Module 1

Defining Ethics

1. Define ethics
2. Explain the role of values in ethical decision making.
3. Understand opposing ethical theories and their limitations.
4. Discuss ethical relativism.
5. Explain an ethical dilemma and apply a process to resolve it.

Expected Outputs:
1. Defining Ethics: Understanding Ethics
2. Knowing what is right or wrong
3. Right or Wrong: Case Study
MODULE 1 – Defining Ethics 1|PAGE
 WHAT IS ETHICS?
The manner by which we try to live our lives
according to a standard of “right” or “wrong”
behavior—in both how we think and behave
toward others and how we would like them to
think and behave toward us.
For some, it is a conscious choice to follow a set of moral
standards or ethical principles that provide guidance on
how they should conduct themselves in their daily lives.
For others, where the choice is not so clear, they look to
the behavior of others to determine what is an acceptable
standard of right and wrong or good and bad behavior.
How they arrive at the definition of what’s right or wrong Source: https://www.freepik.com/premium-
is a result of many factors, including how they were vector/boy-s-choice-right-wrong_2748897.htm

raised, their religion, and the traditions and beliefs of

their society.

UNDERSTANDING RIGHT AND WRONG

Moral standards are principles based on religious, cultural,
or philosophical beliefs by which judgments are made
about good or bad behavior. These beliefs can come from
many different sources:
Friends
Family
Ethnic background
Religion
School
The media—television, radio, newspapers,
magazines, the Internet
Personal role models and mentor

Your personal set of morals—your morality—represents a Source:https://www.shutterstock.com/se

collection of all these influences as they are built up over arch/family+barbeque
your lifetime. A strict family upbringing or religious
education would obviously have a direct impact on your personal moral standards. These
standards would then provide a moral compass (a sense of personal direction) to guide you in
the choices you make in your life.

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THE VALUE OF A VALUE
Just as the word value is used to denote the
worth of an item, a person’s values can be said
to have a specific “worth” for them. Th at
worth can be expressed in two ways:
Intrinsic Value - The quality by which a
value is a good thing in itself and is
pursued for its own sake, whether
anything comes from that pursuit or not.
Instrumental Value - The quality by
which the pursuit of one value is a good
way to reach another value. For example,
money is valued for what it can buy rather Source: https://www.merriam-webster.com/words-at-
than for itself. play/appraise-vs-apprise-meaning

VALUE CONFLICTS
The impact of a person’s or a group’s value
system can be seen in the extent to which their
daily lives are influenced by those values.
However, the greatest test of any personal value
system comes when you are presented with a
situation that places those values in direct conflict
with an action. For example:
Lying is wrong—but what if you were
lying to protect the life of a loved one?
Stealing is wrong—but what if you were
stealing food for a starving child? Source:https://www.standstrongministries.org/ar
ticles/who-determines-what-is-right-and-wrong/
Killing is wrong—but what if you had to
kill someone in self-defense to protect your own life?

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 DOING THE RIGHT THING
If you asked your friends and family what ethics means to them, you would probably arrive at
a list of four basic categories:
Simple truth - right and wrong or good and bad. It is something that most people can
understand and support. It is this basic simplicity that can lead you to take ethical
behavior for granted— you assume that everyone is committed to doing the right thing,
and it’s not until you are exposed to unethical behavior that you are reminded that,
unfortunately, not all people share your interpretation of what “the right thing” is, and
even if they did, they may not share your commitment to doing it.
Personal Integrity - demonstrated by someone’s behavior—looks at ethics from an
external rather than an internal viewpoint. All our classic comic-book heroes—
Superman, Spider-Man, Batman, and Wonder Woman, to name just a few— represent
the ideal of personal integrity where a person lives a life that is true to his or her moral
standards, often at the cost of considerable personal sacrifice.
Rules of appropriate individual behavior - represent the idea that the moral standards
we develop for ourselves impact our lives on a daily basis in our behavior and the other
types of decisions we make.
Rules of appropriate behavior for a community or society - remind us that we must
eventually bring our personal value system into a world that is shared with people who
will probably have both similar and very different value systems. Establishing an ethical
ideal for a community or society allows that group of people to live with the confidence
that comes from knowing they share a common standard.

THE GOLDEN RULE

Source: https://usercontent2.hubstatic.com/13776263.jpg Source: https://uri.org/uri-story/20180326-join-golden-

rule-day-global-webcast-april-5

Of course, the danger with the Golden Rule is that not everyone thinks like you, acts like you,
or believes in the same principles that you do, so to live your life on the assumption that your
pursuit of an ethical ideal will match others’ ethical ideals could get you into trouble. For
example, if you were the type of person who values honesty in your personal value system, and
you found a wallet on the sidewalk, you would try to return it to its rightful owner. However,
if you lost your wallet, could you automatically expect that the person who found it would
make the same eff ort to return it to you?

MODULE 1 – Defining Ethics 4|PAGE

 ETHICAL THEORIES
Over time and with considerable debate, different schools of thought have developed as to how
we should go about living an ethical life.
Ethical theories can be divided into three categories: virtue ethics, ethics for the greater
good, and universal ethics.

VIRTUE ETHICS
A concept of living your life according to a commitment to the achievement of a clear
ideal— what sort of person would I like to become, and how do I go about becoming
that person?
Are normative ethical theories which emphasize virtues of mind, character and sense
of honesty. Virtue ethicists discuss the nature and definition of virtues and other related
problems that focuses on the consequences of action.

ETHICS FOR THE GREATER GOOD

As the name implies, ethics for the greater good is more focused on the outcome of your actions
rather than the apparent virtue of the actions themselves— that is, a focus on the greatest good
for the greatest number of people. Originally proposed by a Scottish philosopher named David
Hume, this approach to ethics is also referred to as utilitarianism.
The problem with this approach to ethics is the idea that the ends justify the means. If all you
focus on is doing the greatest good for the greatest number of people, no one is accountable for
the actions that are taken to achieve that outcome.

UNIVERSAL ETHICS
Universal Ethics argue that there are certain and universal principles that should apply to all
ethical judgments. Actions are taken out of duty and obligation to a purely moral ideal rather
than based on the needs of the situation, since the universal principles are seen to apply to
everyone, everywhere, all the time.

ETHICAL RELATIVISM
When the limitations of each of these theories are reviewed, it becomes clear that there is no
truly comprehensive theory of ethics, only a choice that is made based on your personal value
system. In this context, it is easier to understand why, when faced with the requirement to select
a model of how we ought to live our lives, many people choose the idea of ethical relativism,
whereby the traditions of their society, their personal opinions, and the circumstances of the
present moment define their ethical principles. The idea of relativism implies some degree of
flexibility as opposed to strict black-and-white rules. It also offers the comfort of being a part
of the ethical majority in your community or society instead of standing by your individual
beliefs as an outsider from the group. In our current society, when we talk about peer pressure

MODULE 1 – Defining Ethics 5|PAGE

among groups, we are acknowledging that the expectations of this majority can sometimes
have negative consequences.

ETHICAL DILEMMAS
The basic assumption of ethical theory is
that you as an individual or community are
in control of all the factors that influence the
choices that you make. In reality, your
ethical principles are most likely to be
tested when you face a situation in which
there is no obvious right or wrong decision
but rather a right or right answer. Such
situations are referred to as ethical
dilemmas.
As we saw earlier in our review of value
systems and value conflicts, any idealized
set of principles or standards inevitably
faces some form of challenge. For ethical
theories, that challenge takes the form of a
dilemma in which the decision you must
make requires you to make a right choice
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Tvjx6tcACo/a60ecf402fcf7717586d44d0e05e773f/1_xEuzDSiKgRD knowing full well that you are:
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Leaving an equally right choice undone.

Likely to suffer something bad as a result of that choice.
Contradicting a personal ethical principle in making that choice.
Abandoning an ethical value of your community or society in making that choice.

RESOLVING ETHICAL DILEMMAS

By its very definition, an ethical dilemma cannot really be resolved in the sense that a resolution
of the problem implies a satisfactory answer to the problem. Since, in reality, the “answer” to
an ethical dilemma is often the lesser of two evils, it is questionable to assume that there will
always be an acceptable answer— it’s more a question of whether or not you can arrive at an
outcome you can live with.

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 When we review the ethical theories
covered in this module, we can identify
two distinct approaches to handling ethical
dilemmas. One is to focus on the practical
consequences of what we choose to do, and
the other focuses on the actions themselves
and the degree to which they were the right
actions to take. The first school of thought
argues that the ends justify the means and
that if there is no harm, there is no foul. The
Source:https://miro.medium.com/max/3348/1*BOzlsAzCTni
second claims that some actions are simply
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wrong in and of themselves.
So, what should you do? Consider this three-step process for solving an ethical problem:
Step 1. Analyze the consequences. Who will be helped by what you do? Who will be
harmed? What kind of benefits and harm are we talking about? (Some are more valuable
or more harmful than others: good health, someone’s trust, and a clean environment are
very valuable benefits, more so than a faster remote-control device.) How does all of
this look over the long run as well as the short run?
Step 2. Analyze the actions. Consider all the options from a different perspective,
without thinking about the consequences. How do the actions measure up against moral
principles like honesty, fairness, equality, respecting the dignity of others, and people’s
rights? (Consider the common good.) Are any of the actions at odds with those
standards? If there’s a conflict between principles or between the rights of different
people involved, is there a way to see one principle as more important than the others?
Which option offers actions that are least problematic?
Step 3. Make a decision. Take both parts of your analysis into account, and make a
decision. Th is strategy at least gives you some basic steps you can follow.

If a three-step model seems too simple, Arthur Dobrin identified eight questions you should
consider when resolving an ethical dilemma:
1. What are the facts? Know the facts as best you can. If your facts are wrong, you’re
liable to make a bad choice
2. What can you guess about the facts you don’t know? Since it is impossible to know
all the facts, make reasonable assumptions about the missing pieces of information.
3. What do the facts mean? Facts by themselves have no meaning. You need to interpret
the information in light of the values that are important to you.
4. What does the problem look like through the eyes of the people involved? The ability
to walk in another’s shoes is essential. Understanding the problem through a variety of
perspectives increases the possibility that you will choose wisely.
5. What will happen if you choose one thing rather than another? All actions have
consequences. Make a reasonable guess as to what will happen if you follow a particular
course of action. Decide whether you think better or harm will come of your action.
6. What do your feelings tell you? Feelings are facts too. Your feelings about ethical
issues may give you a clue as to parts of your decision that your rational mind may
overlook.

MODULE 1 – Defining Ethics 7|PAGE

 7. What will you think of yourself if you decide one thing or another? Some call this
your conscience. It is a form of self-appraisal. It helps you decide whether you are the
kind of person you would like to be. It helps you live with yourself.
8. Can you explain and justify your decision to others? Your behavior shouldn’t be based
on a whim. Neither should it be self-centered. Ethics involves you in the life of the
world around you. For this reason, you must be able to justify your moral decisions in
ways that seem reasonable to reasonable people. Ethical reasons can’t be private
reasons

ETHICAL REASONING
When we are attempting to resolve an ethical
dilemma, we follow a process of ethical reasoning.
We look at the information available to us and
draw conclusions based on that information in
relation to our own ethical standards. Lawrence
Kohlberg developed a framework that presents the
argument that we develop a reasoning process
over time, moving through six distinct stages
(classified into three levels of moral development)
as we are exposed to major influences in our lives.
Source:https://miro.medium.com/max/3338/1*S_YiYkmQ
A8qB7UL_R0mkCw.jpeg

Level Stage Social Orrientation

Preconventional 1 Obedience and Punishment

Individualism, instrumentalism, and
2
exchange
Conventional 3 "Good boy/nice girl"
4 Law and order
Postconventional 5 Social Contract
6 Principled conscience

Level 1: Preconventional. At this lowest level of moral development, a person’s response to

a perception of right and wrong is initially directly linked to the expectation of punishment or
reward.
 Stage 1: Obedience and punishment orientation. A person is focused on avoidance of
punishment and deference to power and authority—that is, something is right or wrong
because a recognized authority figure says it is.
 Stage 2: Individualism, instrumentalism, and exchange. As a more organized and
advanced form of stage 1, a person is focused on satisfying his or her own needs—that
is, something is right or wrong because it helps the person get what he or she wants or
needs.
Level 2: Conventional. At this level, a person continues to become aware of broader
influences outside of the family.

MODULE 1 – Defining Ethics 8|PAGE

  Stage 3: “Good boy/nice girl” orientation. At this stage, a person is focused on meeting
the expectations of family members—that is, something is right or wrong because it
pleases those family members. Stereotypical behavior is recognized, and conformity to
that behavior develops.
 Stage 4: Law-and-order orientation. At this stage, a person is increasingly aware of his
or her membership in a society and the existence of codes of behavior— that is,
something is right or wrong because codes of legal, religious, or social behavior dictate
it.
Level 3: Postconventional. At this highest level of ethical reasoning, a person makes a clear
eff ort to define principles and moral values that reflect an individual value system rather than
simply reflecting the group position.
 Stage 5: Social contract legalistic orientation. At this stage, a person is focused on
individual rights and the development of standards based on critical examination—that
is, something is right or wrong because it has withstood scrutiny by the society in which
the principle is accepted.
 Stage 6: Universal ethical principle orientation. At this stage, a person is focused on
self-chosen ethical principles that are found to be comprehensive and consistent—that
is, something is right or wrong because it reflects that person’s individual value system
and the conscious choices he or she makes in life. While Kohlberg always believed in
the existence of stage 6, he was never able to find enough research subjects to prove
the long-term stability of this stage.

MODULE 1 – Defining Ethics 9|PAGE

 Republic of the Philippines
CAPIZ STATE UNIVERSITY
PONTEVEDRA CAMPUS
Bailan, Pontevedra, Capiz

College of Management
Module 1: Worksheet 1 in BA 314
Defining Ethics: Understanding Ethics
1st Semester, A.Y. 2020-2021

Exercise

Name: Course/Yr./Sec.:

Directions: These questions are for student evaluation to determine if you have understood the
lessons discussed in the module. Answer the following questions below and put your answers
on the space provided.
1. What is the definition of ethics?
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2. What is a moral compass, and how would you apply it?
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3. Explain the difference between intrinsic and instrumental values.
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4. List the four basic categories of ethics.
1.
2.
3.
4.

5. What is the Golden Rule?

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 6. List the three basic ethical theories
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7. Identify the limitations of each theory.
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8. Define ethical relativism.
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9. Define applied ethics.
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10. What is an ethical dilemma?
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11. Explain the three-step process for resolving an ethical dilemma.
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If you have any comments, suggestions, or recommendations on how will the subject teacher
improve the discussion please write them on the space below. Thank you! ☺
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MODULE 1 – Defining Ethics 11 | P A G E

 Republic of the Philippines
CAPIZ STATE UNIVERSITY
PONTEVEDRA CAMPUS
Bailan, Pontevedra, Capiz

College of Management
Module 1: Worksheet 2 in BA 314
Defining Ethics: Knowing what is right or wrong
1st Semester, A.Y. 2020-2021

Exercise

Name: Course/Yr./Sec.:

Directions: These questions are for student evaluation to determine if you have understood the
lessons discussed in the module. Answer the following questions below and put your answers
on the space provided.
Answer and defend the following questions based on your Ethical beliefs and values. Write
your answers on the space provided after each question.

1. "Why shouldn't I just throw my rubbish in the street?"

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2. "Do I have a duty to help others? Do I have a duty to assist the police?"
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3. “Why should I do what is "right"?”
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MODULE 1 – Defining Ethics 12 | P A G E

 Republic of the Philippines
CAPIZ STATE UNIVERSITY
PONTEVEDRA CAMPUS
Bailan, Pontevedra, Capiz

College of Management
Module 1: Worksheet 3 in BA 314
Right or Wrong: Case Study
1st Semester, A.Y. 2020-2021

Evaluation

Name: Course/Yr./Sec.:

Directions: Read the case study and analyze the situation carefully then answer the questions
related to the case study that was read. Write your answers on the space provided after the
questions.

Cheating: Atlanta's School Scandal

In 2006, Damany Lewis was a 29-year-old math teacher at Parks Middle School in Atlanta.
The school was in a run-down neighborhood three miles south of downtown that was plagued
by armed robberies. Lewis himself had grown up in a violent neighborhood. He empathized
with his students and was devoted to their success. A colleague described Lewis as a “star
teacher” and a “very hard worker, who will go the extra mile.”
Lewis was a teacher when Beverly Hall was Atlanta’s school superintendent. Hall believed that
business approaches and the values of the market system could save public education. She set
accountability measures for the Atlanta school district and created performance objectives that
were tougher than those of No Child Left Behind, the federal program that became law in 2002.
Teacher evaluations were linked to students’ performance on standardized tests. Schools whose
students did not make appropriate progress toward the standardized test goals received
escalating sanctions that culminated in replacement of the faculty and staff, and restructuring
or closing of the school.
Parks Middle School was in dire straits because it had been classified as “a school in need of
improvement” for the previous five years. Unless 58 percent of students passed the math
portion of the standardized test and 67 percent passed the language arts portion, Parks Middle
School could be closed down. Its students would be separated and bussed across town to
different schools.
“[It] was my sole obligation to never let that happen,” Lewis later told Rachel Aviv in an article
about these events in The New Yorker. Lewis had pushed his students to work harder than they
ever had in preparing for the test. But he knew that it would be very difficult for many of them
to pass. Christopher Waller, the new principal of Parks, had heard that teachers in the
elementary schools that fed into Parks had changed their students’ answers on the standardized
tests under the guise of erasing stray pencil marks. Waller asked Lewis and other teachers to
do the same. Lewis found the exams of students who needed to get a few more questions right
in order to pass. He changed their answers. If he did not change their scores, Lewis feared that

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his students would lapse into “why try” attitudes. They would lose their neighborhood school
and the community that had developed within it.
Thanks to Lewis and other teachers, Parks students did better than ever on the standardized
tests. Neekisia Jackson, a former student at Parks at the time, recalled, “Everyone was jumping
up and down,” after a teacher announced the school
had met the goals of No Child Left Behind for the
first time. Jackson continued, “We had heard what
everyone was saying: ‘Y’all aren’t good enough.’
Now we could finally go to school with our heads
held high.”
The same process of changing answers continued at
Parks through 2010. By that time, nine other teachers
were helping Lewis change answers. Source:https://img.huffingtonpost.com/asset/5babd53e
240000310095ed92.jpeg?ops=scalefit_630_noupscale
In October of 2010, 50 agents of the Georgia Bureau
of Investigation visited Parks and other Atlanta schools. The investigators concluded that
teachers and administrators at 44 schools had cheated in the manner that Lewis had. In July of
2012, 110 teachers who had confessed or been accused of cheating were placed on
administrative leave, including Lewis. Later that year, Lewis’ employment was terminated.
This case study is based on an article by Rachel Aviv entitled, “Wrong answer: In an era of high-stakes
testing, a struggling school made a shocking choice,” that appeared in The New Yorker on July 21,
2014

Discussion Questions:
1. What are the reasons and rationalizations that could have prompted Mr. Lewis to have
moral myopia and avoid focusing on the fact that he was falsifying students’ test scores?
Alternatively, what could have prompted Mr. Lewis not to have moral myopia?
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2. Who are the stakeholders in this case study, and what was at stake for each party? How
might each have influenced Mr. Lewis’ actions? Explain.
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3. Assume Mr. Lewis decided to break away from moral myopia and gave voice to his values.
What do you think he should have done and why? Your answer should include, but not be
limited to, the arguments that Mr. Lewis should have made, to whom, and in what context.
Present a plan of action.

MODULE 1 – Defining Ethics 14 | P A G E

___________________________________________________________________________
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4. In this case study, what were the benefits of falsifying students’ test scores? What were the
harms? Do you think cheating can ever be ethically justifiable? Why or why not?
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5. Have you ever been in a situation in which you were presented with the opportunity to
cheat on a test or other assignment? Describe the situation. What did you do and why?
Looking back, would you have done anything differently? Why or why not?
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MODULE 1 – Defining Ethics 15 | P A G E

Additional Readings and References

Additional Reading:
 https://www.formpl.us/blog/workplace-ethics
 https://www.britannica.com/topic/ethics-philosophy
 https://iep.utm.edu/ethics/
 http://www.bbc.co.uk/ethics/introduction/intro_1.shtml

References:
 Joseph L. Badaracco Jr., Defi ning Moments: When Managers Must Choose between
Right and Right (Cambridge, MA: Harvard Business School Press, 1997), pp. 41–42.
 The Center for Business and Ethics, Loyola Marymount University,
www.ethicsandbusiness.org/strategy.htm.
 Arthur Dobrin, Ethics for Everyone: How to Increase Your Moral Intelligence (New
York: Wiley, 2002), pp. 31–32.
 Lawrence Kohlberg, Essays in Moral Development, Vol. I, Th e Philosophy of Moral
Development (New York: Harper & Row, 1981); Lawrence Kohlberg, Essays in
Moral Development, Vol. II, Th e Psychology of Moral Development (New York:
Harper & Row, 1984).

Image Sources:
https://www.freepik.com/premium-vector/boy-s-choice-right-wrong_2748897.htm
https://www.merriam-webster.com/words-at-play/appraise-vs-apprise-meaning
https://www.standstrongministries.org/articles/who-determines-what-is-right-and-wrong/
https://usercontent2.hubstatic.com/13776263.jpg
https://uri.org/uri-story/20180326-join-golden-rule-day-global-webcast-april-5
https://images.ctfassets.net/6k3y6xecqfv8/64H7UG6UcpqTvjx6tcACo/a60ecf402fcf7717586
d44d0e05e773f/1_xEuzDSiKgRDaduUtEKw82g.jpeg
https://miro.medium.com/max/3338/1*S_YiYkmQA8qB7UL_R0mkCw.jpeg
https://img.huffingtonpost.com/asset/5babd53e240000310095ed92.jpeg?ops=scalefit_630_no
upscale

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