills extending over several hundred kilometers at a stretch in many
regions of the world.
 
6. Dolomite
Definition. It is a carbonate rock of sedimentary origin and is made up chiefly - more than 50
percent - of the mineral dolomite which is a double carbonate of calcium and magnesium with a
formula of CaMg(C03h. Ferrous iron is present in small proportions in some varieties. Gypsum also
makes appearance in some dolomites. But the chief associated carbonate is that of calcium, in the
form of calcite.
Texture. Dolomite shows textures mostly similar to limestones to which it is very often genetically
related. In other varieties, dolomites may be coarsely ꞏ crystalline, finely crystalline or showing
interlocking crystals. In the coarsely crystalline varieties, the mineral dolomite has a typical
rhombohedral habit.
 18 f------------------1Engineering and General---Geology
Formation. Dolomites are formed in most cases from limestones by a simple process of
replacement of Ca++ ions by Mg++ ions through the action of Mg++ ion rich waters. This ionic
replacement process is often termed dolomitization. The replacement may have started shortly after
the deposition of limestone or quite subsequent to their compaction.
Direct precipitation of dolomites from magnesium rich waters is also possible. Such directly
precipitated deposits of magnesium carbonate occur in association with gypsum, anhydrite and
calcite. It is believed that in such cases, it is the calcite, which is precipitated first, depleting the
seawater of CaC03 and enriching it with MgC03 . The CaMg(C03)2 precipitates at a later stage.
Dolomitization by replacement method, however, is believed to be the most common method
of formation of dolomites.
Occurrence. Dolomite is a widespread sedimentary rock and is found commonly associated
with limestones. It forms intervening layers between limestone formations spread over wide areas.
Also, it may occur at the extended boundaries of many limestone deposits. These indicate locations
where magnesium rich ground waters could have an easy access for the replacement process to take
place in an original limestone rock.
Dolomite is so closely related to limestone in composition, texture, structure and physical
properties that it may not always beasily possible to differentiate between the two rocks in
band specimens. Following characters may prove helpful.
 
TABLE 1.3. Comparison Between Dolomite and Limestone.
 
Property Dolomite CaMg(CO:J 2 Limestone (CaCO:J
Colour Appearance is generally rusty because of Appearance is generally original.
  Limonitic stains formed due to weathering.  
Sp. Gravity 2.87; it is relatively heavier. 2.75; it is relatively lighter. The
Effervescence The rock gives only a feeble rock gives a vigorous and brisk
  effervescence with HCI. effervescence with HCI. Generally
Feel In many cases gives a rough and smooth and clayey feel.
sandy feel.

It is obvious that the above distinguishing characteristics can in no case be considered reliable.
The conclusive test shall always be a chemical analysis of the rock that should prove predominance
of CaMg (C03)2 over CaC03 to declare it a dolomite.
7. Coals
Definition. These may broadly be defined as metamorphosed sedimentary rocks of
carbonaceous character in which the raw material has mostly been supplied by plants of various
groups. The original raw material passes through many biomechanical and biochemical processes
before it becomes a coal in technical terms.
Formation. In most cases coals represent carbonized wood. The process of coal formation
involves a series of stages similar to formation of sedimentary rocks such as wastage of forests and
transport of the wood material through different natural agencies to places of deposition,
accumulation of the material in huge formations, its burial under clays and other matter and its
compaction and consolidation under superimposed load. Biochemical transformation of the organic
matter so accumulated starts and is completed under the influence of aerobic and anaerobic bacteria
available at the place of deposition. The degree of carbonification depends to a great extent on the
time and type of environment in which the above processes have operated on the source material
giving rise to different varieties of coal.
 Study of Rocks -------------------------- ------19
Types. Coals are generally classified on the basis of their carbon content (termed as fixed
carbon). The fixed carbon also determines to a great extent their calorific value. Following are main
varieties of coal:
(i) Peat. It is the lowest grade coal that consists of only slightly altered vegetable matter.
It may not be even considered as a coal. It has very low calorific value, high percentage
of moisture and is rich in volatile matter.
(ii) Lignite. It is also known as brown coal and forms the poorest grade of coal with calorific
value ranging between 610-810 B.th.U. It is compact and massive in structure with an
upper specific gravity of 1.5 and hardness of 2.5 on Mohs' Scale o{ Hardness. Some
varieties of lignite may still show to a good extent the traces of original vegetable structure.
(iii) Bituminous Coals. These form a broad group of common coals having, essential properties
varying within wide limits. The fixed carbon ranges between 69-78 per cent and the calorific
value between 9,500 B.th.U to 14,000_ B.th.U. Their common character is that they contain
enough volatile matter, which makes them quite soft on heating, and they start agglomerating.
Some of bituminous coals may contain volatile matter to uch a high extent as 1 per cent
of their bulk. Some such coals are typically banded in structure. ꞏ
I
(iv) Anthracite: It is considered the highest-grade coal with fixed carbon ranging between 92-
98 per cent. It has highest calorific value in coals and burns almost without any smoke, as
the volatile matter is negligible.
Occurrence. Coals of different varieties are found to occur almost in all countries of the world,
though in varying proportions. Coals form all-purpose fuels, some varieties being more suitable for
specific industrial uses. (More details about coals are given in the chapter on Economic Mineral
Deposits).

8. Iron Ores of Sedimentary Origin

Most of the iron ores of the world are of sedimentary origin. These iron ores form beds or
layers of variable thickness that occur interstratified with other sedimentary rocks. Sedimentary
iron deposits are regarded having formed chiefly as chemical precipitates in the form of oxides,
carbonates and silicates from marine waters rich in corresponding salts. Metasomatic replacement
(discussed in next chapter) has also been suggested as another important process for formation of
many iron ore deposits. It is also suggested that certain type of bacteria play considerable role in
the precipitation of iron.
Indian example of iron-ore deposits of sedimentary origin is provided by the well-known Iron-
Ore Series of Singhbhum, Orissa. These deposits, which are believed to be of upper Dharwarian age,
occur interbedded with other rocks like phyllites and are made up of oxides, chiefly hematite, Fe203.
These are spread in the form of a belt developeq over more than 100 km.

9. Gypsum
1
It is a sedimentary rock composed of the mineral of the same name-gypsum, which has a
composition of CaS04 .2H20. Its common colour is white but it may also occur in other shades such
as yellow, red or dark grey due to impurities present in the rock.
Gypsum is formed in nature as a result of evaporation from sea-waters rich in sulphate salts.
In many cases gypsum occurs associated with rock salt bodies although independent deposits of
gypsum are-also quite common.
 

20 .. Geology for Civil Engineers

 

ANHYDRITE is a granular aggregate of mineral anhydrite, CaS04 , and is genetically related

to the mineral gypsum: hydration of anhydrite results in gypsum. These rocks are commonly
associated in occurrence.
Uses : Gypsum finds extensive uses in many industries, e.g.
(i) as a raw material in the manufacture of fertilizers;
(ii) as an essential ingredient in the manufacture of Cement;
(iii) in the manufacture of Plaster of Paris.
(iv) as fire proofing component of gypsum boards.
 

10. Rock Salt

 
It is also a sedimentary rock composed of mineral halite (NaCl). The texture of rock salt varies from
coarse-grained crystalline to fine-grained massive. The purest rock salt !s white in colour but it may
occur in various other shades as grayish and reddish due to presence of impurities.
Rock salt occurs in many parts of the world interbedded with other sedimentary formations. It is
commonly associated with other evaporites. It is believed to have been formed by evaporation of
concentrated saline sea-water. Some layers of rock salt are exceptionally thick-100m or more. Their
formation is not easily explained by simple process of evaporation. Subsidence of the basin of deposition
during the process of evaporation has been suggested by some as a possible explanation.
 
11. Flint and Chert
 

Flint is a dark coloured sedimen.tary rock of siliceous compositiOn cons1stmg chiefly of

chalcedony and extremely fine-grained quartz. It occurs commonly as concretions or nodules
in chalk (limestone) deposits.
Chert is also a sedimentary rock composed of cryptocrystalline silica showing great variety of
colours. It is more common in occurrence compared to flint and occurs in the form of beds or layers
within limestones and other deposits.
In most cases, flint and chert are closely associated in properties and may be even taken as one
rock. Their origin may be due to any of following two causes:
(a) Primary Precipitation. It is believed that under special environments chert gets precipitated
inorganically from seawater rich in amorphous silica. The theory is yet considered inadequate
because modem seawaters are generally quite undersaturated with amorphous silica.
(b) Replacement. Waters containing amorphous silica from siliceous skeletal sources are thought
to have replaced limestones forming concretions and nodules of flint by the process of
replacement.
12. Tillite
It is a sedimentary rock of glacial origin. It is characterised by a structureless matrix that has
fragments of various sizes, shapes and composition embedded in it. Most of these embedded fragments
bear striations and other evidence of their transport by glaciers before their deposition and compaction.
The name is derived from the fact that the rock is merely a compacted and consolidated form
of the glacial debris called till. The matrix or ground mass of the till is generally of grey to gretiJlish
appearance whereas the embedded fragments are of extremely heterogeneous character.
 

Sedimentary
 
1.9. ENGINEERING IMPORTANCE
 

Sedimentary rocks cover a great part of the crust of the earth; they make up more that 75 percent
of the surface area of the land mass. It is with these types of rocks that an engineer has to deal
with in majority of cases. It is, therefore, essential for a civil engineer to know as much as is
possible about the salient features of these rocks. He has to see, for instance, if such rocks would
withstand loads under heavy construction and also, if they could be trusted in cuts and tunnels in
highway construction and also as reservoirs. They are the most important rocks to act as natural
reservoirs of oil and ground water supplies.
The various engineering properties of these rocks have been discussed in detail under relevant
chapters in the book.