Republic of the Philippines

NUEVA VIZCAYA STATE UNIVERSITY

Bayombong, Nueva Vizcaya
INSTRUCTIONAL MODULE
IM NO.: IM-SECMATH3-1STSEM-2020-2021

COLLEGE OF TEACHER EDUCATION

Bayombong Campus

DEGREE BSEd COURSE NO. SECMATH 3

PROGRAM
SPECIALIZATION Math COURSE Logic and Set Theory
TITLE
YEAR LEVEL 1 TIME FRAME 3 Hrs WK NO. 5 IM 4
NO.

I. CHAPTER TITLE
Chapter 2: Propositional Logic

II. LESSON TITLE

Lesson 3: Properties and Relations of Propositions

III. LESSON OVERVIEW

Satisfaction is a relationship between specific sentences and specific truth assignments. In

Logic, we are usually more interested in properties and relationships of sentences that hold across all
truth assignments. In this lesson, we will have a look at logical properties of individual sentences (as
opposed to relationships among sentences) – tautology, contingency and contradiction. We then look
at three types of logical relationship between sentences - logical entailment, logical equivalence, and
logical consistency. We will show these relationships through the use of truth tables.

IV. DESIRED LEARNING OUTCOMES

At the end of the lesson, the students are expected to:

a. identify a tautology, contradiction or contingency;
b. determine logical consistency, equivalence and entailment between and among propositions
; and
c. show these relationships through truth tables

V. LESSON CONTENT

Properties of Propositions: Tautology, Contradiction and Contingency

A tautology is defined as a propositional formula that is true under any circumstance. In

other words, a propositional expression is a tautology if and only if for all possible assignments of
truth values to its variables its truth value is always true. Thus, a tautology is a proposition that is
always true. Consider the following example:

Either the accused is guilty or the accused is not guilty. (p)

Obviously, the proposition is a disjunction; yet both disjuncts can be represented by the variable p.
Hence, the proposition is symbolized as follows:

p v ~p

Now, in what sense that this proposition is always true? The truth table below will prove this point.

As we can see in the truth table above, if p is true, then ~p is false; and if p is false,
then ~p is true. And if we apply the rules in both inclusive and exclusive disjunction, the result
of p v ~p is always true. If we recall our discussion on inclusive and exclusive disjunction, we
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 Republic of the Philippines
NUEVA VIZCAYA STATE UNIVERSITY
Bayombong, Nueva Vizcaya
INSTRUCTIONAL MODULE
IM NO.: IM-SECMATH3-1STSEM-2020-2021

learned that an inclusive disjunction is true if at least one of the disjuncts is true; and an exclusive
disjunction is true if one disjunct is true and the other is false, or one disjunct is false and the other
is true. Hence, there is no way that p v ~p will become false. Indeed, the propositional form p v ~p is
always true.

On the other hand, a contradiction is defined as a propositional formula that is always false
under any circumstance. In other words, a propositional expression is a contradiction if and only
if for all possible assignments of truth values to its variables its truth value is always false. Thus,
again, a contradiction is a proposition that is always false. Let us consider the examples below.

Man is both mortal and immortal. (p)

Obviously, the proposition is a conjunction; yet both conjuncts can be represented by the
variable p. Hence, the proposition is symbolized as follows:

p • ~p

Now, in what sense that this proposition is always false? The truth table below will prove this
point.

As we can see in the truth table above, if p is true, then ~p is false; and if p is false,
then ~p is true. And if we apply the rule in conjunction here, which says that “A conjunction is true
if and only if both conjuncts are true,” then surely there is no way that the proposition “Man is both
mortal and immortal” or p • ~p will become true. Indeed, the propositional form p • ~p is
always false.

A contingency is a proposition that is neither a tautology nor a contradiction.

Example: A ∨ B
a b a∨b
T T T
T F T
F T T
F F F
To determine whether a proposition is a tautology, contradiction, or contingency, we can
construct a truth table for it. If the proposition is true in every row of the table, it’s a tautology. If it is
false in every row, it’s a contradiction. And if the proposition is neither a tautology nor a contradiction
—that is, if there is at least one row where it’s true and at least one row where it’s false—then the
proposition is a contingency.

Relations between Propositions: Consistency, Entailment, and Equivalence

Logical Consistency
Two or more propositions are logically consistent if it is possible for them to all be true at the
same time. If there is no way for them all to be true at once, they are inconsistent. Inconsistent
propositions are said to contradict one another.
To determine whether propositions are consistent or inconsistent, we can use either a truth
table.
Example:
The three propositions (A ⊃ B), (A ∨ B), and ~A are consistent, because there is a row in which all
three are true:
A B (A ⊃ B) (A ∨ B) ~A
T T T T F

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educational purposes only and not for commercial distribution,”
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 Republic of the Philippines
NUEVA VIZCAYA STATE UNIVERSITY
Bayombong, Nueva Vizcaya
INSTRUCTIONAL MODULE
IM NO.: IM-SECMATH3-1STSEM-2020-2021

T F F T F
F T T T T
F F T F T
The two propositions (A • B) and (~A ∨ ~B) are inconsistent, because there is no row in which both
are true:
A B ~A ~B (A • B) (~A ∨ ~B)
T T F F T F
T F F T F T
F T T F F T
F F T T F T

Logical Entailment

One proposition entails another if (and only if) there is no way for the former to be true while
the latter is false.
Truth table test for entailment: One proposition entails another if (and only if) there is no row
where the former is true but the latter isn’t.
Example:
The proposition (A ≡ B) doesn’t entail (A • B), because there is a row where (A ≡ B) is true but (A •
B) isn’t:
A B (A ≡ B) (A • B)
T T T T
T F F F
F T F F
F F T F
However, (A • B) does entail (A ≡ B), because there is no way for (A • B) to be true without (A ≡ B)
being true as well. The proposition (A • B) is true only in the last row, and (A ≡ B) is true in that row
too.
Thus, (A • B) entails (A ≡ B), but not vice versa.

Logical Equivalence

Two propositions are logically equivalent if and only if they entail each other. In other words,
their truth values match in all possible circumstances: whenever one is true, the other must be true as
well; and whenever one is false, the other must be false as well.

Truth table test for equivalence: Two propositions are equivalent if and only if their truth values
match in every row. In other words, equivalent propositions have identical columns in the truth table.
Example:
The proposition ~(A • B) is equivalent to (~A ∨ ~B). Both propositions are true in the last
three rows and false in the first row:
A B ~A ~B A • B ~(A • B) (~A ∨ ~B)
T T F F T F F
T F F T F T T
F T T F F T T
F F T T F T T

VI. LEARNING ACTIVITIES

I. Construct a truth table and tell whether the following are a tautology, contradiction, or a
contingency
1. (~(A ∨ B) • B) 
2. ((A • B) ∨ C)
3. B ⊃ (B ∨ C)

“In accordance with Section 185, Fair Use of Copyrighted Work of Republic Act 8293, the copyrighted works included in this material may be reproduced for
educational purposes only and not for commercial distribution,”
NVSU-FR-ICD-05-00 (081220) Page 3 of 4
 Republic of the Philippines
NUEVA VIZCAYA STATE UNIVERSITY
Bayombong, Nueva Vizcaya
INSTRUCTIONAL MODULE
IM NO.: IM-SECMATH3-1STSEM-2020-2021

II. Identify the following sets of statements as logically consistent or inconsistent. Explain your
reasoning.
Example: All men have blonde hair. I am a man. I have brown hair.
Answer: These three beliefs are logically inconsistent. If the first two statements are true, the third
must be false. If the third is true, the first or second must be false. They cannot all be simultaneously
true.
1. I am a man. I have brown hair. You have blonde hair.
2. All dogs are brown. Some dogs are not brown.
3. Killing another person is always wrong. It is not wrong to kill a person in self-defense. It is also not
wrong to kill people in times of war.
4. Everyone should be tolerant because there is no way to judge another person's beliefs.
5. Nobody is ever wrong. 2+2=4. Harry is wrong in believing that 2+2=5.
6. This sentence is false.
7.If God exists then Bob is mistaken. Bob is not mistaken. God exists.
8. It is raining. It is not raining.
9. I love beer and I hate beer.
10. Light is simultaneously both a wave and a particle.

VII. ASSIGNMENT
I. Construct a truth table and tell whether the following are consistent, inconsistent, equivalent
1. ( p ∙ q) and (q ∙ p)
2. {p ∨ q, p ∨ ¬q, ¬p ∨ q} and (¬p ∨ ¬q)
3. {p ⇒ r, q ⇒ r, p ∨ q} and r
4. {p ⇒ r, q ⇒ r, p ∨ q} and ¬r
5. {p ⇒ q ∨ r, q ⇒ r} and p ∧ q
6. {p ⇒ q ∨ r, q ⇒ r} and q ∧ r
II. Use the Truth Table Method to answer the following questions about logical entailment.
(a) {p ⇒ q ∨ r} ; (p ⇒ r)

(b) {p ⇒ r} ; (p ⇒ q ∨ r)

(c) {q ⇒ r} ; (p ⇒ q ∨ r)

(d) {p ⇒ q ∨ r, p ⇒ r} ; (q ⇒ r)

(e) {p ⇒ q ∨ r, q ⇒ r} ; (p ⇒ r)

VIII. EVALUATION (Note: Not to be included in the student’s copy of the IM)

Same as assignment

IX. REFERENCES

Negation of Propositions in Symbolic Logic. Retrieved on Sept. 15, 2020 from

http://philonotes.com/index.php/2018/02/02/symbolic-logic/

Inclusive disjunction. Retrieved on Sept. 15, 2020 from  

http://philonotes.com/index.php/2018/02/06/inclusive-disjunction/

Exclusive Disjunction. Retrieved on Sept. 15, 2020 from

https://philonotes.com/index.php/2018/02/07/exclusive-disjunction/

Conditional Statements. Retrieved on Sept. 15, 2020 from

https://philonotes.com/index.php/2018/02/11/conditional-propositions/

Symbolizing Propositions in Symbolic Logic. Retrieved on Sept. 15, 2020 from

https://philonotes.com/index.php/2018/02/14/symbolizing-propositions-in-symbolic-logic/

“In accordance with Section 185, Fair Use of Copyrighted Work of Republic Act 8293, the copyrighted works included in this material may be reproduced for
educational purposes only and not for commercial distribution,”
NVSU-FR-ICD-05-00 (081220) Page 4 of 4
 Republic of the Philippines
NUEVA VIZCAYA STATE UNIVERSITY
Bayombong, Nueva Vizcaya
INSTRUCTIONAL MODULE
IM NO.: IM-SECMATH3-1STSEM-2020-2021

Properties of Propositions: Tautologies, Contradictions, and Contingencies. Retrieved on Sept. 15, 2020 from
http://www.skillfulreasoning.com/propositional_logic/properties_of_propositions.html

“In accordance with Section 185, Fair Use of Copyrighted Work of Republic Act 8293, the copyrighted works included in this material may be reproduced for
educational purposes only and not for commercial distribution,”
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